Methodological recommendations for speech development through pictograms. System of symbols (pictograms) as a means of non-verbal communication Main types of work with pictograms
4.6.2. System of symbols (pictograms) as a means of non-verbal communication
For most people with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities and complex mental and physical disabilities, pictography can be used as a means of communication.
Pictography - picture writing, the oldest type of writing. Its fundamental feature is that the sign has nothing to do with the sound of the word - it expresses its meaning.
The principles of pictograms are widely used in international signs and symbols indicating sports, as well as in the road sign system. In the first case, the principle of concreteness, the transmission of meaning through the pose or movement of the human figure, dominates. The second is the principle of “ideogram” - spatial, color and geometric symbolism. The arrow indicates the direction, crossed out images indicate prohibition. In other words, pictography uses stable principles of symbolization that have persisted for thousands of years, which cannot but speak of the most important principles of the functioning of human thinking.
As a method of psychological research, the pictogram was first used
151
proposed in our country in 1935 by L. S. Vygotsky. He came up with the idea of studying mediated memorization using the choice of a visual image. According to this idea, the highest mental functions of a person are indirect in nature; they develop historically with the help of means - tools, signs - symbols. The highest and universal tool that modifies mental functions is the word. Symbols must be very specific and easy to understand, tailored to basic desires and needs.
The German specialist R. Loeb (1985-1994) developed such a system as entering into communication with mentally retarded people who cannot speak. It can be used not only by teachers, but also by parents at home.
Let's take a closer look at this system.
The structure of the pictogram system. The system covers 60 symbols (pictograms) with word meanings printed above the pictures (Fig. 24).
A person who cannot communicate freely with other people is especially isolated and dependent. To overcome this situation, we must constantly awaken in him the need to desire, and then teach him to be able to express these desires himself. Therefore, the two most important words are “I WANT”. And already in the background is the presentation of demands on the child according to the “YOU MUST” principle.
The system has the following sections.
1. General signs of mutual understanding.
2. Words denoting quality.
3. Statement of health status.
4. Dishes, food.
5. Household items.
6. Personal hygiene.
7. Games and activities.
8. Religion.
9. Feelings.
10. Work and rest.
Possibility of using the pictogram system. The system is applied according to the person's ability to understand. It can find the corresponding symbol and transmit it, or it can only specify the symbol. For severely disabled people who cannot purposefully take objects, it will be enough if, given the opportunity to choose from two or three symbols, they look specifically at the one that expresses their desire. Even the use of head pointing, when a simple movement of the head points to a symbol, is justified.
Individual possibilities of expression are varied. It is important that the disabled person can rely on existing concepts, and the interlocutor himself must combine words in their correct grammatical and tense forms.
So, for example, the symbol “drink” can mean:
□ “I want to drink something”;
□ “I would like to drink my favorite drink”;
About “I just drank something delicious and would like more.”
Of course, it may turn out that mentally retarded children will want to express something for which there is no special symbol. In this case, they develop amazing imagination and patience to explain this concept to their interlocutor.
At what age should you start using this system? As early as possible, because it turned out that students begin to spontaneously pronounce sounds and even pronounce individual words if they work with symbols. R. Loeb does not share the fear that the use of symbols makes it difficult to learn spoken language. As his experience shows, it is rather the opposite: only the use of symbols allows children to begin to speak.
Introduction of symbols. Daily repeating situations (eating, drinking, toilet, hand washing, games, rest, etc.), deciphering these situations and developing concepts such as “warm - cold”, “big - small”, “many - little”, “fruits - vegetables”, “sausage - bread” quite naturally give rise to the introduction of a symbol.
The more difficult it is for a mentally retarded person to master a concept, for example, “cheerful - sad,” the more specific situations and examples, objects, photographs, pictures and drawings should be used to acquire and assimilate this concept. Typically, it is enough to enter one character using one or two examples (fruit: apple). Then this concept can be expanded on many other examples (fruits: apple, pear, banana, orange, etc.).
Since in a symbol system often only the main ones can be selected
concepts, it is important to ask again: “Do you want an apple?” This will be exactly the right moment when the “yes” and “no” symbols are entered. These symbols have only two meanings: “yes - good” and “no - bad”. In practice, the meanings “yes” and “no” are accompanied by a negative or affirmative nod of the head, while the meanings “good” and “bad” are accompanied by a gesture with the thumb.
It is not enough to just show a symbol; you must pronounce the word at this moment, accompanied by gestures and facial expressions.
If a mentally retarded child has problems with the “I” symbol (for example, those with autism), you can stick a small photo of him or her on the symbol.
Work on the assimilation and use of pictograms should be carried out in close cooperation with parents, so that outside of school the child or teenager can also communicate with the people around him.
External forms of communicative assistance in the symbol system are the following.
1. Non-electronic communicative assistance, expressed through real objects, miniatures, pictures, photographs, symbol tables, communication boxes, tables with pictures, written speech. The advantage of non-electronic aid is ease of manufacture, use and transportation. The disadvantage is the dependence on the personality of the person who understands the communicative method, and high demands on his abilities of concentration and receptivity.
2. Electronic communication aids are devices with or without a speech output device (spreadsheets with pictures, talking devices, computers). Its advantage is its relative independence from its partner.
Nowadays, the technique of so-called supportive communication is widely spread throughout the world (W. Christin, 1999). The decisive factor for using the method of supportive communication is the awareness that a person’s current capabilities do not allow him to fully satisfy his communication needs. Supportive communication is aimed at expanding a person’s communication capabilities in his daily life.
To provide a “non-speaking” person with more effective communication, the motor functions of body parts are used. With the help of a glance, facial expressions, gesture, pointing to a photograph, picture or symbol (pictogram), a person with speech impairments can carry out his statement or, at least, signal his intention to carry it out. The success of this type of communication largely depends on the sensitivity, attentiveness, and patience of the interlocutor.
Pictograms are especially actively used, which are placed in separate communication tables, in communication notebooks. All students are familiar with the pictograms, regardless of whether they can speak or not, since it is very important that not only the teacher communicates with the “non-speaking” child, but also other students. If using the communication tab-
faces or a communication notebook, the child will be able to communicate with his comrades, this will be the greatest achievement.
Using pictograms, children can communicate their needs (“I want to drink”, “I want to go to the toilet”, “I want to be alone”, “I want to listen to music”). Using pictograms, students talk about an event, for example, how they spent their weekends or vacations (Fig. 25).
Communication cards, tables or notebooks are compiled individually for each student who needs them. The number of symbols used can increase as their meanings are learned, and this circle expands in the direction from symbols denoting vital concepts (toilet, drink, hurt, bad, cold) to symbols of a wide variety of things that are within the circle of interests of a child or teenager.
SEX ROLE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
For most people with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities and complex mental and physical disabilities, pictography can be used as a means of communication.
Pictography - picture writing, the oldest type of writing. Its fundamental feature is that the sign has nothing to do with the sound of the word - it expresses its meaning.
The principles of pictograms are widely used in international signs and symbols indicating sports, as well as in the road sign system. In the first case, the principle of concreteness, the transmission of meaning through the pose or movement of the human figure, dominates. The second is the principle of “ideogram” - spatial, color and geometric symbolism. The arrow indicates the direction, crossed out images indicate prohibition. In other words, pictography uses stable principles of symbolization that have persisted for thousands of years, which cannot but speak of the most important principles of the functioning of human thinking.
As a method of psychological research, the pictogram was first used
151
proposed in our country in 1935 by L. S. Vygotsky. He came up with the idea of studying mediated memorization using the choice of a visual image. According to this idea, the highest mental functions of a person are indirect in nature; they develop historically with the help of means - tools, signs - symbols. The highest and universal tool that modifies mental functions is the word. Symbols must be very specific and easy to understand, tailored to basic desires and needs.
The German specialist R. Loeb (1985-1994) developed such a system as entering into communication with mentally retarded people who cannot speak. It can be used not only by teachers, but also by parents at home.
Let's take a closer look at this system.
The structure of the pictogram system. The system covers 60 symbols (pictograms) with word meanings printed above the pictures (Fig. 24).
A person who cannot communicate freely with other people is especially isolated and dependent. To overcome this situation, we must constantly awaken in him the need to desire, and then teach him to be able to express these desires himself. Therefore, the two most important words are “I WANT”. And already in the background is the presentation of demands on the child according to the “YOU MUST” principle.
The system has the following sections.
1. General signs of mutual understanding.
2. Words denoting quality.
3. Statement of health status.
4. Dishes, food.
5. Household items.
6. Personal hygiene.
7. Games and activities.
8. Religion.
9. Feelings.
10. Work and rest.
Possibility of using the pictogram system. The system is applied according to the person's ability to understand. It can find the corresponding symbol and transmit it, or it can only specify the symbol. For severely disabled people who cannot purposefully take objects, it will be enough if, given the opportunity to choose from two or three symbols, they look specifically at the one that expresses their desire. Even the use of head pointing, when a simple movement of the head points to a symbol, is justified.
Individual possibilities of expression are varied. It is important that the disabled person can rely on existing concepts, and the interlocutor himself must combine words in their correct grammatical and tense forms.
So, for example, the symbol “drink” can mean:
□ “I want to drink something”;
□ “I would like to drink my favorite drink”;
About “I just drank something delicious and would like more.”
Of course, it may turn out that mentally retarded children will want to express something for which there is no special symbol. In this case, they develop amazing imagination and patience to explain this concept to their interlocutor.
At what age should you start using this system? As early as possible, because it turned out that students begin to spontaneously pronounce sounds and even pronounce individual words if they work with symbols. R. Loeb does not share the fear that the use of symbols makes it difficult to learn spoken language. As his experience shows, it is rather the opposite: only the use of symbols allows children to begin to speak.
Introduction of symbols. Daily repeating situations (eating, drinking, toilet, hand washing, games, rest, etc.), deciphering these situations and developing concepts such as “warm - cold”, “big - small”, “many - little”, “fruits - vegetables”, “sausage - bread” quite naturally give rise to the introduction of a symbol.
The more difficult it is for a mentally retarded person to master a concept, for example, “cheerful - sad,” the more specific situations and examples, objects, photographs, pictures and drawings should be used to acquire and assimilate this concept. Typically, it is enough to enter one character using one or two examples (fruit: apple). Then this concept can be expanded on many other examples (fruits: apple, pear, banana, orange, etc.).
Since in a symbol system often only the main ones can be selected
concepts, it is important to ask again: “Do you want an apple?” This will be exactly the right moment when the “yes” and “no” symbols are entered. These symbols have only two meanings: “yes - good” and “no - bad”. In practice, the meanings “yes” and “no” are accompanied by a negative or affirmative nod of the head, while the meanings “good” and “bad” are accompanied by a gesture with the thumb.
It is not enough to just show a symbol; you must pronounce the word at this moment, accompanied by gestures and facial expressions.
If a mentally retarded child has problems with the “I” symbol (for example, those with autism), you can stick a small photo of him or her on the symbol.
Work on the assimilation and use of pictograms should be carried out in close cooperation with parents, so that outside of school the child or teenager can also communicate with the people around him.
External forms of communicative assistance in the symbol system are the following.
1. Non-electronic communicative assistance, expressed through real objects, miniatures, pictures, photographs, symbol tables, communication boxes, tables with pictures, written speech. The advantage of non-electronic aid is ease of manufacture, use and transportation. The disadvantage is the dependence on the personality of the person who understands the communicative method, and high demands on his abilities of concentration and receptivity.
2. Electronic communication aids are devices with or without a speech output device (spreadsheets with pictures, talking devices, computers). Its advantage is its relative independence from its partner.
Nowadays, the technique of so-called supportive communication is widely spread throughout the world (W. Christin, 1999). The decisive factor for using the method of supportive communication is the awareness that a person’s current capabilities do not allow him to fully satisfy his communication needs. Supportive communication is aimed at expanding a person’s communication capabilities in his daily life.
To provide a “non-speaking” person with more effective communication, the motor functions of body parts are used. With the help of a glance, facial expressions, gesture, pointing to a photograph, picture or symbol (pictogram), a person with speech impairments can carry out his statement or, at least, signal his intention to carry it out. The success of this type of communication largely depends on the sensitivity, attentiveness, and patience of the interlocutor.
Pictograms are especially actively used, which are placed in separate communication tables, in communication notebooks. All students are familiar with the pictograms, regardless of whether they can speak or not, since it is very important that not only the teacher communicates with the “non-speaking” child, but also other students. If using the communication tab-
faces or a communication notebook, the child will be able to communicate with his comrades, this will be the greatest achievement.
Using pictograms, children can communicate their needs (“I want to drink”, “I want to go to the toilet”, “I want to be alone”, “I want to listen to music”). Using pictograms, students talk about an event, for example, how they spent their weekends or vacations (Fig. 25).
Communication cards, tables or notebooks are compiled individually for each student who needs them. The number of symbols used can increase as their meanings are learned, and this circle expands in the direction from symbols denoting vital concepts (toilet, drink, hurt, bad, cold) to symbols of a wide variety of things that are within the circle of interests of a child or teenager.
In a qualitative analysis of “pictogram” images, the factor of abstractness, the factor of individual significance, the content of the picture, the factor of “standardness” and the factor of “adequacy” are taken into account. Since in a qualitative analysis it is necessary to give an unambiguous assessment of each image, accessible for formalization, each category of “pictogram” images is assigned short letter designations. A summary table of these notations is given in the appendix.
A. Abstractness factor.Specific images- K. The general quality of this group of images is their correlation with a specific situation. A direct image of a situation associated with the concept is a specific photographic image (K-Ft), for example, a warrior walking with a grenade towards a tank for the concept of “feat”, a lover with a bouquet of flowers under his watch for the concept of “deception”.
The majority of drawings containing an image of an entire human figure belong to specific images. Despite the relative economy" of the image, for example, a person digging for the concept of "hard work", the subject here also depicts a specific situation - a person is working.
All individually significant images are also specific, regardless of the nature of the image, since in them the subject refers to a specific situation from his experience. Thus, test subject L. draws a doll, a book and a gramophone record for the concept of “deception,” since she uses these objects “when feeding a child in order to deceive him.”
Finally, some of the “pictogram” images, being specific, do not have significant connections with the proposed concept; the connection is “confabulated” by the subject. The most common such images (specific confabulatory ones - K - Kf) are related to the concept of “doubt”. Subject S. draws a stool for this concept. Explanation: “I doubt whether this stool is made of wood or plastic.”
Attributive images - At. These images are selected on the basis of belonging and attribution. Thus, the concept of a “merry holiday” is depicted with a flag, a glass, and a carnival mask. There is no longer an attempt to directly depict the concept or the situation associated with it. Most attributive images are economical in terms of visual means.
Metaphorical images - M. This category includes images where an essentially abstract association is expressed indirectly, through a specific object. In most cases, the connection is metaphorical in nature; it may be based on a literary image. Examples of these images are a crossed out clock for the concept of “happiness” (“happy people don’t watch clocks”), an index finger and an arrow around it for the concept of “deception” (“to circle one’s finger”). A metaphor can be created by the subject directly during the study. Thus, subject A. draws a corkscrew for the concept of “doubt” (“doubt, like a corkscrew, screws into you and does not allow you to live in peace”).
Geometric, graphic and grammatical symbols - G.S. Here the abstract association also corresponds to the method of its expression - a symbol that has a meaningful connection with the concept. Often these symbols reflect spatial characteristics - direction, symmetry. Such symbols have a high specificity for the concept (arrows diverging to the sides for the concept of “separation”, an axis of symmetry for the concept of “justice”). Other symbols reflect only the emotional component of the concept - symbols of valence (the “-” sign for the concept of disease, dark shading for the concept of “deception”).
Symbols can be generally accepted, or less commonly, they are produced during the course of the study. The basis for classifying an image as a symbol is precisely the abstract type of association, and not the geometric nature of the image. Thus, subject V., for the concept of “doubt,” drew a circle divided in half, one half of which is shaded. Explanation - "I doubt whether it is black or white." Based on the level of abstraction, this image should be classified as concrete (confabulatory).
b. Factor of individual importance. The evaluation of images taken from the individual experience of the subjects is of considerable interest. The very fact of direct appeal to personal experience is important. It is in the individually significant images of the “pictogram” that the projective elements of the method are most directly realized. In these images, subjects directly talk about their interests, desires, and intentions. Individually significant images can project the current experiences of patients, including delusional ideas and suicidal tendencies. Individually significant images are heterogeneous in nature.
Individually significant personified images - Ind. Ps. Personified images should include those that depict the subject himself, a scene with his participation, a part of his body, and, less often, images of other specific individuals.
Thus, subject K., whose right leg is amputated, draws a picture of a person without a leg in response to the concept of “disease.” Patient S., in response to the concept of “deception,” draws a portrait of a doctor who promised to discharge him and did not fulfill his promise.
Sometimes personified images have a clear kinesthetic coloring (Ind. - Book). The meaning of the concept in this case is conveyed precisely by the pose and movement of the person. Most images depicting a person in motion lack individual significance, and therefore are not truly kinesthetic. This is especially true for the transmission of facial movements (a sad facial expression in response to the concept of “sadness” is an attributive image devoid of individual significance).
It is necessary to directly indicate to the subject that the movement is associated with his individual experience. As in the Rorschach test, subjects often show movement before starting to draw, which is a sign that the image is kinesthetic.
Individually significant stimulus images - Ind. - WITH. These images do not contain the image of a person. These are images of objects that “stir up” the subjects’ memory!) of a specific situation from their individual experience associated with the proposed concept.
Thus, subject Sh., who is fond of mountaineering, draws mountains based on the concept of “happiness.” Explanation - “I usually get a feeling of happiness in the mountains.”
Subject N. draws a letter on the concept of “separation”. Explanation: “I am separated from my family, but letters help me a lot.”
Formally chosen images - F. This group includes images that lack individual significance.
Below we limit ourselves to listing the most significant analytical categories. The detailed content of the “pictogram” images according to the set used is given in the auxiliary tables at the end of the guidelines.
Scenes with human participation - Sc., human figures - Ch., parts (details) of the human body - Ch. D., small parts of the human body rarely found in the “pictogram” (eyes, mouth, feet, etc.) - Ch. d., inanimate objects - N.O., fauna - Fn., flora - Fl., landscapes - P., architecture, art - I., symbols - S.
d. Selection frequency factor. This purely statistical criterion indicates the relative frequency of choice in the protocols of healthy subjects. Given the natural frequency distribution of choices, it is advisable to classify the “icon” image into one of three categories:
Standard images - Art.- occur more often than in 20 out of 100 protocols.
Original images - Orig.- occur less frequently than in 2 out of 100 protocols.
Repetitive images occupy an intermediate position in frequency between “standard” and “original”. They do not have a letter designation.
Detailed information about the frequency distribution of images is also contained in the supporting tables.
d. Adequacy factor. The adequacy of the image of a “pictogram” is a complex qualitative factor, including the substantive proximity of the image and concept, moderate abstractness, brevity of the image and explanation. At the same time, one should proceed not only from theoretical assumptions, but also from actually obtained data - which “pictogram” images are naturally chosen by mentally healthy people. An image that falls into the category of “repetitive” should not be classified as inadequate. Adequate images are indicated by the sign “+”, and inadequate ones “-” (Orig. -).
e. Formalized assessment of “pictogram” images. Based on a qualitative analysis of the “pictogram” image, a formalized assessment is carried out on all factors. Here are some examples. The concept of "victory". Fireworks are depicted. Explanation: “Fireworks happen on Victory Day.” The choice is attributive, without individual significance, a fireworks display is depicted, the choice is standard, adequate. Formalized assessment: At. Art. + Fireworks. Another example (from the study protocol of a patient suffering from schizophrenia). The concept of "hard work". A triangle is shown. Explanation: “In our department, three people do hard work - the chief, his deputy and me.” A specific choice (despite the geometric nature of the image), individually significant, original, inadequate. Formalized assessment: K. Ind. Orig. - C. The auxiliary tables provide a formalized assessment of all standard and repetitive, as well as some “original” (both adequate and inadequate) images for the set of concepts we use. In the initial period of working with the method, these tables can serve as a practical guide for a pathopsychologist.
Methodology for studying the characteristics of thinking, mediated memory, and the affective and personal sphere. It was proposed as a method of experimental psychological research in the early 30s.
Pictogram (from Latin pictus - drawn, Greek grapho - writing).
Usually the subject is offered a certain number of words or expressions to memorize, and for each of them he needs to draw any image or sign, that is, write down a number of concepts pictographically. Concepts of varying degrees of generality are used as stimuli, and mainly those whose direct depiction is difficult or impossible (for example, “happy holiday”, “warm wind”, “deception”, “justice”, etc.).
A feature of the instructions is that the subject is oriented towards studying only the features of memory, as well as the prohibition of using any letter designations. After completing the drawings, the subject must name the corresponding concepts or expressions. One of the most important elements of the study is conversation, which allows one to reveal the meaning of the symbols produced by the subject. The examination time is not regulated.
If, when using the version of the pictogram according to A. N. Leontiev, the choice of the subject was limited to 30 images included in the set of cards (at the same time, in the process of completing tasks, the number of possible options decreased), then the only factor limiting the choice of image in the version with free drawing is intellectual -associative foundation of the subject’s personality, his affective attitudes. Thus, the nature of the subject’s activity and the ability to interpret the drawing bring the test closer to projective techniques.
Another feature that expands the interpretive focus of the technique is the fact that mediated memorization reflects both mnemonic and intellectual processes (A. R. Luria, 1962). The construction of an image suitable for memorization is a consequence of the creative activity of thinking, which reflects its individual structure (S. V. Longinova, S. Ya. Rubinstein, 1972). Hence there are ample opportunities for studying thinking, primarily the process of generalization. (It is no coincidence that the first studies using pictograms (G.V. Birenbaum, 1934) were devoted to the analysis of the thinking characteristics of patients with mental illness, since constructing a pictogram involves significant mental effort and is inaccessible with intellectual disability).
In Soviet psychology, the technique was used in the context of studying mediated memorization within the framework of the cultural-historical concept (L. S. Vygotsky, 1935). The simplest method of pictographic research was proposed by L. V. Zankov (1935). The subjects were asked to remember a specific word using a specific image in a picture, by establishing a connection between the word and the presented image. The version of the test proposed by A. N. Leontyev (1930) required a more complex activity: choosing a picture from a proposed set to remember a word. This version of the test is widely used, especially in clinical studies of children (A. Ya. Ivanova, E. S. Mandrusova, 1970; L. V. Bondareva, 1969; L. V. Petrenko, 1976).
Currently, there is a tendency to develop and improve the interpretive scheme of the methodology, taking into account various categories of indicators under study and providing for the formalization of data. This expands the capabilities of the technique, which previously allowed only a qualitative generalized interpretation of the results, and is the basis for standardizing indicators, which brings the test closer to modern psychodiagnostic methods.
One of the most complete schemes for analyzing pictogram data is the interpretive scheme of B. G. Khersonsky (1988). The interpretation consists of a qualitative analysis of each image, followed by a formalized assessment based on assignment to a specific type; assessing the quantitative ratio of images of various types in a given protocol; taking into account analytical factors that are inaccessible to formalization (special phenomena), including graphic features of the drawing. Qualitative analysis takes into account: the theme of the drawing, factors of abstractness (concrete images, metaphorical images, geometric, graphic and grammatical symbols, individually significant images, formal images). Additionally, drawings are assessed by the factor of frequency (standard, original, repetitive) and by the factor of adequacy (proximity of the image and concept, degree of generality, conciseness of the image). The special phenomena recorded include: consonance associations; hyper-abstract symbolism; undifferentiated images; "shock" reactions; use of letter symbols; stereotypies; statements of subjects, etc.
The graphic features of the drawing are analyzed taking into account the location on the sheet of paper, the nature of the lines, size, pressure, etc. Differential diagnostic criteria for assessing rictograms, obtained on the basis of comparison of contingents of sick and healthy individuals, are identified. There are norms that are both statistical and descriptive in nature.
The construct validity of the standardized pictogram form was analyzed based on a comparison of the data obtained with the Rorschach test, projective drawing tests, in particular verbal methods for studying thinking. Criterion (current) validity was determined by comparing the results of patients with various mental illnesses and healthy people.
The pictogram is one of the most widely used methods for studying the cognitive sphere and personality in domestic clinical psychodiagnostics.
Analysis
Features of the event.
A set of words
- Fun party
- Development
- Hard work
- Winter day
- Parting
- Easy job
- Disease
- Happiness
- Deception
- Poverty
The subject is not given any restrictions regarding the completeness and content of the image, as well as regarding the materials used: color, size, time.
Processing and interpretation order.
When processing experimental data, not only the indicators of all four criteria are taken into account, but also procedural issues (ease of completing a task, emotional attitude towards it, need for more space, etc.).
Evaluation criteria:
1. The most important criterion is “ adequacy" Sometimes one drawing is enough to evaluate, sometimes it is necessary to obtain additional information from its author. If the connection between the proposed concept and its pictogram is justified, the expert puts a “+” sign; if there is no connection, the expert puts a “-” sign. The norm is characterized by high indicators of the adequacy criterion - from 70% and above.
2. Some time after completing the task - usually 15-20 minutes - the expert checks the subject’s ability to reconstruct the list of initial concepts from his own pictograms. Usually, for this purpose, the list of concepts is closed, and the subject is randomly asked to restore them. If the subject used the same pictograms to convey different concepts, he makes mistakes and all sorts of inaccuracies such as synonymy, abbreviation of a complex concept, confusion. Like the first criterion, the second criterion - “recoverability of concepts after a delayed period” - is normally quite high, from 80% and above. By this indicator one can judge the role of memory in thinking. Some researchers considered its role to be so important that, for example, Blonsky even defined intelligence as memory, that is, in his thinking he focused primarily on the memorability of features.
3. The third criterion - “concreteness - abstractness” - is also assessed by the expert according to the degree of correspondence of the pictogram to the real object. If this correspondence is as specific as possible (for example, a cheerful holiday is depicted in the form of a feast with specific guests and table settings), then the expert evaluates the pictogram with 1 point. If the image is quite abstract in nature (for example, the same cheerful holiday is depicted as a series of exclamation marks), then the pictogram is scored 3 points. There may also be mixed images that are difficult to classify as extreme types. In this case, they receive a score of 2 points. Expert assessments are then summed up and average data are calculated, which normally correspond to a value of 2 points.
Test "PICTOGRAM" (according to Torrance)
The purpose of the technique: to identify individual characteristics of figurative representations and the productivity of indirect memorization of words and phrases. The technique makes it possible to identify the features of the development of a person’s figurative sphere, the types of visual images used, to develop figurative fantasy and imagination, which makes it possible to use it where creative activity is leading.
Materials: To carry out the technique, you need a blank sheet of paper and a pen.
Instructions: “You have to remember a list of words and phrases. To memorize, you can use the technique of sketching, that is, draw some image, which will then allow you to remember a particular word or phrase. Reproduction of words and phrases based on pictograms is performed with a delay of at least 30 minutes. After the break, remember and write down those words and phrases that were presented to you.”
To check your understanding of the instructions, it is advisable to make a drawing, for example, to remember the phrase “Happy Holiday”. If the instructions are clear, then you can proceed to the main stage of work. To remember, you can use the following list of words and phrases: 1) happy holiday; 2) delicious dinner; 3) coward boy; 4) joy; 5) hope; 6) love; 7) despair; 8) deaf old woman; 9) difficult conversation; 10) my profession; 11) fear; 12) development.
Depending on the diagnostic tasks, you can include those words or phrases for which you need to obtain figurative representations.
Processing the results. As a result of the technique, you get various images drawn in a column or in lines, which, when processed, are divided into 5 main types.
1. Abstract images (A)- these are hatches, lines or geometric shapes, the meaning of which can only be deciphered by the person who drew them (Fig. 3.5).
2. Sign-symbolic images (3)- these are drawings of relatively regular geometric shapes, among which well-known symbols are often found, for example, for the word “Love” - a heart, for the phrase “Deaf old woman” - a crossed out ear (Fig. 3.6).
3. Specific images (K) - usually contain specific objects or phenomena, for example, the phrase “Happy Holiday” depicts a festive table, “Coward Boy” - panties, despair - tears from the eyes, etc. (Fig. 3.7).
4. Subject images (C)- these are images of any actions and characters associated with a certain situation. For example, for the word “Game” they depict players playing ball, a group that went for a walk, etc. (Fig. 3.8).
5. Metaphorical images (M)- this is the designation of a given word or phrase through a metaphor, “allegory”, artistic image, for example, two burning candles are drawn for the word “Love”, diverging hands are drawn for the word “Friendship”, symbolizing the duality of friendship, etc. (Fig. 3.9).
https://pandia.ru/text/78/257/images/image002_234.jpg" width="390 height=530" height="530"> Fig. 3.6. symbolic images
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Rice. 3.8. Subject images in pictograms
Differentiation" href="/text/category/differentciya/" rel="bookmark">differentiation of drawings. Carefully look through all the drawings and next to each drawing write the letter corresponding to the initial letter of the name of the type of image (A, 3, K, C, M) In case of difficulties in correlating drawings to one type or another, which often happens when defining a metaphorical image, put two letters, for example, MK, which means the metaphor is made on the basis of a specific image, MC - a metaphor based on a plot image.
To more accurately differentiate drawings by type of image, some experience is required, so you should practice and view the pictograms several times.
2. Image counting stage. Count how many images have been completed, and then the number of images by type (Table 5).
Table 5.
Number of images by type:
Total images
Number of verbal reproductions
Number of correct plays
3. Interpretation stage. Interpretation can be made based on the predominance of image types.
A). If such types of images as “abstract” and “sign-symbolic” dominate, then a person can be classified as a “mental type”, and one that organizes his thought process in the direction of generalization. These are people who can be critical of certain situations, form certain judgments about them, and draw appropriate conclusions (see characteristics of the “thinking type” according to C. Jung).
b). If “specific” images dominate, then this most often refers to a goal-oriented person, focused on a specific activity, a clear end result. Typically, such drawings correlate with the “Leader” type, identified by the “Constructive drawing of men from geometric shapes” test.
V). With the dominance of “plot” and “metaphorical” images, we can talk about the presence of artistic abilities. With the grace and conciseness of the drawings, one can judge the artistic talent of a person, his fantasy and imagination.
G). In the absence of a pronounced predominance of certain types of images, we can say that a person has a “mixed” psychological type, which is characterized by various manifestations in behavior and activity.
The interpretation of the “Pictogram” technique can be carried out according to G. Reed’s scheme and K. Jung’s typology. In this case, it will be possible to identify the dynamics of changes in the type of image and psychological type and thereby the degree of stability and variability of typological characteristics. In this case, each image in the pictogram is marked with the type of drawing according to the “Free Drawing” test.
The “Pictogram” technique allows:
1) determine the quantitative predominance of image forms, among which the following five can be distinguished: abstract, iconic-symbolic, concrete, plot and metaphorical;
2) identify the possibilities of mediated memory and count the number of errors during reproduction;
3) identify the features of figurative representations of certain socially significant concepts;
4) determine the psychological type of personality - thinking, artistic or practically oriented. At the same time, the predominance of “abstract” and “sign-symbolic” images corresponds to the mental type; artistic - “plot” and “metaphorical”, and practical - “concrete” images.
Methodology "How to save a bunny"
Base. The supra-situational-transformative nature of creative solutions.
Target. Assessment of ability and transformation of a choice task into a transformation task in conditions of transferring the properties of a familiar object to a new situation.
Material. Bunny figurine, saucer, bucket, wooden stick. deflated balloon, sheet of paper.
Instructions for carrying out.
In front of the child, on the table there is a bunny figurine, a saucer, a bucket, a stick, a deflated balloon and a sheet of paper. Psychologist, picking up a bunny: “Meet this bunny. Once such a story happened to him. The bunny decided to sail on a boat on the sea and sailed far, far from the shore. And then a storm began, huge waves appeared, and the bunny began to drown. Help "Only you and I can help the bunny. We have several objects for this), the psychologist draws the child's attention to the objects laid out on the table). What would you choose to save the bunny?"
Data processing.
During the examination, the nature of the child’s answers and their rationale are recorded. Data are assessed using a three-point system.
First level. The child chooses a saucer or bucket, as well as a stick that can be used to lift the bunny from the bottom, without going beyond a simple choice; the child tries to use objects in their finished form, to mechanically transfer their properties to a new situation. Score – 1 point.
Second level. A solution with an element of simple symbolism, when a child suggests using a stick as a log on which the bunny can swim to the shore. In this case, the child again does not go beyond the choice situation. Score – 2 points.
Third level. To save the bunny, it is suggested to use a deflated balloon or a sheet of paper. For this purpose, you need to inflate a balloon (“A bunny on a balloon can fly away”) or make a boat out of a sheet. For children at this level, there is an orientation toward the transformation of available objective material. They independently turn the original choice task into a transformation task, which indicates the child’s supra-situational approach to it. Score – 3 points.
"Plant" technique
Base. Children's experimentation.
Target. Assessing the ability to experiment with transforming objects.
Material. A wooden plank, which is a hinged connection of four smaller square links (the size of each link is 15*15 cm)
Instructions for carrying out.
The unfolded board lies in front of the child on the table. Psychologist: “Now let’s play with this board. This is not a simple board, but a magical one: you can bend and unfold it, then it becomes like something. Try to do this.”
As soon as the child folds the board for the first time, the psychologist stops him and asks: “What did you do? What does this board look like now?”
Having heard the child’s answer, the psychologist turns to him again: “How else can you fold it? What does it look like? Try again.” And so on until the child stops on his own.
Data processing.
When processing the data, the number of non-repeating responses of the child is assessed (naming the shape of the resulting object as a result of folding the board (“garage”, “boat”, etc.), one point for each name. The maximum number of points is not initially limited.
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