The year of the formation of the Russian Empire. History of Russia (briefly)

Until then, the concept Russia" and "Russian" were used in written documents for more than a hundred years, but only became official under him. By the way, by that time the Greeks and Byzantines had been calling the Slavs “Russians” for more than a thousand years, and Rus', as a geographical concept, was “Russia”.

After the triumphant victory in Northern War Russian Synod And Senate presented Peter with the title All-Russian Emperor for his services. This happened already at the end of 1721. The solemn ceremony for accepting the imperial title took place on October 22 of the same year. The new status of Rus' was almost immediately recognized by Holland, Prussia and Sweden. After the death of the first emperor, the Russian Empire was recognized by England, the Ottoman Empire and Austria. A little later (in 1745) - Spain and France. And only in 1746, Russia began to be called an empire by Poland, which, by the way, was Peter’s main ally in the Northern War.

Peter's reforms.

None of the Russian rulers until then had made as many government reforms as Peter I. In many ways, the foundation of the reforms was the initiatives of his father - Alexey Mikhailovich, who, like Peter, sought to bring Rus' to a civilized level of state development, at which the key powers of Western Europe were located.

Historians usually divide Peter's transformations (in terms of time and characteristic features) into two stages - reforms before the middle of the Northern War (around 1715) and reforms after.

The first stage was more spontaneous and had an ill-conceived character. This was largely explained by Peter’s youth and the circumstances of the Northern War, when it was necessary to urgently do something, otherwise the Swedes would win. We can talk endlessly about Peter’s reforms, but we will look at them all briefly, distributing them according to the spheres of socio-political life.

1. Administrative and management reforms:

• the dissolution of the Boyar Duma in 1699 and the formation of the Near Chancellery as a governing body of the state in the absence of Peter (during the war), which included eight close persons - the Council of Ministers;
• transformation of the Chancellery into Governing Senate(in 1711), whose powers were much broader;
• creation of an administrative apparatus under the Senate in the form of Collegiums (read: ministries):

1. College of Foreign Affairs (foreign policy);
2. Admiralty Board (navy);
3. Military Collegium (ground forces);
4. Patrimonial Collegium (land issues and serfdom);
5. Chamber Collegium (tax service);
6. Commerce Collegium (foreign economic activity - trade and customs);
7. Berg College (metallurgy and mining);
8. Manufactory Collegium (light industry factories and handicrafts);
9. Justice Collegium (Ministry of Justice);
10. Holy Synod(or Spiritual Collegium - religious issues);
11. Separate Little Russian Collegium(of course, control over Ukraine and its eccentric hetmans);
12. Secret police ( Secret Chancery And Preobrazhensky order who were in charge of foreign and domestic intelligence, as well as crimes against the state - respectively);

• administrative division of the Russian Empire into 8 provinces (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Siberian, Arkhangelsk, Azov, Kazan and Smolensk);
• division of provinces into provinces (there were 50 provinces in total in the Russian Empire);
• the appointment of governors at the head of provinces and governors at the head of provinces (which a little later were divided into districts under the command of zemstvo commissars).

1. Judicial reform. There was no Supreme Court, but its functions were performed by the College of Justice and the Senate itself. Provincial and court (city) courts were also created.
2. Anti-corruption reform: establishment of such a position as fiscal(inspector) under the command of the fiscal general (something like the Internal Investigation Service).
3. Peter's military reform consisted of transforming the army (regiments) according to a foreign type. Military reform took place mainly after the defeat at Narva. Many foreign specialists were also involved. Opening Maritime Academy(by virtue of creation of the Russian fleet, as well as the publication of the Military Regulations - a legal act that defined the rights and responsibilities of the military, the creation of military schools - artillery, engineering, navigation, etc.
4. Religious reform of Peter I finally subordinated the church to the state. Peter abolished the position of patriarch and returned the metropolitan. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were created, according to which all members of the Synod were appointed by the emperor and had to swear allegiance to him. This regulation finally negated the church's ability to influence politics. At the same time, there was one extremely important point in the religious reform - Orthodox Old Believers were no longer persecuted and could cross themselves with at least five fingers, and also (subject to double payment of taxes) they could preach any religion.
5. Economic reform:
   • instead of such a monetary unit as “money”, the “penny” was introduced;
   • taxes (taxes) were changed, which were more modern and did not put pressure on peasants and townspeople; Moreover, incomes almost tripled over the 15 years from 1710 to 1725.
6. The trade and industrial reform consisted of attracting foreign specialists, benefits for private entrepreneurs-manufacturers (manufacturers), and the construction of new factories and factories in Siberia, the Urals and the Volga region. In addition, adequate duties were introduced on the import and export of goods abroad.
7. Reform of succession to the throne (according to the principle “whoever I point to will be the next emperor”). Unfortunately, Peter himself did not have time to take advantage of this reform, or he did, but those who saw him last lied, dissatisfied with the last imperial decree.
8. Estate reform. It was expressed in the publication of various decrees defining the rights and responsibilities of all layers of the nobility, as well as the introduction of the category of state peasants - not enslaved, but obliged to pay taxes to the treasury. The townspeople had to pay a poll tax.
9. Education reform. Were created:
   • mathematics schools;
   • artillery schools;
   • engineering schools;
   • medical schools;
   • Marine Academy;
   • digital schools as an analogue of general education schools;
   • garrison schools for soldiers' offspring;
   • introduction of compulsory training for confessors and nobles.
10. Other reforms (many of them were carried out during the second stage of reform):
    • the introduction of the generally accepted celebration of the New Year on January 1 (and not in September, as before);
    • changing the chronology system from the creation of Adam to the system from the birth of Christ. Thus the Byzantine year 7208 became the European year 1700;
    • the famous fight against beards and other relics;
    • creation of two printing houses;
    • introduction of Arabic numerals;
    • introduction of a new simplified Cyrillic alphabet;
    • innovations in urban planning (St. Petersburg was built according to European models);
    • the creation of new entertainment institutions - assemblies (such as modern clubs), where people danced, communicated, and spent time culturally (later this took the form of a social ball), instead of traditional feasts, as was previously the case;
    • prohibition of forced marriage;
    • the ban on the duty of peasants to bow at the feet of the Tsar, which somewhat increased their self-esteem and respect for the Tsar.

Thanks to all these transformations, Peter managed to radically change the system of universal human values ​​and worldviews in Russia. The Russian Empire truly became a Great Power.

Towards the end of his life, Peter suffered from kidney disease. After he helped soldiers rescue a boat that had run aground in October 1724, waist-deep in water in St. Petersburg, the disease began to progress.

On January 27, 1725, he died, having managed to amnesty prisoners (for minor offenses), but not having time to appoint an heir to the throne. Before his death, he called his daughter Anna, wrote a will, where he got to the words “Give everything...” when the pen fell from his hands and he died.

At that time, secondary schools in Russia were called primary schools in rural areas, and higher primary schools in cities (the education there was better). Most of them were subordinate to the state (its ministries), a smaller part - to the church. The state shied away from funding schools, their funding came from a variety of sources, serious funding by the State began on May 3, 1908. The number of classes in a school was most often 4, but there were also 6. The duration of education was 4 years, in a city school it was longer. The age of education in schools began at 7 years. Everyone could study, regardless of their titles and religions. The number of students in the class was 50. Initially, the main goal of education was religious education. The subjects were: religion, reading and writing, Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, geography, Russian history, physics, drawing, drawing, church singing, gymnastics.

Types of primary schools/colleges.

Primary schools were divided into the following types: mainly: rural, urban and parochial; then to less common ones: ministerial, factory, railway.

Primary schools / zemstvo schools / rural schools / primary schools - were opened by zemstvos (and were under their jurisdiction) in rural areas. Zemstvos built special school buildings in which there was an apartment for the teacher; In a two-room school, there are respectively two apartments for teachers.

Higher primary schools were opened in cities. They occupied an intermediate position between primary and secondary schools. At first they were called district schools, from 1872 - city schools, and from 1912 they were renamed higher elementary schools. City schools occupied an important place in the system of public education and education of the Russian Empire in the 70-90s. XIX - early XX centuries. The significance of these educational institutions is that they provided more in-depth theoretical knowledge, were less religious in comparison with parish and district schools, and also taught practical skills.

Schools were fragmented in their subordination.

Primary schools were subordinate to the State, and parish schools were subordinate to the synod, the church. In addition, public schools were subordinate to different ministries: the Ministry of Public Education, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the Ministry of State Property. There were also schools that were subordinate to private individuals. By 1914, in the Russian Empire there were 123,745 primary educational institutions, of which: - 80,801 departments of the MNP, - 40,530 departments of the Orthodox confession - 2,414 other departments.

What social status were the students from?

The school was intended for children of all classes. The Regulations did not indicate the age of the students or the duration of study, but in fact, children of nobles and officials predominated in secondary and higher schools. Thus, having analyzed the social composition of the students of the Oryol four-year city school, it is obvious that mainly children from the urban strata of the population studied there. So, in 1898, there were 24 children of nobles and officials, 210 of merchants and townspeople, 105 of peasants. Students aged from 10 to 18 years studied at the school. The number of students was about 300-350 people [GAOO, f. 479, op. 1, d. 4, l. 21]. Boys and girls were allowed to study together. In addition, there were also special class educational institutions: institutes for noble maidens, cadet corps, several “noble institutes”, the Corps of Pages, the School of Law, where only children of nobles were accepted; there was a special system of schools for children of the clergy (theological schools, diocesan schools, theological seminaries).

Among all the schools at the primary level of education, ministerial schools stood out, both in terms of their status - they were often called “exemplary”, and in terms of their position in the education system - they provided complete knowledge at the elementary level. These included district and parish schools.

For example, the Oryol province included 12 district districts: Bolkhovsky, Bryansky, Dmitrovsky, Eletsky, Karachevsky, Kromskoy, Livensky, Maloarkhangelsky, Mtsensky, Oryol, Sevsky, Trubchevsky [GAOO, f. 78, op. 1, d. 1288, l. 45]. Before the implementation of the educational reform of 1864, each district city of the province had one district and parish school, with the exception of Oryol, where three parish schools operated, and Livensky, in which educational activities were carried out by two parish schools [GAOO, f. 78, op. 1, d. 1288, l. 47].

Number of classes

City schools were divided into one-class, two-class, three-class and four-class. At the request of the zemstvo, city societies, estates or private individuals, city schools maintained at their expense could also be established as part of five or six classes [Vysochaishe., 1872, p. 729].

Duration of study (number of years)

Rural primary schools usually had a 3-4-year course of study (about ¼ of the total number of schools had a 4-year course) and were called one-class primary schools. District schools. The deadlines for the implementation of universal access to primary education, that is, the opening of all schools provided for in the school network of a given district, are set differently, depending on the state of school affairs in each district and its financial viability. On average for 34 provinces this period is 9.4 years. In 33 district hospitals (11%) it does not exceed 5 years. In 40 districts (13%) it will take from 12 to 17 years to open the full number of schools

At what age do people go to school?

Children of no younger than seven years of age, of all ranks, conditions and religions, could enter city schools without any admissions test.

Duty of Religious Knowledge

Older children, from 10 to 14 years old inclusive, had to know the Lord's Prayer, the most important events from the sacred history of the Old and New Testaments, be able to read and write in Russian and count.

Classroom teacher

The regulation of May 31, 1872 established a classroom system of teaching, that is, each full-time teacher was entrusted with teaching all subjects in the class entrusted to him (except for the law of God, singing and gymnastics).

Subjects of study

The curriculum of city schools consisted of the following subjects: 1) the law of God; 2) reading and writing; 3) Russian language and Church Slavonic reading with translation into Russian; 4) arithmetic, 5) practical geometry; 6) geography and history of the fatherland with the necessary information from general history and geography; 7) information from natural history and physics; 8) drawing and drawing; 9) singing; 10) gymnastics [Vysochaishe., 1872, p. 730]. Singing training was conducted in the church choir. Among the additional subjects at the city school, accounting was taught in the volume of Prokofiev's textbook, manual labor and popular medicine.

The social composition of the students of the “school” of the Oryol province.

Until the 1890s The scope of the course, teaching methods, and schedule of training sessions were left at the personal discretion of the teachers.

Academic year. The choice of this was influenced by the need to engage in agriculture.

In most districts of the Oryol province, classes in schools began in the second half of October. However, there were also deviations for August - September in one direction and November in the other direction. Training sessions ended in the first half of May or no later than June in some counties. The flexible dates of the academic year are explained primarily by economic reasons. Due to the fact that agriculture was the basis of life in the province, the educational process was interrupted with the beginning of field work.

Streamlining by the Central Authority the school year throughout the country.

In the 1890s. the start and end times of schools and approximate schedules began to be determined by the Ministry of Public Education. The academic year was lengthened: classes in schools began earlier, in September, and ended in May - June. In urban primary schools, the duration of classes was longer than in rural ones. At the same time, the shortest school year was maintained in parochial schools.

Who paid for the classes

A distinctive feature of the financing of primary schools in pre-revolutionary Russia was the attraction of funds from a wide variety of sources, and in total their volume exceeded the state ones. Sources of funds for the maintenance of primary educational institutions of the Oryol province, according to the reports of the provincial government, can be divided into seven groups: funds from the state treasury, donations from charitable societies and individuals, from zemstvos, from city societies, from rural societies, interest on capital or “economic money", tuition fees.

How much and what kind of material resources were invested in schools?

From the article “New Encyclopedic Dictionary” of 1916 (p. 144): “During 1908–1915, the loan for the constant needs of primary education increased as follows: in 1908 - by 6,900,000 rubles, in 1909 - by 6,000,000 rubles ., in 1910 - by 10,000,000 rubles, in 1911 - by 7,000,000 rubles, in 1912 - by 9,000,000 rubles, in 1913 - by 10,000,000 rubles, in 1914 - by 3,000,000 rubles. , in 1915 - by 3,000,000 rubles." It should be noted that only cash was recorded in statistical reports. Everything that came in kind, mainly from rural societies, was only mentioned; for example, firewood for heating, candles for lighting schools, etc. in 1903, the amount of funds for maintaining primary schools was about 59 million rubles, of which: 30.1 million rubles. accounted for by zemstvos, rural and urban societies; RUB 15.8 million government appropriation; 13 million in donations, funds from tuition fees and other sources. In total in 1903 there were 87,973 primary schools of all types and departments. The number of students in them was 5,088,029. Loans for public education grew steadily all the time; from 1894 to 1904 they more than doubled: the budget of the Ministry of Public Education was increased from 22 to 42 million rubles, while loans for church schools increased from 2.5 to 13 million; and government allocations alone for commercial schools (which later became widespread) reached 2-3 million a year. Over the course of ten years, zemstvo and city allocations for educational needs increased in approximately the same proportion: by 1904, if we combine the educational expenses of all departments* and local government, the amount of annual expenditures on public education already exceeded 100 million rubles. On May 3, 1908, the state sharply increased funding for universal primary education. In 1914, according to Pitirim Sorokin, the total expenses of all government departments on education amounted to almost 300 million gold rubles (including 161 million by the Ministry of Public Education), expenses of zemstvos and cities on “educational” items in the same year amounted to about 360 million rubles. That is, the “consolidated budget” of the treasury, zemstvos and cities amounted to up to 660 million gold rubles. One gold ruble of 1914 can be estimated in purchasing power at approximately 1000 rubles at the price level of 2008. According to Andrei Illarionov, the share of all expenditures on education was 8-9% of the budget of the Russian Empire and 15-17% of the consolidated budget on the eve of the First World War.
Comparison of financing with European countries. According to Nikolai Erofeev, per capita spending on education was still scanty compared to developed countries. In England they amounted to 2 rubles. 84 kopecks per person, in France - 2 rubles. 11 k., in Germany - 1 rub. 89 kopecks, and in Russia - 21 kopecks. However, this estimate (21 kopecks per capita in 1914) seems clearly underestimated. According to data cited by Pitirim Sorokin (Sorokin P.A. Sociology of the Revolution. M., 2008. pp. 285−286), the budget of the Ministry of Public Education in 1914 was 142,736,000 rubles, the total expenditure of all ministries on education was 280−300 million rubles , and the expenditure of cities and zemstvos was approaching 360 million rubles. Thus, the total expenditure on education was about 640 million rubles. Thus, per capita spending on education in the Russian Empire in 1914 was no less than 3 rubles 70 kopecks.

Where did the invested money go?

The main items of school expenses were the costs of teachers' salaries and the purchase of educational supplies.

Textbooks

From the second half of the 1890s. schools - primarily ministerial and zemstvo schools - are beginning to be supplied with visual aids. The cost of the minimum set in the Oryol province ranged from 15 to 20 rubles [Zvyagintsev, 1917, p. 64]. Visual aids were pictures from sacred history, a cut alphabet, pictures on Russian and natural history, a zoological atlas, a globe, geographical maps, arithmetic abacus, scales, etc.

Who was hired as a teacher?

Primary public schools became a refuge for a variety of people, often without special training, but with basic knowledge. Dropouts from high school or graduates of district and city schools from among commoners tried to find their way into the school. Any more or less literate person was recruited to teach peasants to read and write. It was widely believed that there was nothing special about learning and that any competent person could cope with it; no special training was needed for this. The teaching staff of primary public schools of the Ministry of Public Education consisted of teachers and female teachers, their assistants and assistants, as well as teachers of the law (priests). The procedure for the appointment, transfer and dismissal of public teachers was presented in the regulatory document “Regulations on primary public schools” dated May 25, 1874. Until the first half of the 1870s. there was no exam to become a teacher. After 1874, teachers began to be required to obtain the “right to teach.” This right could be obtained after an exam (in the scope of the city parish school course) at secondary educational institutions [Project., p. 838]. And although the requirements for the exam were low, this measure increased the overall level of teacher work compared to the pre-reform period. Candidates for teaching positions were elected primarily by institutions and persons maintaining the school.

How were you taught?

The teaching methods in primary schools were the same as now: conversation, work with a textbook, the teacher’s story, written and graphic work. Demonstrations and illustrations (visual learning) took up less space. Some schools organized excursions for students to historically interesting cities, to museums in nearby cities, etc. In many zemstvo, railway and factory schools, manual labor was introduced. Literacy was taught using the sound method (usually analytical-synthetic). Storytelling from pictures was widely practiced. Most of the time allotted to the Russian language was devoted to mastering grammar and spelling. At final exams (especially in a 4-year course), children wrote a short dictation quite competently and were able to do an etymological analysis of a simple sentence. Significant changes were made to the programs in Russian language and literature (literature): according to the previous programs on Russian literature, only the works of writers of the first half of the 19th century were studied (Griboedov, Pushkin, Gogol, Krylov, Koltsov and Lermontov), ​​and now the programs included writers of the second half of the 19th century (Turgenev, Goncharov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Nekrasov, L.N. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others).

Learning outcomes.

The program was structured too formally, and overloading Russian language classes with grammar had a negative impact on reading, presentation, and the ability of students to express their thoughts in writing. Good grammatical knowledge and spelling skills turned out to be fragile, however. A test of knowledge among those who graduated from primary school, carried out in some counties, revealed a decrease in knowledge after 2-3 years (at the end of school) by almost 50%.

Teachers' salaries.

According to the 1912 law, the salary of a teacher in higher primary schools (that is, the type of educational institution most closely corresponding to seven-grade Soviet schools) was 960 gold rubles (that is, about 1 million rubles in 2008 prices) per year. According to the staff of the Tomsk Technological Institute of Emperor Nicholas II, approved on February 23, 1901, an ordinary professor received an annual salary of 2,400 rubles, plus a canteen salary of 1,050 rubles and an apartment salary of 1,050 rubles. During the reign of Nicholas II, the salaries of university professors and staff members of the Imperial Academy of Sciences almost doubled to 6,000 rubles per year. For comparison, the average worker's salary in 1913 was 250 rubles per year, the construction of an iron-roofed wooden house that meets all standards, with an area of ​​70 square meters. m, according to construction estimates of 1913, it cost approximately 600-700 rubles for a fully finished brick house with an area of ​​150 sq. m. m - about 3000−4000 rubles. Meat cost (depending on the region and variety) 15-60 kopecks per kilogram, potatoes 1-2 kopecks per kilogram, a horse - 70-80 rubles, a dairy cow 50-60 rubles. That is, even the salaries of modest school teachers and ordinary scientists, not to mention the salaries of professors and academicians, were very high and made it possible to ensure a decent standard of living.

Number of students per teacher(Oryol province)

The report of the Commission on Public Education for 1910 indicated that in 433 elementary schools there were over 50 students per teacher, and in 120 of these schools there were over 70 students per teacher.

Additional income for teachers

Additional concerns of the teaching staff include the responsibility for managing night shelters and dormitories at primary schools, which were rarely paid [GAOO, f. 580, Art. 2, d. 986, l. 68]. In addition, folk teachers had to teach additional subjects (handicrafts, singing, gymnastics, etc.) without remuneration. Even more often, there was a need to conduct classes on the Law of God instead of a teacher of the law, since the clergy simply did not have enough time to engage in teaching activities.

Gender teacher percentage shift

One of the trends in the development of primary education in the Russian Empire at the turn of the 19th—20th centuries. What happened was his gradual feminization. This was explained not by trends of social progress, but by purely pragmatic considerations: women’s labor was cheaper. Using the example of primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, one can trace how the ratio of teachers to female teachers changed in the Oryol province. If in 1880 teachers made up 77% of the teaching staff of primary public schools, then in 1899 - already 50%, and in 1910 - 29.4%. In turn, teachers made up 23% in 1880, 50% in 1899, and 70.6% in 1910, respectively [GAOO, f. 580, Art. 2, d. 986, l. 70]. In general, the Oryol province reflected processes characteristic of all of Russia.

Changing the quality of teaching

The quantitative growth of primary schools was accompanied, on the one hand, by an increase in the number of teachers, and on the other, by a decrease in the educational level of public teachers. Specialists with high educational qualifications did not stay long in public schools.

Number of literate people in the country.

In 1912, in the Moscow province, 95% of boys 12-15 years old were literate and 75% of girls -Saprykin D.L. Educational potential of the Russian Empire. M.: IIET RAS, 2009 (p.708−709). In 1914, there were 101,917 primary schools (about 1/3 were parochial), and the number of students in them was 7,030,257. After 1864, there was a quantitative increase in the number of city parochial schools. So, in 1869 there were 14 men and 9 women. Women's and men's parish schools opened in the province between 1862 and 1865. in such district cities as Sevsk, Trubchevsk, Mtsensk, Yelets, Dmitrovsk, Bolkhov, Bryansk. In 1869, 665 girls (mostly from urban classes) studied in all women's parish schools in the province, while 1,509 people studied in men's parish schools [GAOO, f. 78, op. 1, d. 1288, l. 30 vol.]. From the data published by the Central Statistical Committee, it is clear that in 1911 the population of 34 zemstvo provinces (76 million) accounted for 46% of the total population of the Empire (without Finland - 164 million). The number of primary schools in these provinces (excluding literacy schools)—59,907—was 61% of the total number of such schools established by the census (98,204). According to a survey conducted in 1894 by the Literacy Committee, there were at that time 60,592 primary and literacy schools with 2,970,066 students. The population coverage of the education system was very low. The 1897 census revealed 21% of the literate population in the Russian Empire (literacy meant both the ability to read and write, and the ability to read only, see census forms). In European Russia without the Vistula provinces and the Caucasus, the literacy rate of the population was 22.9%. The highest percentage of literate people, 70−80%, was given by the three Baltic provinces. More modest results were given by the capital provinces: St. Petersburg - 55%, Moscow - 40%. 42% of literate people were found in the Kovno province and 36% in the Yaroslavl province. In the remaining provinces of European Russia, less than 30% were able to read. Historian B. N. Mironov noted that as of 1889 and 1913, the proportion of the literate population was: Literacy of men/women over the age of 9-20 years for 1889 and 1913 For the Russian Empire, literacy is the ability to read, for other countries - to read and write. Russian Empire Great Britain Germany USA Austria Japan France 31/13 91/89 97/95 88/85 74/60 97/— 89/81 54/26 99/99 99/99 93/93 81/75 98/— 95/94 There were students in these institutions of the Ministry of Public Education in 1913: in men's institutions - 219,906 (of which 2/3 were in gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums and 1/3 in real schools); in women's - 303,690. The larger number of women's educational institutions and students in them compared to men's is explained by the fact that a significant number of boys studied in commercial schools, secondary technical schools and other educational institutions not under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education. “A picture of the current state of school affairs and the results achieved over the 3 years that have elapsed since the introduction of universal education for children is given by a one-day school census carried out on January 18, 1911. This census registered 100,295 primary schools for children aged 8 to 12 years , and the Ministry of Public Education believes that this number is about 98% of the actual number of such schools. On census day, there were 6,180,510 students in schools, which is 3.85% of the total population. And since the number of school-age children (from 8 to 12 years old) is determined by about 9% of the total population, it turns out that only about 43% of all children attended primary school in 1911”... Enrollment in primary school for children aged 8 to 11 By 1914, the overall figure for the Russian Empire was 30.1% (in cities - 46.6%, in rural areas - 28.3%).
According to the Military Statistical Yearbook for 1912, among the rank and file of the army of 906 thousand people there were 302 thousand “illiterates” (“illiterates” were not listed). TSB (2nd edition) provides the following data on the dynamics of the decrease in illiteracy among recruits in the Republic of Ingushetia (percentage of illiterate among recruits):
Percentage of illiterate conscripts in Russia:
Years 1896 1900 1905 1913
% illiterate 60% 51% 42% 27%

The obligation of universal education in European countries

Thus, laws on universal education were adopted: in Prussia in 1717 and 1763, in Austria in 1774, in Denmark in 1814, in Sweden in 1842, in Norway in 1848, in the USA in 1852-1900, in Japan in 1872, in Italy in 1877, in Great Britain in 1880, in France in 1882. Our country lagged behind them. From the “Explanatory note to the report of state control on the implementation of state registration and financial estimates for 1911” pp. 187−188 St. Petersburg, 1912 By 1914, per 1000 people of the total population of students there were: in Russia 59, in Austria - 143 , in the UK - 152, in Germany - 175, in the USA - 213, in France - 148, in Japan - 146 people. However, although formally the Laws on Universal Education were introduced in these countries earlier than Russia, their adoption was accompanied by lengthy polemics and struggle. For example, in England, a complete package of relevant legislation was introduced between 1870 and 1907. - that is, for 37 years. In Russia, after discussions in the State. Duma in 1908\1912, the reform was planned to be completed in approximately half of the provinces of Russia (in the European part) by 1918, and in full throughout the empire by the end of the 1920s. In fact, by 1917, almost full coverage of primary education was ensured in the European part of the Republic of Ingushetia among boys, but among girls - only 50%. After the revolution of 1905-1906, the Russo-Japanese War and the reforms of 1906-1907. The Duma raises the question of adopting a law on universal primary education. In 1906, a bill by the Minister of Public Education P. von Kaufmann was submitted for consideration. Some provisions of this law were adopted on May 3, 1908, according to which state funding for MNEs was sharply increased, and paragraph 6 of the law established free (but not universal) primary education.

Development of women's education

From the very beginning of the reign of Nicholas II, female education began to develop at an accelerated pace. “On the report of the Tula governor on the desirability of wider involvement of girls in public schools, He put a note: “I completely agree with this. This question is of extreme importance.” The regulations on the Women's Medical Institute were approved (at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, women's medical courses were closed due to the revolutionary spirit that reigned there). Loans for parochial schools were significantly increased (almost doubling).” In 1915, in European Russia, no more than 50% of girls in primary schools were enrolled in schools.

Physical health of students. School desks.

In 1870, a Swiss ophthalmologist living in Russia, Fyodor Erisman, created the world's first school desk, an inclined desk combined with a chair. Sitting at such a desk, it became impossible to slouch. Emperor Alexander II issued a decree to equip all Russian schools with such desks. Pyotr Korotkov improved this desk, making it double.

As a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721, the powerful Swedish army was defeated and the Russian lands captured by Sweden at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries were returned. The city of St. Petersburg is built at the mouth of the Neva, where the capital of Russia is moved in 1712. The Moscow state became the Russian Empire in 1721, headed by the All-Russian Emperor.

Of course, Russia took a long time to create an empire, and not only the victory in the Northern War contributed to this.

Long haul

At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' consisted of about 15 principalities. However, the natural course of centralization was interrupted by the Mongol invasion (1237-1240). The further unification of Russian lands took place in difficult foreign policy conditions and was dictated primarily by political prerequisites.

In the 14th century, most of the Russian lands were united around Vilna - the capital of the emerging Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. During the XIII-XV centuries, the principalities of Goroden, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Kiev, as well as most of the Chernigov region, Volyn, Podolia, Smolensk region and a number of other Russian lands came into the possession of the great Lithuanian princes from the Gediminovich family. Thus, the individual rule of the Rurikovichs and the clan unity of Rus' became a thing of the past. The annexation of lands took place both military and peacefully.

The end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries became a kind of boundary, after which the lands annexed to Russia formed a single whole with it. The process of annexing the rest of the inheritance of Ancient Rus' lasted for another two centuries, and by this time its own ethnic processes had gained strength.

In 1654, Left Bank Ukraine joined Russia. The lands of Right Bank Ukraine (without Galicia) and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1793.

“The Russian kingdom (both conceptually, ideologically, and institutionally) had two sources: the “kingdom” (Khanate) of the Golden Horde and the Byzantine Orthodox kingdom (empire).”

One of the first to formulate a new idea of ​​​​the royal power of the Moscow princes was Metropolitan Zosima. In the essay “Exposition of Paschal,” submitted to the Moscow Council in 1492, he emphasized that Moscow became the new Constantinople thanks to Rus'’s loyalty to God. God Himself appointed Ivan III - “the new Tsar Constantine to the new city of Constantine - Moscow and the entire Russian land and many other lands of the sovereign.” Thus, Ivan IV was the first Tsar crowned king. This happened on January 16, 1547.

Under Ivan IV, Russia managed to significantly expand its possessions. As a result of the campaign against Kazan and its capture in 1552, it gained the middle Volga region, and in 1556, with the capture of Astrakhan, the lower Volga region and access to the Caspian Sea, which opened up new trade opportunities with Persia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. At the same time, the ring of hostile Tatar khanates that constrained Rus' was broken, and the road to Siberia was opened.

V. Surikov "Conquest of Siberia by Ermak"

The era of Ivan the Terrible also marked the beginning of the conquest of Siberia. A small detachment of Cossacks Ermak Timofeevich, hired by the Ural industrialists Stroganovs to protect against the attacks of the Siberian Tatars, defeated the army of the Siberian Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk. Despite the fact that due to the attacks of the Tatars, few of the Cossacks managed to return alive, the collapsed Siberian Khanate was never restored. A few years later, the royal archers of the governor Voeikov suppressed the last resistance. The gradual development of Siberia by Russians began. Over the next decades, forts and trading settlements began to emerge: Tobolsk, Verkhoturye, Mangazeya, Yeniseisk and Bratsk.

Russian empire

P. Zharkov "Portrait of Peter I"

On August 30, 1721, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded between Russia and Sweden, according to which Russia received access to the Baltic Sea, annexed the territory of Ingria, part of Karelia, Estland and Livonia.

Russia became a great European power. Peter I accepted the titles “Great” and “Father of the Fatherland” from the Senate, he was proclaimed emperor, and Russia - an empire.

The formation of the Russian Empire was accompanied by a number of reforms.

Public Administration Reform

Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.

The public administration system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

At the first stage of the reform, Peter I divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.

There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.

Military reforms

The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction using the “Table of Ranks” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.

With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform

The institution of the patriarchate was virtually eliminated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.

The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. The kopeck becomes the main coin. Transition to poll tax.

Increase in treasury revenues several times. But! It was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population, and most of this income was stolen.

Culture and life

Peter I led the fight against external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

N. Nevrev "Peter I"

A number of measures were taken to develop education: on January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, and mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools created by decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to “ teach children of all ranks literacy, numbers and geometry" It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created for the training of priests in 1721. Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death; most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

Peter I created new printing houses.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Academy of Sciences, which was opened after his death.

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the Tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc. have changed.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts.

S. Khlebovsky "Assemblies under Peter I"

Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad.

On December 30, 1701, Peter issued a decree that ordered full names to be written in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the Tsar, and in winter, in the cold, to wear a hat in front of the house in which king, don't take it off. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king...”.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.”

The transformations of the era of Peter I led to the strengthening of the Russian state, the creation of a modern European army, the development of industry and the spread of education among the upper classes of the population. An absolute monarchy was established, headed by the emperor, to whom the church was also subordinate (through the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod).

XVIII century

The 18th century in Russia brought changes to the learning process: new approaches to education appeared.

Theology began to be taught only in diocesan schools, where children of the clergy were educated. By 1727, there were 46 diocesan schools in Russia with 3,056 students.

In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow in the building of the former Sukharevskaya Tower. Also in 1701, the Artillery School was opened; in 1708 - Medical School; in 1712 - Engineering school. In 1715, the senior classes of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences were transferred to St. Petersburg and transformed into the Naval Academy (now the Higher Naval Academy).

By the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. by decree of 1714, 42 digital schools with 2000 students were opened in the provinces (by the middle of the century, many digital schools were attached to theological schools, while others were closed).

Secondary educational institutions at this time included public schools, gentry corps, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums.

19th century

To the beginning XIX century The general education school was represented by 2- and 4-year public schools in cities. There were general education gymnasiums in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Kazan. There were specialized educational institutions: soldiers' schools, cadet and gentry corps, various types of religious schools. Moscow University was a higher educational institution.

Under Alexander I (1801-1825)

The first privileged secondary university institutions appeared - lyceums: in 1811 - Tsarskoye Selo, in 1817 - Richelieu in Odessa, in 1820 - Nezhinsky.

Under Nicholas I (1825-1855)

Under Nicholas I, education took on a closed class character: parish schools for peasants; district schools for children of merchants, artisans and other urban inhabitants; gymnasiums for children of nobles and officials.

In 1827, a decree and a special circular were issued prohibiting the admission of serfs to gymnasiums and universities. The basis of public education was the principle of class and bureaucratic centralization.

In 1828 - the school charter, according to which primary and secondary education was divided into three categories:

1. for children of the lower classes - one-class parish schools (the four rules of arithmetic, reading, writing and the “law of God” were studied).
2. for the middle classes, that is, townspeople and merchants - three-year schools (geometry, geography, history).
3. for the children of nobles and officials - seven-year gymnasiums (where they prepared for entering the university).

In 1835, a new University Charter was published. It limited the autonomy of universities, prohibited university courts and effectively led to the establishment of police surveillance of students.

In the beginning. XIX century there were 5 cadet corps. K ser. XIX century there were twenty of them.

If at the beginning XIX century There were 35 Orthodox seminaries and 76 bishops' schools (lower theological schools), then in 1854 there were 48 and 223, respectively.

In 1810, after adding an additional level of education at the Engineering School, which then became the Main Engineering School, a transition began to the creation of a system of higher engineering education in Russia, accompanied by a real deepening of the quality of natural science training for engineers. This process of qualitative changes in engineering schools was largely completed by the end of the 19th century.

In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was established, training officers of the General Staff. In 1855, the Artillery and Engineering Academies were separated.

The network of industrial and technical educational institutions expanded: in 1828 the Institute of Technology was established, in 1830 - the School of Architecture, and in 1832 - the School of Civil Engineers (in 1842 both of these schools were merged into the Construction School), in 1842 The Gorygoretsk Agricultural School was opened in Belarus, transformed in 1848 into the Agricultural Institute, and in 1835 the Land Survey Institute was founded in Moscow. In addition, the Institute of Railway Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Practical Polytechnic Institute, the Mining Institute, the Practical Commercial Academy, the Agricultural School, the private Mining School, and the Technical School appeared. Veterinary schools are springing up in the provinces.

Under Alexander II (1855-1881)

Loans for public education grew steadily all the time; from 1894 to 1904 they more than doubled: the budget of the Ministry of Public Education was increased from 22 to 42 million rubles, while loans for church schools increased from 2.5 to 13 million; and government allocations alone for commercial schools (which later became widespread) reached 2-3 million a year. Over the course of ten years, zemstvo and city allocations for educational needs increased in approximately the same proportion: by 1904, if we combine the educational expenses of all departments* and local government, the amount of annual expenditures on public education already exceeded 100 million rubles. (p. 62.89)

From the very beginning of the reign of Nicholas II, female education began to develop at an accelerated pace (p. 25): “On the report of the Tula governor on the desirability of more widely attracting girls to public schools, He put a note: “I completely agree with this.” This question is of extreme importance.” The regulations on the Women's Medical Institute were approved (at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, women's medical courses were closed due to the revolutionary spirit that reigned there). Loans for parochial schools have been significantly increased (almost doubling).” [ibid., p.62].

After the revolution of 1905-1906, the Russo-Japanese War and the reforms of 1906-1907. The Duma raises the question of adopting a law on universal primary education. In 1906, a bill by the Minister of Public Education P. von Kaufmann was submitted for consideration. Some provisions of this law were adopted on May 3, according to which state funding for MNEs was sharply increased, and paragraph 6 of the law established free (but not universal) primary education. This played a very large role in the development of the education system in Russia. However, the section on universal compulsory primary education was not adopted. Later in 1910, 4-year education was established for all primary schools.

Discussion of the bill on universal primary education, meanwhile, was postponed several times, and dragged on until 1912. On June 6, 1912, the State Council finally rejected the bill on universal education. And contrary to widespread hoaxes, the law on universal and free primary education was not adopted. By 1915, only a few individual counties and cities had introduced compulsory universal and free primary education (in 15 zemstvos out of more than 440; that is, 3%). Throughout Russia, developed by MNEs and State deputies. Duma projects for universal education did not receive support at the highest level; not a single one of the draft laws on the introduction of universal education was adopted.

It is widely believed that throughout Russia, developed by MNEs and State deputies. Duma projects for universal education did not receive support at the highest level. - however, this is not so: the framework law on primary school education (on a sharp increase in funding) was signed on May 3, 1908 by Nicholas II, and subsequent disagreements between the State Duma and the State Council were that the State Council insisted on increasing funding ( higher than proposed by the State Duma) without indicating the time frame for the transition to universal education, and the State Duma insisted on introducing into the law a period for the transition to universal education (10 years), but at the same time believed that the increase in funding was higher than what it proposed (10 million rubles in year) is not required. At the same time, the same modern critics of this law write: “ Since the publication of the law of May 3, 1908, the country has begun to carry out the first activities related to the implementation of the project for the introduction of universal education in the country, which involved the creation of school networks of primary educational institutions" These measures (including increasing the number of schools and their accessibility within a radius of no more than 3 miles) were carried out steadily until 1917

“A picture of the current state of school affairs and the results achieved over the 3 years that have elapsed since the start of the introduction of universal education for children is given by a one-day school census carried out on January 18, 1911.

This census registered 100,295 primary schools for children aged 8 to 12 years, and the Ministry of Public Education considers this number to be about 98% of the actual number of such schools. Of these 100,295 schools, they are managed by: the Ministry of Public Education - 59,682; Spiritual department - 37922; other departments - 2691.

On census day, there were 6,180,510 students in schools, which is 3.85% of the total population. And since the number of school-age children (from 8 to 12 years old) is determined by about 9% of the total population, it turns out that only about 43% of all children attended primary school in 1911 "...

The timing of the implementation of universal accessibility of primary education, that is, the opening of all schools provided for in the school network of a given region, is set differently, depending on the situation of school affairs in each district and its financial viability. On average for 34 provinces this period is 9.4 years. In 33 counties (11%) it does not exceed 5 years. In 40 counties (13%) it will take 12 to 17 years to open a full number of schools. (p. 190).

The number of primary schools in these provinces (excluding literacy schools) - 59,907, was 61% of the total number of such schools established by the census (98,204). Maintenance costs accounted for 64% of the Empire's total expenditure. These figures indicate the important role of zemstvos in the establishment of primary education. In 1911, 949 cities agreed with the Ministry on the introduction of universal education in 69 cities. Then a number of urban settlements were included in the district zemstvo networks."

“Summarizing all of the above, it should be said that the Russian primary public school, which until very recently existed mainly at the expense of local funds, is now supported by large grants from the treasury, is developing in the central Great Russian and Little Russian provinces at a fairly rapid pace with proper interaction from the government and local organizations, and that the achievement of universal access to primary education in the near future can be considered assured. The position of the Russian school on the outskirts and in areas with a predominance of foreign populations seems comparatively backward. The systematic development of school affairs in these areas, which now constitutes the next task of the Ministry of Public Education, will undoubtedly require energetic work on the part of the government bodies in charge of this matter and large expenses from the state treasury” (p. 193).

From the “Explanatory Note to the State Control Report on the Execution of State Listings and Financial Estimates for 1911” P. 187-188 St. Petersburg, 1912

By 1914, per 1000 people of the total population of students there were: in Russia 59, in Austria - 143, in Great Britain - 152, in Germany - 175, in the USA - 213, in France - 148, in Japan - 146 people.

According to Nikolai Erofeev, per capita spending on education was still scanty compared to developed countries. In England they amounted to 2 rubles. 84 kopecks per person, in France - 2 rubles. 11 k., in Germany - 1 r. 89 kopecks, and in Russia - 21 kopecks. However, this estimate (21 kopecks per capita in 1914) seems clearly underestimated. According to data cited by Pitirim Sorokin (Sorokin P.A. Sociology of the Revolution. M., 2008. pp. 285-286), the budget of the Ministry of Public Education in 1914 was 142,736,000 rubles, the total expenditure of all ministries on education was 280-300 million rubles , and the expenditure of cities and zemstvos was approaching 360 million rubles. Thus, the total expenditure on education was about 640 million rubles. Thus, per capita expenses in the Russian Empire in 1914 were no less than 3 rubles 70 kopecks.

By 1914, there were 123,745 in the Russian Empire primary educational institutions, of them:

• 80801 MNE departments,
• 40530 Department of Orthodox Confession
• 2414 other departments.

Primary school coverage of children aged 8 to 11 years by 1914 was 30.1% in the Russian Empire as a whole (in cities - 46.6%, in rural areas - 28.3%).

However, in the European part of Russia the situation was much better: IIET RAS researcher D.L. Saprykin came to the conclusion that, I quote: “ The data from the complete school census of January 1911 and the partial census of January 1915 indicate that at that time in the central Great Russian and Little Russian provinces virtually complete education was provided for boys. The situation was different with the education of girls (even in European Russia, no more than 50% of girls studied in primary schools)».

Secondary educational institutions MNP in 1913 were represented by male and female educational institutions. Men's: gymnasiums - 441, pro-gymnasiums - 29, real schools - 284, 32 and 27 technical schools. Women's: gymnasiums 873, pro-gymnasiums 92.

Higher education in 1913/1914, 63 state, public, private and departmental educational institutions of higher education were represented. According to A.E. Ivanov, in 1913/1914, 123,532 students studied in state, public and private higher schools (of which 71,379 were in state universities). In 1917, 135,065 students studied at Russian higher schools (Ivanov A.E. Higher school of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. M., 1991. Table No. 28, p. 254)

The following students studied in state higher educational institutions:

• Universities −10 (35,695 students)
• Legal - 4 (1036 students)
• Oriental Studies - 3 (270 students)
• Medical - 2 (2592 students)
• Pedagogical - 4 (894 students)
• Military and naval - 8 (1182 students)
• Theological - 6 (1085 students)
• Industrial engineering - 15 (23329 students)
• Agricultural - 6 (3307 students)
• Veterinary - 4 (1729 students)
• Artistic - 1 (260 students)

Read more: Ivanov A. E. Higher school of Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. M., 1991. S. 105, 108, III, 117, 130, 136-137, 143, 151, 154, 254.

As the Minister of Education P. N. Ignatiev reported in 1916:

To understand the degree of need for this type of educational institutions, I consider it my duty to provide information that while in England, France and other Western European countries there is one doctor for approximately 1400-2500 inhabitants, in our country this number increases to 5450. According to The data I have collected only to satisfy the most modest requirements for providing a population with medical care, at which there would be one doctor for every 3,900 people - the existing number of doctors would have to increase by 12,800 people, which would require the opening of at least 10 new medical schools. The provision of veterinary care is also in a poor position. According to data collected by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, a more or less correct organization of veterinary supervision would require at least 8,000 veterinarians, while there are just over 3,000 of them and the existing 4 veterinary institutes are not able to significantly increase their output. Finally, the lack of trained pharmacists has made our pharmaceutical industry completely dependent on foreign markets. Further studying the question in which area of ​​state and public activity there is a greater lack of people with appropriate higher education, I encountered a phenomenon that threatens to slow down not only the general growth of public education, but can also serve as an obstacle to the broad development of professional knowledge. This phenomenon lies in the rapidly growing shortage of teachers of general education subjects in secondary educational institutions, which are equally necessary for both general education and vocational secondary schools. According to statistical data, this shortage in some areas of the Empire exceeds 40% of the total number of teachers, as a result of which it is necessary to allow persons who do not have the appropriate scientific qualifications to teach, which inevitably entails a decrease in the level of teaching... Hence there arises an urgent need to increase physical, mathematical and historical -philological faculties, since the existing ones cannot fully satisfy the requirements placed on them. We must not lose sight of the fact that all technology, all applied sciences and professions are based on the data of pure science, which is developed precisely in the faculties. Therefore, the main departments of all higher educational institutions must be nourished by the forces provided by the faculties, and consequently, the development of higher technical knowledge is also inextricably linked with the parallel growth of higher educational institutions cultivating pure science. Meanwhile, while the number of higher specialized schools has increased by 15 educational institutions in the last 25-30 years alone, the number of mentioned faculties has remained unchanged since 1876, that is, with the opening of Novorossiysk University, since the universities of Tomsk and Saratov were established after it still exist without these faculties.

From the “Most Submissive Report of the Minister of Public Education, Gr. P.N. Ignatiev dated June 13, 1916

The Minister of Education was forced to prove the lack of professional specialists and the need to create new higher educational institutions by the fact that Nicholas II in April 1912, before a special meeting and the Council of Ministers, “inscribed”: “I believe that Russia needs the opening of higher specialized institutions, and even more in secondary technical and agricultural schools, but that the existing universities are quite enough for her. Accept this resolution as my guiding instruction.” D. L. Saprykin (Head of the Center for Research in Scientific and Educational Policy, IIET RAS) supplements this episode with the following information (44-46):

... this decision (1912) was one of the first experiences of systemic personnel planning throughout the country and was based on an assessment of the personnel needs of the Russian Empire carried out by the ministry of L. A. Kasso (the latter actually considered it necessary to limit the growth of university education). Under the next minister (P.N. Ignatiev), previous estimates were revised. ... After the corresponding report of the minister, Nicholas II revised the previous decision and authorized the introduction of new faculties at Saratov and Tomsk universities, the creation of new universities (in Rostov-on-Don, Perm, Irkutsk and Nizhny Novgorod) and a number of other higher educational institutions of the university type (this episode described in detail by P. N. Ignatiev on pp. 127-128 of his memoirs). At the same time, Nicholas II always emphasized the need for rapid development of technology and technical education... The achievements of Russian technology in the war and post-war period, the rapid increase in “military-technical potential” would have been impossible if, in the two decades preceding the great war, there had not been the corresponding “educational potential” would be created. On the eve of the First World War, no more than 25 thousand specialists with natural science (without medical) and engineering education studied at universities, higher technical schools and academies of the German Empire. There were even fewer of them in higher educational institutions in other large European countries (Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary). Meanwhile, at least 40-45 thousand specialists of this kind studied at universities, higher technical, military engineering and commercial schools of the Russian Empire. The level of their training was approximately the same as that of their European colleagues; evidence of this is, by the way, the successful career of many Russian emigrant engineers who created entire industries and technological schools in Western Europe and America (it is enough to mention I. I. Sikorsky, S. P. Timoshenko, V.K. Zvorykina, V.N. Ipatieva, A.E. Chichibabina).

Saprykin D.L. "Educational potential of the Russian Empire" (IIET RAS, M., 2009), p.44-46

“At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a little more than 40 thousand students studied in the Russian Empire. In Germany, which was then the leader in Europe, in 1903, 40.8 thousand people studied at universities, 12.2 thousand in higher technical educational institutions, and 3.9 thousand in special academies. In 1906, 35.7 thousand students studied at all the “faculties” of France, another 5-6 thousand studied in special educational institutions of other departments and Catholic institutes. About 20 thousand people studied at UK universities in 1900-1901... From these data it is clear that the Russian higher education system in absolute terms was comparable to the systems of other leading European countries... On the eve of the First World War, Russia was still inferior to Germany in terms of university education, but was noticeably superior in the field of special education... Russia already between 1904 and 1914 (together with the USA) became the world leader in the field of technical education, surpassing Germany.”

The education of peasants in agricultural technology also developed rapidly at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1913, there were 9,000 employees of the agricultural information and advisory service working in Russia. Training courses were organized on cattle breeding and dairy production, and the introduction of progressive forms of agricultural production. Much attention was paid to the progress of the system of out-of-school agricultural education. If in 1905 the number of students at agricultural courses was 2 thousand people, then in 1912 - 58 thousand, and at agricultural readings - 31.6 thousand and 1046 thousand people, respectively.

In general, by January 1, 1914, in the Russian Empire there were 8,902,621 students. Of these, about 82% of all students studied in primary and lower schools. In secondary general education and special educational institutions - about 6%. In special secondary and lower schools - 3.2%. In various private, national-religious, etc. educational institutions - about 7%. In higher educational institutions - 0.8%. The rest, about 1%, are not distributed among establishment categories. (Statistical Yearbook of Russia for 1915, Pg., 1916. Dept. 1. P. 144).

Summing up the reforms of national education by 1914\1917 (both general primary and secondary, and professional and higher), D. L. Saprykin writes:

A unified education system involving complete “coordination” of general and vocational education, in particular, the possibility of transitions between general education and vocational educational institutions of the same level, was formed in the process of reforms of 1915-1916 carried out by P. N. Ignatiev with the full support of Nicholas II. These reforms created a coherent unified system of national education that included: 1) a 3-4 year cycle of primary education, 2) a 4-year cycle of post-primary education (the first four classes of gymnasiums, a course of higher primary schools or corresponding vocational educational institutions, 3) a 4-year cycle of full secondary education (the last classes of gymnasiums or vocational secondary educational institutions), 4) higher educational institutions of a university or special type, 5) an education system for adults, which began to be created at an accelerated pace especially after the adoption of the Prohibition Law in 1914. ... In the last ten years of the reign of Nicholas II, a kind of “national project” was carried out: a program for the construction of “school networks”, in particular, networks of school buildings throughout the country, ensuring the availability of schools for all children of the Empire with a radius of 3 miles. ... During the reign of Nicholas II, Russia firmly entered the top five most developed countries in terms of the level of development of science, scientific and technical education and “high-tech industries.”

Saprykin D.L. "Educational potential of the Russian Empire" (IIET RAS, M., 2009)

Educational institutions in Russia before 1917

• Military educational institutions- military academies, military schools, cadet schools, cadet corps, military gymnasiums, (military schools), etc. The first military educational institution in Russia was created under Peter I, who in 1700 founded the “School of Mathematical and Mathematical Sciences” in Moscow Navigational Sciences" for preparation for service in artillery, engineers and the navy. The first military school was opened in 1795 in Gatchina.
• Parish schools- primary schools in Russia in the 19th century, preparing clerks for the chambers of state property and for rural administrations.
• Sunday schools- private or public general education, vocational or religious educational institutions, where training is conducted on Sundays. In Russia in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, similar general educational institutions were established by the intelligentsia for illiterate and semi-literate workers, peasants, artisans, office workers, as well as working children and adolescents.
• Higher primary schools- occupied an intermediate position between primary and secondary school. At first they were called district schools, from 1872 - city schools, and from 1912 they were renamed higher elementary schools.
• Higher women's courses- higher educational institutions for women. They arose with the permission of the government in 1869 (the first institutions of this type arose in Moscow and St. Petersburg).
• Gymnasiums- secondary general educational institution. The first secular secondary general education gymnasium in Russia was founded in St. Petersburg in 1726 at the Academy of Sciences under the name Academic Gymnasium (existed until 1805). In accordance with the charter approved in 1864, they opened classical gymnasiums And real gymnasiums.
• Theological Academy- higher religious (Orthodox) educational institution. The Moscow Theological Academy is the first higher educational institution in Russia, opened in 1685 (until 1814 it was called the “Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy”), closed in 1919, revived in 1943.
• Theological Seminary- an Orthodox secondary educational institution that trained clergy in Russia.
• Theological school- Orthodox primary educational institution.
• Primary schools (zemstvo schools)- primary schools opened by zemstvos (and under their jurisdiction) in rural areas.
• - secular higher educational institutions that trained mainly specialists in the technical and natural sciences. There were polytechnic and technological institutes, institutes of railway transport engineers, commercial, agricultural, pedagogical, and medical institutes. In 1802-1804 the first one in Russia was opened teacher's institute at St. Petersburg University.
• - closed secondary educational institutions with full board, mainly for daughters from noble families.
• Cadet Corps- secondary military educational institution with full board.
• Commercial schools- secondary educational institutions that prepared students for commercial activities.
• Public schools are secondary educational institutions that trained teachers for primary educational institutions. The first institution of this type was opened in St. Petersburg in 1783 and existed until 1804.
• Courses- fee-paying secular higher education institutions, synonymous with “institute.”
• Real gymnasiums- a secondary general educational institution with a focus on subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle, some of which at the end of the 19th century received the status of real schools.
• Real school- a secondary educational institution that paid more attention to the study of natural and mathematical subjects.
• Universities- secular higher educational institutions. The first secular university in Russia was called the Academic University, opened in 1724 and existed until 1766. By the beginning of the 20th century in Russia (with the exception of Finland) there were the following universities: Moscow (since 1755), Dorpat, or Yuryevsky (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), St. Petersburg (1819), Kiev St. Vladimir (1833), Novorossiysk (in Odessa, 1864), Warsaw (1869), Tomsk (1888).
• Teachers' seminaries and schools- educational institutions that trained teachers (teachers) for city, district and primary schools.
• Parochial schools- primary schools run by the clergy. The first educational institutions of this type were opened in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. In accordance with the “Spiritual Regulations” approved in 1721 under Peter I (1721), it was prescribed to establish all-class schools at bishops' houses (bishop's schools) and monasteries. Since 1864, they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod and opened at church parishes with a training period of 3-5 years, mainly in rural areas.
• Schools- a collective name in Ancient Rus' and the Russian Empire for general education institutions. The first public school arose under Prince Vladimir in the 10th century, with more than 300 students studying there. Under his son Yaroslav the Wise, schools arose in Novgorod, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, and Suzdal.

Notes

Links

• Golubtsova M. A. Moscow school of the Catherine era // Moscow in its past and present. - Part 8. - M.: Education, 1911. - P. 3-20.
• Notes from a late teacher// Historical Bulletin, 1888. - T. 33. - No. 8. - P. 296-337.
• I.B. Ideas about public education in Catherine’s time // Historical Bulletin, 1884. - T. 15. - No. 3. - P. 600-614.
• Ivanov A. Petition to Tsar Feodor Alekseevich. 1678 // Russian Archive, 1895. - Book. 1. - Issue. 2. - pp. 277-278. - Under the title: From the archaeological notes of A. A. Martynov. Literacy tuition fees.

REFORM OF PETER 1. FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

INTRODUCTION

1. Reforms of government, life and culture

2. Formation of the Russian Empire

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

During the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas of the country's public life. Many of these transformations go back to the 17th century - the socio-economic transformations of that time served as the prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was the formation of a noble-bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.

Increasing class contradictions led to the need to strengthen and strengthen the autocratic apparatus in the center and locally, centralize management, and build a coherent and flexible system of administrative apparatus, strictly controlled by the highest authorities. It was also necessary to create a combat-ready regular military force to pursue a more aggressive foreign policy and suppress the increasing frequency of popular movements. It was necessary to consolidate the dominant position of the nobility by legal acts and provide it with a central, leading place in state life. All this together led to the implementation of reforms in various spheres of state activity. For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the significance of Petrine reforms, but regardless of the point of view of one researcher or another, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of the most important stages in the history of Russia, thanks to which it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras . In Russian history it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of his interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved. The specific historical assessment of reforms depends on what is considered useful for Russia, what is harmful, what is the main thing, and what is secondary.

The era of Peter I is of great interest for study and research, because looking at it, we look at the process of development and growth of the state. The transformation of Russia from the wild despotic kingdom of Moscow into the Great Empire. Over the course of several decades, a new management system was built, an education system was created, a periodical press was created, a regular army was formed, and a navy emerged. Industry is developing, foreign trade is intensifying, and the economy is stabilizing. Thanks to Peter's foreign policy, political isolation was ended, and Russia's international prestige was strengthened.

The rapid growth of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century amazes not only us, but also amazed Peter’s contemporaries. All of Europe at that time watched and marveled at how this state awakened the forces dormant within and revealed the energy potential that it had hidden in its depths for so long. It should be noted that Peter did not have a systematic plan for the conduct of reforms and their sequence was, first of all, dictated by military needs and the need to have money for military expenses.

The purpose of this work is an attempt to consider the influence of Peter’s reforms on Russian society during the life of Peter 1 and his closest successors, the relationship between classes and the state, government and the church in the context of the development of the absolutist state.

1. Reforms of government, life and culture

The old dilapidated controls were no longer suitable for further use and the need to transform the control system was caused by the urgent need of the time.

Peter I began to carry out administrative reforms at the end of the 17th century, but they took place in very difficult conditions. Along with the new administrative bodies, there were old, very outdated forms of them - such a combination of such different and incompatible bodies led to the fact that they not only interfered, but also harmed each other. Peter's new associates, dressed and equipped in the European style, stood next to the okolnichy, kravchy, and bed guards; old orders were displayed next to the institutions of the New Education. The main problem was that the new institutions borrowed only the form from the Western ones, but remained the same. In other words, the old content was poured into a new form, but this did not change it. This contradiction led to the fact that the operating principle of the new organs remained the same. "In 1708 An administrative-territorial reform was carried out, which resulted in the creation of 8 large governorates. This decision was caused by the war, because how many new units, so many cores of new military organizations. The result of this reform was already in 1709. manifested itself during the battle of Poltava. The created governorates were military and financial districts. The decision to create governorates was closely related to the affairs of the treasury: the previously existing system of revenue receipt assumed that this receipt should be centralized, and the Town Hall acted as the center. But Peter had his own plans; the concentration of income in the Town Hall would lead to the fact that the funds would inevitably be distributed among various institutions that had their representatives in the city government; and the king intended to use most of the income for military purposes. Disconnected, without direct connection with the state, except for the will of the king, the governorates were supposed to help him in this. This was the main reason for their creation. The newly established administrations did not have clearly defined functions and powers, but the main task assigned to them was to replenish the military treasury. A conflict arose because the tsar thought about increasing revenues to the treasury from the created administrations, and they considered themselves obligated to protect their interests. Peter resorted to the usual method: by decree of June 6, 1712, the money was simply taken away and transferred to the Admiralty. This remedy turned out to be so successful that it began to be used quite often, the consequence of which was the rapid depletion of financial resources. “No one agreed with the list of income and expenses. Complete chaos reigned.”

The control system was a very complex and intricate mechanism. The created system of subordination of the governorates tended to make the governorates universal tenants, equipped with almost unlimited powers to obtain funds from which they could pay war taxes.

The poorly calculated management system began to take on an increasingly harmonious form only towards the end of the reign of Peter I.

Reform 1708-1710 did nothing to harmonize the new type of provincial organization with the old administration, concentrated in Moscow. There was no clear mechanism for interaction between the province and the center.

At the beginning of Peter's reign, the old system of administration. But along with the old ones, new organs began to appear. New orders extended their activities to the entire territory of Russia. In this they were similar to the future collegiums. Simultaneously with these events, the Tsar’s personal office gradually pushed the Boyar Duma into the background. There is a gradual breakdown of old government institutions.

Establishment of the Senate in 1711 is an important step towards the destruction of outdated administrative bodies. The Senate, established by decree of the tsar on March 2, 1711, became the highest government body. It replaced the Boyar Duma, which existed for more than 200 years. The main task of the new body was to monitor the management of finances, while other functions of the Senate at the beginning of its existence were unclear. They became clear gradually: they grew and were replenished from year to year, from month to month. Until the introduction of the collegiums, the Senate covered all areas of government activity: justice, administration, police, finance, army, trade and foreign policy. The Senate took responsibility for soldiers on campaign, for the sale of goods at the expense of the state, for the construction of canals, etc. The members of the Senate were appointed by the Tsar himself. Peter appointed 9 people to the Senate. The Senate was created in haste without a clear understanding of its rights and responsibilities. Therefore, many historians argue what kind of body the Senate was: permanent or temporary, created only because of the need to control and increase revenues. Simultaneously with the establishment of the Senate, the institution of fiscals was introduced. From the very beginning, Peter saw the need to supplement the Senate with a control body. At first, at the meetings of the new assembly, changing monthly, a staff officer from the guard was supposed to be present.” The officer had to be present so that the Senate could correct its position according to the instructions given to them.” And later fiscals were established. This concept was not new to European states (it was borrowed from the Swedish controllers), but their rather peculiar attitude towards the Senate made them spies. The regulations drawn up for fiscal officials noted the following: “Choose a chief fiscal officer - an intelligent and kind person, no matter what rank he is from. His deeds are this: he must secretly supervise all matters and carry out unjust trials, also supervise the collection of the treasury and other things, and whoever commits untruth, the fiscal must call him before the Senate and convict him there, and if he convicts anyone, then half of the fine goes to the treasury, the other half to him, the fiscal, but if someone is not incriminated, then the fiscal should not be blamed at all, rather he will be annoyed under severe punishment and the ruin of his entire estate. It is also necessary to have several provincial-fiscals under them, and for each case one at a time, who have the same power in everything as the chief-fiscal, except that the highest judge or the general staff cannot be called to court without the chief-fiscal. “Thus, the chief controller was assigned to the Senate, and in 1722. this position was replaced by the position of state control prosecutor. The introduction of this position contributed to the coordination of individual manifestations of power, which had been operating for a long time without any connection with each other within the mechanism. The State Control Prosecutor interacted with various executive bodies through the prosecutors under his command, and the State Control Prosecutor himself acted as an intermediary between the Tsar and the Senate. As a result of these transformations, the institute of the prosecutor's office was formed in 1722. P.I. was appointed to the post of Prosecutor General. Yaguzhinsky, The office of the Senate and the prosecutor's office of central institutions were subordinate to him. His task included solving crimes and preventing them; he had the right to take part in the discussion of any issue, could point out its illegality, demand a reconsideration of the issue, and even suspend the decision of the Senate.

In 1720, a chief magistrate was created, whose goal was to direct the activities of city magistrates, the creation of which was determined by the interests of the development of industry and trade. City Magistrates were elected by the population of the city in accordance with a certain property qualification to conduct city affairs. In 1721, the Charter of the Magistrate was introduced, which contained the following provisions: “In all decent cities, establish a magistrate, provide it with good statutes, see to it that there is justice, establish a good police force, multiply merchants and manufactures.” According to this Charter, the city the population was divided into three guilds: regular people of the first guild - they represented themselves as noble merchants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, icon painters, painters, etc.; regular people of the second guild are mainly small traders, masters - artisans; the third guild included the mass of the population that was deprived of the right to participate in city government - these are people working in menial jobs, etc. .

Offices and departments were also formed that were in charge of issues related to the management and economy of the city. Thus, we can see how the general model of government was transferred to the local level; with the main difference that city government bodies were elected. Perhaps if this moment were developed, it could grow to the national level; Thus, Peter transferred the economic initiative into the hands of the urban elites, because this reform was carried out, along with others, to fill the city treasury and develop industry.

At the beginning of the seventeenth century. The implementation of administrative reforms completed the formalization of absolutism in Russia. Now the real power was in the hands of the monarch. The feeling of emptiness under power, which Peter strongly felt at the beginning of his reign, passed. Peter saw his real support, structured, brought, although not yet completely, into a more harmonious form: officials, a regular army, a strong navy; political intelligence agencies were at the disposal of the tsar for unlimited and uncontrolled control of the country. The unlimited power of the king was quite clearly expressed in the Military Regulations, Article 10, which read: “. His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs, but he has the power and authority of his own to the state and lands, like a Christian sovereign, to rule by will and blessing.” The Church, as one of the structures subordinate to the state , for its part, in the spiritual regulations confirmed: “The power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey.” Peter’s acceptance of the title of emperor was not only the current expression, but also a confirmation of the established absolutism in Russia.

Absolutism, as the highest form of feudal monarchy, presupposes the presence of a certain level of commodity-money relations and the proper development of industry in the country. The fulfillment of the first of these conditions creates the prerequisites for financing the growing military and civil bureaucracy, the second serves as the material basis for the development of a regular army and navy. An absolute monarchy primarily represents the interests of the nobility. But given the above conditions, in her daily policy it was necessary to make decisions that strengthened the positions of the merchants and industrialists.

The Spiritual Reform occupies a prominent place among Peter's reforms. Peter knew very well the history of the struggle for power between his father and Patriarch Nikon; he also knew the attitude of the Clergy to his reforms. At this time, Adrian was the patriarch in Russia. The relationship between Peter and the patriarch was clearly strained. Peter perfectly understood the desire of the church to restore its secular power; this determined the events that were carried out in this area. Patriarch Andrian died in 1700, but the tsar was in no hurry to elect a new patriarch. Management of the affairs of the church was transferred to the Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, he was declared the guardian of the patriarchal throne. Although Peter did not see Peter in the person of Yavorsky and did not see an active supporter, at least Yavorsky did not very vehemently oppose Peter’s policies.

Another problem arose on Peter's road - schismatics. “Peter had to begin the fight against schismatics. The schismatics, possessing great wealth, refused to take part in common duties: to enter military or civilian service. Peter found a solution to this issue - he imposed a double tax on them. The schismatics refused to pay and a struggle broke out. Raskolnikov were executed, exiled or flogged.” Peter sought to protect himself from the influence of the church, in connection with this he begins to limit the rights of the church and its head: a council of bishops was created, which met periodically in Moscow, and then, in 1711, after creation of the Synod - the head of the church lost the last touches of independence. Thus, the church was completely subordinate to the state. The tsar understood perfectly well that subordination of the church to a simple governing body was impossible. And in 1721, the Holy Synod was created, which was in charge of the affairs of the church. “The Synod was placed on a par with the Senate, above all other collegiums and administrative bodies. The structure of the Synod was no different from the structure of any college. The Synod consisted of 12 people. The Synod was headed by a president, 2 vice-presidents, 4 advisers, 5 assessors.” In 1722 names have been changed. Stefan Yavorsky was appointed President of the Synod. After Yavorsky’s death, his duties were actually performed by Feofan Prokopovich, a man, according to Peter, smart and educated. He had known Peter for a long time, since 1716, when the Tsar noticed this young and eloquent preacher and summoned him to St. Petersburg. From that time on, Feofan Prokopovich became an active assistant to the tsar in drawing up a number of new reforms. From the church pulpit he defended the ideas and aspirations of the tsar - the transformer.

“By decree of January 25, 1721, the Synod was founded, and already on January 27, pre-convened members of the Synod took the oath and on February 14, 1721 the grand opening took place. The spiritual regulations to guide the activities of the Synod were written by Feofan Prokopovich and corrected and approved by the tsar.”

The Spiritual Regulations are a legislative act that determined the functions, rights and responsibilities of the Synod and its members in governing the Russian Orthodox Church. He equated members of the Synod with members of other government institutions.

The Church was now completely subordinate to secular authority. Even the secret of confession was violated. By decree of the Synod of March 26, 1722, all priests were ordered to inform the authorities of the intention of the confessor to commit treason or rebellion. In 1722, church reform was completed by establishing the position of chief prosecutor of the Synod. Thus, the Church lost its independent political role and became an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus. It is not surprising that such innovations caused discontent among the clergy; it was for this reason that they were on the side of the opposition and participated in reactionary conspiracies.

Not only did the appearance of church governance change, but radical changes took place within the church. Peter did not favor either “white” or “black” monks. Seeing the monasteries as an unjustified expense, the tsar decided to reduce financial expenditures in this area, declaring that he would show the monks the path to holiness not with sturgeon, honey and wine, but with bread, water and work for the good of Russia. For this reason, the monasteries were subject to certain taxes; in addition, they had to engage in: carpentry, icon painting, spinning, sewing, etc. - all that was not contraindicated to monasticism.

Peter himself explained the creation of this type of government and organization of the church as follows: “From a conciliar government, the Fatherland need not fear rebellions and confusion, which arise from a single spiritual government of its own...”

Thus, Peter eliminated the threat of an attack on secular power by spiritual power, and placed the church at the service of the state. From now on, the church was part of the support on which the absolute monarchy stood.

Peter the Great's reforms concerned various spheres of society. In 1699, Peter issued a decree changing the calendar. Previously, chronology was carried out according to the Byzantine calendar: the New Year began on September 1. Since 1699, the New Year was supposed to begin on January 1, according to the European model. This reform caused great dissatisfaction, because... Previously, chronology was calculated from the creation of the world, and in the new way, 1700 should have come only after 8 years.

In the new year 1700, a decree was issued on the creation of the first pharmacies in Moscow; Another decree prohibited the carrying of knives under penalty of whipping or exile. In 1701, the liberal spirit of the new reign was expressed in a number of decrees: it was forbidden to kneel when the sovereign appeared; bare your head in winter when passing by the palace. In 1702, the turn of reforming family life came: attempts were made to provide the marriage union with stronger moral guarantees. After visiting France, Peter issues a decree on hospitality.

The position of women in society is changing radically. Peter tried to introduce her to modern secular life, following the example of the West, to provide the highest circles with new forms of treatment.

2. Formation of the Russian Empire

Even in pre-revolutionary historiography, there were two opposing views on the causes and results of Peter’s reforms. Some historians believed that Peter I disrupted the natural course of the country's development by making changes to the economy, politics, culture, traditions, morals, and customs, that he wanted to “make Russia Holland.” During the reign of Sophia, Peter and his mother lived mainly in the villages of Preobrazhenskoye, Kolomenskoye, and Semenovskoye near Moscow. At the age of three, Peter began to learn to read and write from clerk Nikita Zotov, but he did not receive a systematic education (in his mature years, Peter wrote with grammatical errors).

In 1689, Peter, having reached adulthood, married, on the advice of his mother, the boyar daughter Evdokia Lopukhina. After his marriage, Peter was considered an adult and had all the rights to the throne; a clash with Sophia and her supporters became inevitable. Moscow was full of rumors about preparations for a battle between the Streltsy and the “amusing” ones.

Having failed at Azov, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. The fleet was built on the Ronezh River at its confluence with the Don. Within a year, two large ships, 23 galleys and more than a thousand barges and small ships were built, lowered down the Don. The ground army was doubled. In 1696, blocking Azov from the sea, Russian troops captured the city. In order to consolidate Russian positions on the Sea of ​​Azov, the Taganrog fortress was built. Peter understood that with the capture of Azov the war was not over yet.

In order to better understand the balance of power, strengthen the position of Russia and the alliance of European powers against Turkey, the so-called “Grand Embassy” was organized in Europe. In addition, Peter sought to establish trade, technical and cultural ties with developed European powers and gain an understanding of their way of life. In the spring of 1697, an embassy of 250 people set off. In its composition under the name of a constable.

The Northern War entered its decisive phase after the defeat of the Polish king. However, Karl's plans were not destined to come true. On September 28, 1708, near the village of Lesnoy (near Mogilev), Levengaupt’s corps was intercepted and defeated by a “flying detachment” led by Peter himself. In the early morning of June 27, 1709, a decisive battle took place between the troops of Peter I and Charles XII near Poltava. By 11 o'clock the Russian troops had completely defeated the Swedes. The Poltava victory, as a result of which the Swedish land army was destroyed, determined the outcome of the Northern War. The center of the Northern War moved to the Baltic.

The land army conducted successful operations in Finland. In 1721, peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden in the Finnish city of Nystadt. Russia was assigned the coast of the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga: part of Karelia and Ingria (along the Neva), Estland (Estonia), Livonia (part of Latvia). Russia paid 1.5 million rubles for the acquired lands. Finland returned to Sweden.

In 1724, the Sultan concluded the Peace of Constantinople with Russia, recognizing territorial acquisitions during the Caspian campaign. Russia, for its part, recognized Turkey’s rights to western Transcaucasia. The greatest changes have occurred in the industrial sector. By the end of the 17th century. There were about 30 manufactories in the country.

During the years of Peter's rule, there were more than 100 of them. Along with Moscow and the adjacent provinces of the Non-Black Earth Center, two new industrial regions were formed: the Urals and St. Petersburg, the importance of which was rapidly growing. In the first quarter of the 18th century. New branches of production arose - shipbuilding (in St. Petersburg, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk), silk spinning, glass and earthenware, paper production (in St. Petersburg, Moscow). The craft received further development.

In 1722, a decree was issued on the creation of craft workshops in Russian cities. The formation of guilds, on the one hand, reflected the rise of crafts to a higher level, but on the other, the guild isolation prevented Russian townspeople and peasants from joining them and thereby hampered the development of small-scale production.

In 1721, a decree was issued allowing non-noble factory owners to buy and relocate peasants to factories. Such workers were called possession peasants. At that time, the most common way for nobles to increase production was to increase serfdom. The law did not determine the amount of peasant duties; it was established by the landowner himself. The development of industrial and handicraft production, Russia's access to the Baltic Sea contributed to the growth of foreign and domestic trade. Communication routes have improved. Canals were built to connect the Volga with the Neva (Vyshnevolotsky and Ladoga).

The meaning and purpose of Peter's social policy was to legally formalize the rights of estates, strengthen the role, and strengthen the feudal class in the state. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (this was the case until the middle of the 19th century).

The ruling class was strengthened by including the most talented representatives of other classes. When setting the amount of the tax, Peter proceeded from the needs of financing the army, navy, and bureaucratic apparatus. The cost of their maintenance was divided by the number of payers. Increased tax pressure compared to previous times led to a mass exodus of peasants. Numerous restructurings carried out by Peter in the field of government administration led to the creation of a centralized system of government bodies.

In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” Senators were first sworn in, the text of which was written by Peter I. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions were intertwined and had no clear boundaries, 11 collegiums were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Board of Foreign Affairs - external relations, the Military Board - the land armed forces, the Admiralty Board - the fleet, the Chamber Board - revenue collection, the State Board - state expenses, the Patrimonial Board - noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Board - industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg College. In fact, the Chief Magistrate, established in 1722, in charge of Russian cities, existed as a collegium. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated.

Thus, a unified administrative and bureaucratic system of government emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. In 1722, Peter I issued the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne,” according to which the emperor himself could appoint an heir, based on the interests of the state. Moreover, the emperor could reverse the decision if the heir did not live up to expectations. Resistance to the decree was punishable by death, i.e. amounted to treason.

End of form

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