The first campaign of the Polovtsians against Rus'. The struggle of Russian princes with the Polovtsians (XI-XIII centuries)

The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void that sooner or later someone had to fill. From the second half of the 11th century, the Polovtsians became the new masters of the steppes. From this time on, a titanic

Russian-Polovtsian wrestling

, which was fought on the broadest front from the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in its scale, it stretched over a century and a half and had a significant impact on destinies Old Russian state.

Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsians did not set the goal of seizing Russian territories, but limited themselves to robberies and deportation. And the population ratio Ancient Rus' and the steppe nomads were far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, approximately 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while the Polovtsians numbered several hundred thousand.

The Russians had to fight the Polovtsy under new historical conditions of collapse single state. Now, squads of individual principalities usually participated in the war with nomads. The boyars were free to choose their place of service and could move to another prince at any time. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and weapons. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsians were directly related to internal political changes in the Old Russian state. Over the course of a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsians became allies of princes engaged in internecine struggle.

Russian-Polovtsian wars

can be roughly divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the 11th century, the second is associated with the activities of the prince, the third falls on the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries.

Wars with the Cumans, first stage (second half of the 11th century)

The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, a new raid was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod of Pereyaslav came out to meet him.

Battle of the Alta River (1068). The opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsians turned out to be more successful and defeated the Russians, who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a rebellion in Kyiv, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The Polovtsian invasion was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who with a small retinue boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the 11th century, chronicles are silent about major raids, but the “small war” continued periodically.

Battle of Stugna (1093). The onslaught of the Polovtsians especially intensified in the 90s of the 11th century. In 1092, nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also destroyed many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. The Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous in the raids of the 90s. In 1093, Polovtsian troops besieged the city of Torchesk. The Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich came out to meet them with a squad of 800 soldiers. Along the way, he united with the troops of princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But having joined forces, the princes were unable to develop joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, citing a lack of strength, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsians. In the end, the passionate Svyatopolk, wanting victory, won over the majority to his side. On May 24, the Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by superior Polovtsian forces. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. Many died in the stormy waters from the rains (including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsians captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay them tribute and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Tugorkan.

Battle of Trubezh (1096). Svyatopolk's marriage to a Polovtsian princess briefly tempered the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the battle of Stugna, raids resumed with new strength. Moreover, this time the southern princes were unable to agree on joint actions at all, since the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich avoided the fight and preferred to conclude not only peace, but also an alliance with the Polovtsians. With the help of the Polovtsians, he expelled the prince from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, who in the summer of 1095 had to repel the raids of nomads alone. The next year, Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and besieged his army in Starodub. The Polovtsians immediately took advantage of this discord and moved towards Rus' on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kyiv, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl.

Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak near Kyiv, they crossed the Dnieper and, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians quickly forded the Trubezh River and attacked Tugorkan’s army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the persecution, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (father-in-law of Svyatopolk) along with his son and other noble military leaders.

Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the departure of the princes for the Dnieper, almost captured Kyiv in an unexpected raid. The Polovtsians plundered and burned the Pechersky Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After successfully repelling this raid, the Torci and other border steppe tribes began to join the Russians. The victory on the banks of Trubezh had great importance in the rise of the military star, who becomes a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.

Wars with the Cumans, second stage (second half of the 12th century)

The external threat made it possible to temporarily slow down the process of disintegration of state unity. In 1103 he convinced Svyatopolk to organize a large-scale campaign against the nomads. From this time on, the offensive stage of the fight against the Polovtsians began, the inspiration of which became. The campaign of 1103 was the largest military operation against the Cumans. The armed forces of seven princes took part in it. The combined troops on boats and on foot reached the Dnieper rapids and turned from there into the depths of the steppes, to the town of Suten, where one of the large groups of nomads led by Khan Urusoba was located. It was decided to set out in early spring, before the Polovtsian horses had time to gain strength after a long winter. The Russians destroyed the advanced patrols of the Polovtsians, which ensured the surprise of the attack.

Battle of Suteni (1103). The battle between the Russians and the Cumans took place on April 4, 1103. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian vanguard, led by the hero Altunopa, and completely destroyed it. Then, encouraged by success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted complete defeat on them. According to the chronicle, never before have the Russians won such a famous victory over the Polovtsians. In the battle, almost the entire Polovtsian elite was destroyed - Urusoba and nineteen other khans. Many Russian prisoners were released. This victory marked the beginning of Russian offensive actions against the Polovtsians.

Battle of Luben (1107). Three years later, the Polovtsians, having recovered from the blow, made a new raid. They captured a lot of booty and prisoners, but on the way back they were overtaken by Svyatopolk’s squads across the Sula River and defeated. In May 1107, Khan Bonyak invaded the Pereyaslav Principality. He captured herds of horses and besieged the city of Luben. A princely coalition led by princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came out to meet the invaders.

On August 12, they crossed the Sulu River and decisively attacked the Cumans. They did not expect such a rapid onslaught and fled from the battlefield, abandoning their convoy. The Russians pursued them all the way to the Khorol River and captured many prisoners. Despite the victory, the princes did not seek to continue the war, but tried to establish peaceful relations with the nomads. This, in particular, was evidenced by the fact that after the Battle of Luben, Russian princes Oleg married their sons to Polovtsian princesses.

Battle of Salnitsa (1111). However, hopes that family ties would strengthen Russian-Polovtsian ties and bring peace with the nomads did not materialize. Two years later, hostilities resumed. Then Monomakh again convinced the princes to unite for joint action. He again proposed a plan of offensive action and transfer of the war into the depths of the Polovtsian steppes, characteristic of his military strategy. Monomakh managed to achieve coordination of actions from the princes and in 1111 he organized a campaign that became the pinnacle of his military successes.

The Russian army set out in the snow. The infantry, to which he attached special importance, rode on sleighs. After four weeks of campaigning, Monomakh’s army reached the Donets River. Never since the time of Svyatoslav had the Russians gone so far into the steppe. The two largest Polovtsian strongholds were taken - the cities of Sugrov and Sharukan. Having freed many prisoners there and captured rich booty, Monomakh’s army set off on the return journey. However, the Polovtsians did not want to release the Russians alive from their possessions. On March 24, the Polovtsian cavalry blocked the path of the Russian army. After a short fight she was driven back.
Two days later the Polovtsy tried again.

The decisive battle took place on March 26 on the banks of the Salnitsa River. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir and Davyd. The Polovtsians suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, heavenly angels helped Russian soldiers defeat their enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Cumans. She contributed to the growth of popularity of the protagonist of the campaign, the news of which reached “even Rome.”

After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk in 1113, the Polovtsian khans Aepa and Bonyak carried out a major raid in the hope of internal unrest. The Polovtsian army besieged the Vyr fortress. But having learned about the approach of the Russian squads, it hastily retreated without accepting the battle. Apparently, the factor of the moral superiority of Russian soldiers had an effect.

In 1113, he took the Kiev throne. During his reign (1113-1125), the fight against the Cumans was carried out exclusively on their territory. In 1116, the Russian princes, under the command of the son of Yaropolk (an active participant in previous campaigns), moved deep into the Don steppes and again captured Sharukan and Sugrov. Another center of the Polovtsians, the town of Balin, was also taken. After this campaign, Polovtsian dominance in the steppes came to an end. When Yaropolk undertook another “preventive” campaign in 1120, the steppes were empty. By that time the Polovtsians had already migrated to North Caucasus, away from Russian borders. The northern Black Sea region was cleared of aggressive nomads, and Russian farmers could safely harvest their crops. This was a period of revival of state power, which brought peace and tranquility to the lands Ancient Rus'.

Wars with the Cumans, third stage (second half of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century)

After his death, Khan Atrak dared to return to the Don steppes from Georgia. But the Polovtsian raid on the southern Russian borders was repelled by Prince Yaropolk. However, soon the descendants of Monomakh were removed from power in Kyiv by Vsevolod Olgovich - a descendant of another grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Oleg Svyatoslavovich. This prince entered into an alliance with the Cumans and used them as a military force in his campaigns against the Galician princes and Poland. After the death of Vsevolod in 1146, a struggle for the Kiev throne broke out between princes Izyaslav Mstislavovich and Yuri Dolgoruky. During this period, the Polovtsians began to actively participate in internecine warfare.

Here the regiments of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa distinguished themselves. Thus, he led Polovtsian troops to Kyiv five times, trying to capture the capital of Ancient Rus'.
Years of strife nullified efforts to protect Russian borders. The weakening of the military power of the ancient Russian state allowed the Polovtsians to strengthen themselves and create a large unification of tribes in the 70s of the 12th century. It was headed by Khan Konchak, whose name is associated with a new surge in the Russian-Polovtsian confrontation. Konchak constantly fought with the Russian princes, plundering the southern borderland. The areas around Kyiv, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov were subjected to the most brutal raids. The Polovtsian onslaught intensified after Konchak’s victory over the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185.

Campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The background to this famous campaign, sung in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” is as follows. In the summer of 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, at the head of a princely coalition, launched a campaign against the Polovtsians and inflicted a crushing defeat on them in the Battle of the Orel River on July 30. 7 thousand Polovtsians were captured, including their leader, Khan Kobyak, who was executed as punishment for previous raids. Khan Konchak decided to take revenge for the death of Kobyak. He came to the borders of Rus' in February 1185, but was defeated in the battle on March 1 on the Khorol River by the troops of Svyatoslav. It seemed like times were returning. Another joint blow was needed to completely crush the revived Polovtsian power.

However, this time history did not repeat itself. The reason for this was the inconsistency in the actions of the princes. Under the influence of Svyatoslav’s successes, his ally, Prince of Novgorod-Seversk Igor Svyatoslavich, together with his brother Vsevolod, decided to receive the laurels of a triumph without anyone’s help and set off on a campaign on their own. Igor's army of approximately 6 thousand people moved deep into the steppes and found themselves alone with all the forces of Konchak, who did not miss the chance given to him by the reckless prince.

Having retreated after the vanguard battle, the Polovtsians, following all the rules of their tactics, lured the Russian army into a trap and surrounded it with much superior forces. Igor decided to fight his way back to the Seversky Donets River. We must note the nobility of the brothers. Having cavalry to break through, they did not abandon their infantry to the mercy of fate, but ordered the mounted warriors to dismount and fight on foot, so that they could all fight their way out of the encirclement together. “If we run, kill ourselves, and leave ordinary people behind, then it will be a sin for us to hand them over to the enemies; we will either die or live together,” the princes decided. The battle between Igor's squad and the Polovtsians took place on May 12, 1185. Before the battle, Igor addressed the soldiers with the words: “Brothers! This is what we were looking for, so let us dare. Shame is worse than death!”
The fierce battle lasted three days. On the first day, the Russians repelled the Polovtsian onslaught. But the next day one of the regiments could not stand it and ran. Igor rushed to the retreating forces to return them to the line, but was captured. The bloody battle continued even after the prince was captured. Finally, the Polovtsians, due to their numbers, managed to grind down the entire Russian army. The death of a large army exposed a significant line of defense and, in the words of Prince Svyatopolk, “opened the gates to Russian land.” The Polovtsy were not slow to take advantage of their success and carried out a series of raids on the Novgorod-Seversky and Pereyaslavl lands.

The grueling struggle with the nomads, which lasted for centuries, cost enormous victims. Due to constant raids, the fertile outskirts of the southern regions of Rus' were depopulated, which contributed to their decline. Constant military operations in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region led to the shift of old trade routes to the Mediterranean region. Kievan Rus, which was a transit corridor from Byzantium to Northern and Central Europe, henceforth remains aloof from new routes. Thus, the Polovtsian raids not least contributed to the decline of Southern Rus' and the movement of the center of the Old Russian state to the northeast, to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

By the early 90s of the 12th century, the raids subsided, but after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav in 1194, a new period of strife began, into which the Polovtsians were also drawn. The geography of their attacks is expanding. The Polovtsians made repeated raids on the Ryazan principality. By the way, the Ryazan prince Roman “with his brethren” organized the last major Russian campaign in history against the Polovtsians in April 1206. During this period, the Polovtsians are already completely moving to the second stage of nomadism - with permanent winter roads and summer roads. The beginning of the 13th century is characterized by a gradual attenuation of their military activity. The chronicle dates the last Polovtsian raid on Russian lands (the vicinity of Pereyaslavl) to 1210. Further development of Russian-Polovtsian relations was interrupted by a hurricane from the east, as a result of which both the Polovtsians and Kievan Rus disappeared.

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The Polovtsians belonged to the nomadic tribes. According to various sources, they also had other names: Kipchaks and Komans. The Polovtsian people belonged to the Turkic-speaking tribes. At the beginning of the 11th century, they expelled the Pechenegs and Torques from the Black Sea steppes. Then they headed to the Dnieper, and upon reaching the Danube they became the owners of the steppe, which became known as the Polovtsian steppe. The religion of the Polovtsians was Tengriism. This religion is based on the cult of Tengri Khan (the eternal sunshine of the sky).

The daily life of the Polovtsians was practically no different from other tribal peoples. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. By the end of the 11th century, the type of Polovtsian nomadism changed from camp to more modern. Each individual part of the tribe was assigned plots of land for pastures.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsians made constant raids on Russian lands. The struggle between Rus' and the Polovtsians lasted quite a long time. There were about 46 major raids on Rus', and this does not take into account smaller ones.

The first battle of Rus' with the Cumans was on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, they burned the surrounding area and robbed the nearest villages. In 1068, the Cumans defeated the troops of the Yaroslavichs, in 1078 Izyaslav Yaroslavich died in a battle with them, in 1093 the Cumans defeated the troops of 3 princes: Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and Rostislav, and in 1094 they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. Subsequently, several retaliatory campaigns were made. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the fight against Russia. In 1103 they were defeated by Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh, then they served King David the Builder in the Caucasus.

The final defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh and a Russian army of many thousands occurred as a result of the crusade in 1111. To avoid final destruction, the Polovtsians changed their place of nomadism, moving across the Danube, and most of their troops, along with their families, went to Georgia. All these “all-Russian” campaigns against the Polovtsians were led by Vladimir Monomakh. After his death in 1125, the Cumans took an active part in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, participating in the defeat of Kyiv as allies in 1169 and 1203.

The next campaign against the Polovtsy, also referred to as the massacre of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsy, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” took place in 1185. This campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich was an example of one of the unsuccessful ones. After some time, some of the Polovtsians converted to Christianity, and a period of calm began in the Polovtsian raids.

The Polovtsians ceased to exist as an independent, politically developed people after the European campaigns of Batu (1236 - 1242) and made up the majority of the population of the Golden Horde, passing on to them their language, which formed the basis for the formation of other languages ​​(Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Kazakh, Karakalpak , Kumyk and others).

Polovtsy (11-13th centuries) are a nomadic people of Turkic origin, who became one of the main serious political opponents of the princes of Ancient Rus'.

At the beginning of the 11th century. The Polovtsians moved out from the Volga region, where they had lived before, towards the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pecheneg and Torque tribes along the way. After crossing the Dnieper, they reached the lower reaches of the Danube, occupying vast territories of the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh. During the same period, the steppes occupied by the Polovtsians began to be called the Polovtsian steppes (in Russian chronicles) and Dasht-i-Kypchak (in the chronicles of other peoples).

Name of the people

The people also have the names “Kipchaks” and “Cumans”. Each term has its own meaning and appeared in special conditions. Thus, the name “Polovtsy”, generally accepted on the territory of Ancient Rus', came from the word “polos”, which means “yellow”, and came into use due to the fact that the early representatives of this people had blond (“yellow”) hair.

The concept of “Kipchak” was first used after a serious internecine war in the 7th century. among the Turkic tribes, when the losing nobility began to call itself “Kipchak” (“ill-fated”). The Polovtsians were called “Cumans” in Byzantine and Western European chronicles.

History of the people

The Polovtsy were an independent people for several centuries, but by the middle of the 13th century. became part of the Golden Horde and assimilated the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, passing on to them part of their culture and their language. Later, on the basis of the Kypchan language (spoken by the Polovtsians), Tatar, Kazakh, Kumyk and many other languages ​​were formed.

The Polovtsians led a life typical of many nomadic peoples. Their main occupation remained cattle breeding. In addition, they were engaged in trade. A little later, the Polovtsians changed their nomadic lifestyle to a more sedentary one; certain parts of the tribe were assigned certain plots of land where people could run their own households.

The Polovtsians were pagans, professed Tangerianism (worship of Tengri Khan, the eternal sunshine of the sky), and worshiped animals (in particular, the wolf was, in the understanding of the Polovtsians, their totem ancestor). In the tribes there lived shamans who performed various rituals of worshiping nature and the earth.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

The Polovtsians are very often mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles, and this is primarily due to their difficult relations with the Russians. Starting from 1061 and until 1210, the Cuman tribes constantly committed cruel acts, plundered villages and tried to seize local territories. In addition to many small raids, one can count about 46 major Cuman raids on Kievan Rus.

The first major battle between the Cumans and the Russians took place on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, when the Cuman tribe raided Russian territories, burned several fields and plundered the villages located there. The Polovtsians quite often managed to defeat the Russian army. So, in 1068 they defeated the Russian army of the Yaroslavichs, and in 1078, during the next battle with the Polovtsian tribes, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich died.

The troops of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh (who later led the all-Russian campaigns of Rus' against the Polovtsians) and Rostislav during the battle in 1093 also fell at the hands of these nomads. In 1094, the Polovtsians went so far as to force Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. However, the Russian princes constantly organized retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians, which sometimes ended quite successfully. In 1096, the Cumans suffered their first defeat in the fight against Kievan Rus. In 1103, they were again defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Svyatopolk and Vladimir and were forced to leave the previously captured territories and go into service in the Caucasus to the local king.

The Polovtsians were finally defeated in 1111 by Vladimir Monomakh and a Russian army of thousands, which launched a crusade against their longtime opponents and invaders of Russian territories. To avoid final ruin, the Polovtsian tribes were forced to go back across the Danube and into Georgia (the tribe was divided). However, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Polovtsians were able to return again and began to repeat their earlier raids, but very quickly went over to the side of the Russian princes fighting among themselves and began to take part in permanent battles on the territory of Rus', supporting one or another prince. Participated in raids on Kyiv.

Another major campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsy, which was reported in the chronicles, took place in 1185. In the famous work “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” this event is called the massacre of the Polovtsy. Unfortunately, Igor's campaign was unsuccessful. He failed to defeat the Polovtsy, but this battle went down in the chronicles. Some time after this event, the raids began to fade away, the Cumans split up, some of them converted to Christianity and mixed with the local population.

The end of the Cuman tribe

The once strong tribe, which caused a lot of inconvenience to the Russian princes, ceased to exist as an independent and independent people around the middle of the 13th century. The campaigns of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Batu led to the fact that the Cumans actually became part of the Golden Horde and (although they did not lose their culture, but, on the contrary, passed it on) ceased to be independent.

By the middle of the 11th century. Kipchak tribes, coming from Central Asia, conquered all the steppe spaces from the Yaik (Ural River) to the Danube, including the north of Crimea and the North Caucasus.

Individual clans, or “tribes,” of the Kipchaks united into powerful tribal unions, the centers of which became primitive wintering cities. The khans who headed such associations could raise tens of thousands of warriors on a campaign, welded together by tribal discipline and posing a terrible threat to neighboring agricultural peoples. The Russian name of the Kipchaks - “Polovtsy” - is believed to have come from the ancient Russian word “polova” - straw, because the hair of these nomads was light, straw-colored.

The first appearance of the Polovtsians in Rus'

In 1061, the Polovtsians first attacked Russian lands and defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. From that time on, for more than a century and a half, they continuously threatened the borders of Rus'. This struggle, unprecedented in its scale, duration and ferocity, occupied an entire period of Russian history. It unfolded along the entire border of forest and steppe - from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians.

Cumans

After spending the winter at sea ​​coasts(in the Azov region), the Polovtsians began to migrate north in the spring and appeared in the forest-steppe regions in May. They attacked more often in the fall to profit from the fruits of the harvest, but the Polovtsian leaders, trying to take the farmers by surprise, constantly changed tactics, and a raid could be expected at any time of the year, in any principality of the steppe borderland. It was very difficult to repel the attacks of their flying detachments: they appeared and disappeared suddenly, before the princely squads or militias of the nearest cities were in place. Usually the Polovtsians did not besiege fortresses and preferred to plunder villages, but even the troops of an entire principality often found themselves powerless before the large hordes of these nomads.

Polovtsian horseman of the 12th century.

Until the 90s. XI century The chronicles report almost nothing about the Polovtsians. However, judging by the memories of Vladimir Monomakh about his youth, given in his “Teachings”, then throughout the 70s and 80s. XI century a “small war” continued on the border: endless raids, pursuits and skirmishes, sometimes with very large forces of nomads.

Cuman offensive

In the early 90s. XI century The Polovtsians, who roamed along both banks of the Dnieper, united for a new attack on Rus'. In 1092, “the army was great from the Polovtsians and from everywhere.” The nomads captured three cities - Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and destroyed many villages on both banks of the Dnieper. The chronicler is eloquently silent about whether any resistance was given to the steppe inhabitants.

The next year, the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich recklessly ordered the arrest of the Polovtsian ambassadors, which gave rise to a new invasion. The Russian army, which came out to meet the Polovtsians, was defeated at Trepol. During the retreat, crossing in a hurry across the Stugna River, which had swollen from the rains, many Russian soldiers drowned, including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Svyatopolk fled to Kyiv, and huge forces of the Polovtsians besieged the city of the Torci, who had settled since the 50s. XI century along the Rosi River, - Torchesk. The Kiev prince, having gathered a new army, tried to help the Torques, but was again defeated, suffering even greater losses. Torchesk defended itself heroically, but in the end the city's water supplies ran out, it was taken by the steppe inhabitants and burned.

Its entire population was driven into slavery. The Polovtsians again ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv, capturing thousands of prisoners, but they apparently failed to plunder the left bank of the Dnieper; he was protected by Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in Chernigov.

In 1094, Svyatopolk, not having the strength to fight the enemy and hoping to get at least a temporary respite, tried to make peace with the Polovtsians by marrying the daughter of Khan Tugorkan - the one whose name the creators of epics over the centuries changed into “Snake Tugarin” or “Tugarin Zmeevich” " In the same year, Oleg Svyatoslavich from the family of Chernigov princes, with the help of the Polovtsians, expelled Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, giving the surroundings of his native city to the allies for plunder.

In the winter of 1095, near Pereyaslavl, the warriors of Vladimir Monomakh destroyed the detachments of two Polovtsian khans, and in February, the troops of the Pereyaslav and Kyiv princes, who have since become permanent allies, made their first trip to the steppe. Chernigov Prince Oleg avoided joint action and preferred to make peace with the enemies of Rus'.

In the summer the war resumed. The Polovtsians besieged the town of Yuryev on the Rosi River for a long time and forced the inhabitants to flee from it. The city was burned. Monomakh successfully defended himself on the eastern bank, winning several victories, but his forces were clearly not enough. The Polovtsians struck in the most unexpected places, and the Chernigov prince established a completely special relationship, hoping to strengthen their own independence and protect their subjects by ruining their neighbors.

In 1096, Svyatopolk and Vladimir, completely enraged by Oleg’s treacherous behavior and his “majestic” (i.e., proud) answers, drove him out of Chernigov and besieged him in Starodub, but at that time large forces of the steppe inhabitants began an offensive on both banks of the Dnieper and immediately broke through to the capitals of the principalities. Khan Bonyak, who led the Azov Polovtsians, attacked Kyiv, and Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl. The troops of the allied princes, having nevertheless forced Oleg to beg for mercy, set off in an accelerated march towards Kiev, but, not finding Bonyak there, who left, avoiding a collision, crossed the Dnieper at Zarub and on July 19, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. Without giving the enemy the opportunity to form up for battle, the Russian soldiers, fording the Trubezh River, struck the Polovtsians. They, without waiting for the fight, ran, dying under the swords of their pursuers. The defeat was complete. Among those killed was Svyatopolk’s father-in-law, Tugorkan.

But on these same days, the Polovtsians almost captured Kyiv: Bonyak, making sure that the troops of the Russian princes had gone to the left bank of the Dnieper, approached Kiev a second time and at dawn tried to suddenly break into the city. For a long time later, the Polovtsians remembered how the annoyed Khan used a saber to cut the gate doors that had slammed shut in front of his very nose. This time the Polovtsy burned the prince's country residence and destroyed the Pechersky Monastery, the most important cultural center of the country. Svyatopolk and Vladimir, who urgently returned to the right bank, pursued Bonyak beyond Ros, all the way to the Southern Bug.

The nomads felt the power of the Russians. From this time on, Torci and other tribes, as well as individual Polovtsian clans, began to come to Monomakh to serve from the steppe. In such a situation, it was necessary to quickly unite the efforts of all Russian lands in the fight against the steppe nomads, as was the case under Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, but different times were coming - an era of inter-princely wars and political fragmentation. The Lyubech congress of princes in 1097 did not lead to agreement; The Polovtsians also took part in the strife that began after him.

The unification of Russian princes to repel the Polovtsians

Only in 1101 did the princes of the southern Russian lands make peace with each other and the very next year “they decided to dare to attack the Polovtsy and go to their lands.” In the spring of 1103, Vladimir Monomakh came to Svyatopolk in Dolobsk and convinced him to set out on a campaign before the start of field work, when the Polovtsian horses, after wintering, had not yet gained strength and were not able to escape pursuit.

Vladimir Monomakh with princes

The united army of seven Russian princes in boats and on horses along the banks of the Dnieper moved to the rapids, from where they turned into the depths of the steppe. Having learned about the enemy’s movement, the Polovtsians sent a patrol - a “watchman”, but Russian intelligence “guarded” it and destroyed it, which allowed the Russian commanders to take full advantage of surprise. The Polovtsy, not ready for battle, fled at the sight of the Russians, despite their enormous numerical superiority. During the pursuit, twenty khans died under Russian swords. Huge booty fell into the hands of the victors: captives, herds, wagons, weapons. Many Russian prisoners were released. One of the two main Polovtsian groups was dealt a heavy blow.

But in 1107 Bonyak, who retained his strength, besieged Luben. The troops of other khans also came here. The Russian army, which this time included the Chernigovites, again managed to take the enemy by surprise. On August 12, suddenly appearing in front of the Polovtsian camp, the Russians rushed to the attack with a battle cry. Without trying to resist, the Polovtsians fled.

After such a defeat, the war moved to enemy territory - to the steppe, but first a split was introduced into its ranks. In winter, Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich went to Khan Aepa and, having made peace with him, became related, marrying their sons Yuri and Svyatoslav to his daughters. At the beginning of the winter of 1109, the governor of Monomakh, Dmitry Ivorovich, reached the Don itself and there captured “a thousand vezhas” - Polovtsian tents, which upset the Polovtsian military plans for the summer.

The second big campaign against the Polovtsians, the soul and organizer of which was again Vladimir Monomakh, was undertaken in the spring of 1111. The warriors set out in the snow. The infantry traveled to the Khorol River in sleighs. Then they walked to the southeast, “passing many rivers.” Four weeks later, the Russian army reached the Donets, donned armor and served a prayer service, after which it headed to the capital of the Polovtsians - Sharukan. Residents of the city did not dare to resist and came out with gifts. The Russian prisoners who were here were freed. A day later, the Polovtsian city of Sugrov was burned, after which the Russian army moved back, surrounded on all sides by strengthening Polovtsian detachments. On March 24, the Polovtsians blocked the way for the Russians, but were repulsed. The decisive battle took place in March on the banks of the small Salnitsa River. In a difficult battle, Monomakh’s regiments broke through the Polovtsian encirclement, allowing the Russian army to escape safely. Prisoners were captured. The Polovtsians did not pursue the Russians, admitting their failure. Vladimir Vsevolodovich attracted many clergy to participate in this campaign, the most significant of all those undertaken by him, giving it the character of a crusade, and achieved his goal. The glory of Monomakh's victory reached “even Rome.”

Old Russian fortress Lyubech from the times of the fight against the Polovtsians. Reconstruction by archaeologists.

However, the forces of the Polovtsy were still far from broken. In 1113, having learned about the death of Svyatopolk, Aepa and Bonyak immediately tried to test the strength of the Russian border by besieging the Vyr fortress, but, having received information about the approach of the Pereyaslavl army, they immediately fled - this was reflected in the psychological turning point in the war achieved during the campaign of 1111 G.

In 1113-1125, when Vladimir Monomakh reigned in Kyiv, the fight against the Cumans took place exclusively on their territory. The victorious campaigns that followed one after another finally broke the resistance of the nomads. In 1116, an army under the command of Yaropolk Vladimirovich - a constant participant in his father’s campaigns and a recognized military leader - defeated the nomadic camps of the Don Polovtsians, taking three of their cities and bringing many prisoners.

Polovtsian rule in the steppes collapsed. An uprising of tribes subject to the Kipchaks began. For two days and two nights, the Torquis and Pechenegs brutally fought with them near the Don, after which, having fought off, they retreated. In 1120, Yaropolk walked with his army far beyond the Don, but did not meet anyone. The steppes were empty. The Polovtsians migrated to the North Caucasus, Abkhazia, and the Caspian Sea.

The Russian plowman lived a quiet life in those years. The Russian border moved south. Therefore, the chronicler considered one of the main merits of Vladimir Monomakh to be the fact that he was “most feared by the filthy” - the pagan Polovtsians were afraid of him more than any of the Russian princes.

Resumption of Polovtsian raids

With the death of Monomakh, the Polovtsians perked up and immediately tried to capture the Torci and plunder the Russian border lands, but were defeated by Yaropolk. However, after the death of Yaropolk, the Monomashichi (descendants of Vladimir Monomakh) were removed from power by Vsevolod Olgovich, a friend of the Polovtsy, who knew how to keep them in his hands. Peace was concluded, and news of Polovtsian raids disappeared from the pages of chronicles for some time. Now the Polovtsians appeared as allies of Vsevolod. Ruining everything in their path, they went with him on campaigns against the Galician prince and even against the Poles.

After Vsevolod, the Kiev throne (reign) went to Izyaslav Mstislavich, the grandson of Monomakh, but now his uncle, Yuri Dolgoruky, began to actively play the “Polovtsian card”. Deciding to get Kyiv at any cost, this prince, the son-in-law of Khan Aepa, brought the Polovtsians to Kyiv five times, plundering even the environs of his native Pereyaslavl. In this he was actively helped by his son Gleb and brother-in-law Svyatoslav Olgovich, Aepa’s second son-in-law. In the end, Yuri Vladimirovich established himself in Kyiv, but he did not have to reign for long. Less than three years later, the people of Kiev poisoned him.

The conclusion of an alliance with some Cuman tribes did not at all mean the end of the raids of their brothers. Of course, the scale of these raids could not be compared with the attacks of the second half of the 11th century, but the Russian princes, more and more preoccupied with strife, could not organize a reliable unified defense of their steppe borders. In such a situation, the Torci and other small nomadic tribes settled along the Rosi River, who were dependent on Kyiv and bore the common name “black hoods” (i.e., hats), turned out to be indispensable. With their help, the warlike Polovtsians were defeated in 1159 and 1160, and in 1162, when the “mnozi Polovtsians” arrived at Yuriev and captured many Torki tents there, the Torki themselves, without waiting for the Russian squads, began to pursue the raiders and, having caught up , recaptured the prisoners and also captured more than 500 Polovtsians.

Constant strife practically negated the results of the victorious campaigns of Vladimir Monomakh. The power of the nomadic hordes weakened, but so did the Russian military force was split - this equalized both sides. However, the cessation of offensive actions against the Kipchaks allowed them to again accumulate forces for the onslaught on Rus'. By the 70s. XII century in the Don steppe a major public education led by Khan Konchak.

Khan Konchak

The emboldened Polovtsians began to rob merchants on the steppe roads (paths) and along the Dnieper. The activity of the Cumans also increased on the borders. One of their army was defeated by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Oleg Svyatoslavich, but near Pereyaslavl they defeated the detachment of the governor Shvarn.

In 1166, the Kiev prince Rostislav sent a detachment of the governor Volodislav Lyakh to escort merchant caravans. Soon Rostislav mobilized the forces of ten princes to protect trade routes.

After the death of Rostislav, Mstislav Izyaslavich became the prince of Kyiv, and already under his leadership in 1168 a new large campaign was organized in the steppe. In early spring, 12 influential princes, including the Olgovichi (descendants of Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich), who had temporarily quarreled with their steppe relatives, responded to Mstislav’s call to “search for their fathers and grandfathers, their paths, and their honor.” The Polovtsians were warned by a defector slave nicknamed Koschey, and they fled, abandoning the “vezhi” with their families. Having learned about this, the Russian princes rushed in pursuit and captured the nomadic camps at the mouth of the Orelya River and along the Samara River, and the Polovtsians themselves, having caught up with the Black Forest, were pressed against it and killed, suffering almost no losses.

In 1169, two hordes of Polovtsy simultaneously on both banks of the Dnieper approached Korsun on the Ros River and Pesochen near Pereyaslavl, and each demanded the Kyiv prince to conclude a peace treaty. Without thinking twice, Prince Gleb Yuryevich rushed to Pereyaslavl, where his 12-year-old son then ruled. The Azov Polovtsians of Khan Togly, who were stationed near Korsun, as soon as they learned that Gleb had crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper, immediately rushed into a raid. Having bypassed the fortified line on the Rosi River, they ravaged the surroundings of the towns of Polonnoye, Semycha and Desyatinnoye in the upper reaches of the Sluch, where the population felt safe. The steppe inhabitants, who fell out of the blue, plundered the villages and drove the captives into the steppe.

Having made peace at Pesochen, Gleb, on the way to Korsun, learned that there was no one there anymore. There were few troops with him, and some of the soldiers had to be sent to intercept the treacherous nomads. Gleb sent his younger brother Mikhalko and governor Volodislav with one and a half thousand serving Berendey nomads and a hundred Pereyaslavl residents to recapture the captives.

Having found the trace of the Polovtsian raid, Mikhalko and Volodislav, showing amazing military leadership, in three successive battles not only recaptured the prisoners, but also defeated the enemy, who was at least ten times superior to them. Success was also ensured by the skillful actions of the Berendey reconnaissance, which famously destroyed the Polovtsian patrol. As a result, a horde of more than 15 thousand horsemen was defeated. One and a half thousand Polovtsians were captured

Two years later, Mikhalko and Volodislav, acting in similar conditions according to the same scheme, again defeated the Polovtsians and saved 400 captives from captivity, but these lessons were of no use to the Polovtsians: new ones appeared to replace the dead seekers of easy gain from the steppe. Rarely a year passed without a major raid noted in the chronicles.

In 1174, the young Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich distinguished himself for the first time. He managed to intercept the khans Konchak and Kobyak returning from the raid at the crossing of the Vorskla. Attacking from an ambush, he defeated their horde, capturing the prisoners.

In 1179, the Polovtsians, who were brought by Konchak, the “evil leader,” devastated the outskirts of Pereyaslavl. The chronicle noted that especially many children died during this raid. However, the enemy was able to escape with impunity. And the next year, by order of his relative, the new Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Igor himself led the Polovtsians Konchak and Kobyak on a campaign against Polotsk. Even earlier, Svyatoslav used the Polovtsians in a short war with the Suzdal prince Vsevolod. With their help, he also hoped to knock out Rurik Rostislavich, his co-ruler and rival, from Kiev, but suffered a severe defeat, and Igor and Konchak fled from the battlefield along the river in the same boat.

In 1184, the Cumans attacked Kyiv at an unusual time - at the end of winter. The Kyiv co-rulers sent their vassals in pursuit of them. Svyatoslav sent the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, and Rurik sent the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Glebovich. The Torks were led by their leaders - Kuntuvdy and Kuldur. The thaw confused the plans of the Polovtsians. The overflowing Khiria River cut off the nomads from the steppe. Here Igor overtook them, who the day before refused the help of the Kyiv princes so as not to share the spoils, and, as the elder, forced Vladimir to turn home. The Polovtsians were defeated, and many of them drowned while trying to cross the raging river.

In the summer of the same year, the Kyiv co-rulers organized a large campaign into the steppe, gathering ten princes under their banners, but no one from the Olgovichi joined them. Only Igor hunted somewhere on his own with his brother and nephew. The senior princes descended with the main army along the Dnieper in nasads (ships), and a detachment of squads of six young princes under the command of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir, reinforced by two thousand Berendeys, moved along the left bank. Kobyak, mistaking this vanguard for the entire Russian army, attacked it and found himself in a trap. On July 30, he was surrounded, captured and later executed in Kyiv for his numerous perjuries. The execution of a noble prisoner was unheard of. This strained relations between Rus' and the nomads. The khans swore revenge.

In February of the following year, 1185, Konchak approached the borders of Rus'. The seriousness of the khan's intentions was evidenced by the presence in his army of a powerful throwing machine for storming large cities. Khan hoped to take advantage of the split among the Russian princes and entered into negotiations with the Chernigov prince Yaroslav, but at that time he was discovered by Pereyaslav intelligence. Quickly gathering their army, Svyatoslav and Rurik suddenly attacked Konchak’s camp and scattered his army, capturing the stone thrower that the Polovtsians had, but Konchak managed to escape.

Prince Igor with his retinue.

Svyatoslav was not satisfied with the results of the victory. The main goal was not achieved: Konchak survived and, in freedom, continued to hatch plans for revenge. Grand Duke planned to go to the Don in the summer and therefore, as soon as the roads dried up, he went to gather troops in Korachev, and to the steppe - for cover or reconnaissance - he sent a detachment under the command of the governor Roman Nezdilovich, who was supposed to divert the attention of the Polovtsians and thereby help Svyatoslav win time. After the defeat of Kobyak, it was extremely important to consolidate last year's success. An opportunity arose for a long time, as under Monomakh, to secure the southern border, defeating the second, main group of Polovtsians (the first was headed by Kobyak), but these plans were disrupted by an impatient relative.

Igor, having learned about the spring campaign, expressed an ardent desire to take part in it, but was unable to do this due to severe mud. Last year, he, his brother, nephew and eldest son went out into the steppe at the same time as the Kyiv princes and, taking advantage of the fact that the Polovtsian forces were diverted to the Dnieper, captured some booty. Now he could not come to terms with the fact that the main events would take place without him, and, knowing about the raid of the Kyiv governor, he hoped to repeat last year’s experience. But it turned out differently.

The army of the Novgorod-Seversk princes, who intervened in matters of grand strategy, found themselves face to face with all the forces of the Steppe, where they understood the importance of the moment just as well as the Russians. It was prudently lured by the Polovtsians into a trap, surrounded and, after heroic resistance, on the third day of the battle almost completely destroyed. All the princes survived, but were captured, and the Polovtsians expected to receive a large ransom for them.

Bogatyrskaya outpost.

The Polovtsians were not slow to take advantage of their success. Khan Gza (Gzak) attacked the cities located along the banks of the Seim; he managed to break through the outer fortifications of Putivl. Konchak, wanting to avenge Kobyak, went west and besieged Pereyaslavl, which found itself in a very difficult situation. The city was saved by Kyiv aid. Konchak released the spoils, but, retreating, captured the town of Rimov. Khan Gza was defeated by Svyatoslav's son Oleg.

Polovtsian raids, mainly on Porosye (the region along the banks of the Ros River), alternated with Russian campaigns, but due to heavy snow and frost, the winter campaign of 1187 failed. Only in March, governor Roman Nezdilovich with the “black hoods” made a successful raid beyond the Lower Dnieper and captured the “vezhi” at a time when the Polovtsians went on a raid on the Danube.

The decline of Polovtsian power

By the beginning of the last decade of the 12th century. The war between the Polovtsians and the Russians began to subside. Only the Tor khan Kuntuvdy, offended by Svyatoslav, defected to the Polovtsians and was able to cause several small raids. In response to this, Rostislav Rurikovich, who ruled in Torchesk, twice made, albeit successful, but unauthorized campaigns against the Polovtsians, which violated the barely established and still fragile peace. It was the elderly Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich who had to correct the situation and “close the gates” again. Thanks to this, the Polovtsian revenge failed.

And after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, which followed in 1194, the Polovtsians were drawn into a new series of Russian strife. They took part in the war for the Vladimir inheritance after the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky and robbed the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl; repeatedly attacked the Ryazan lands, although they were often beaten by the Ryazan prince Gleb and his sons. In 1199, the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest took part in the war with the Polovtsians for the first and last time, going with an army to the upper reaches of the Don. However, his campaign was more like a demonstration of Vladimir’s strength to the obstinate residents of Ryazan.

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, grandson of Izyaslav Mstislavich, distinguished himself in actions against the Polovtsians. In 1202, he overthrew his father-in-law Rurik Rostislavich and, as soon as he became the Grand Duke, organized a successful winter campaign in the steppe, freeing many Russian prisoners captured earlier during strife.

In April 1206, the Ryazan prince Roman “with his brethren” carried out a successful raid against the Polovtsians. He captured large herds and freed hundreds of captives. This was the last campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians. In 1210, they again plundered the outskirts of Pereyaslavl, taking “a lot of stuff,” but also for the last time.

Old Russian fortress Slobodka from the times of the fight against the Polovtsians. Reconstruction by archaeologists.

The loudest event of that time on the southern border was the capture by the Polovtsians of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich, who had previously reigned in Moscow. Having learned that the Polovtsian army was approaching the city, Vladimir came out to meet him and was defeated in a stubborn and difficult battle, but still prevented the raid. The chronicles do not mention any military actions between the Russians and the Polovtsians, except for the continued participation of the latter in Russian strife.

The significance of Rus''s struggle with the Polovtsians

As a result of a century and a half of armed confrontation between Rus' and the Kipchaks, the Russian defense crushed the military resources of this nomadic people, who were in the middle of the 11th century. no less dangerous than the Huns, Avars or Hungarians. This made it impossible for the Cumans to invade the Balkans, Central Europe or the Byzantine Empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Ukrainian historian V.G. Lyaskoronsky wrote: “Russian campaigns in the steppe were carried out mainly due to the long-standing, through long experience of the realized need for active actions against the steppe inhabitants.” He also noted the differences in the campaigns of the Monomashichs and Olgovichs. If the princes of Kyiv and Pereyaslavl acted in the general Russian interests, then the campaigns of the Chernigov-Seversk princes were carried out only for the sake of profit and fleeting glory. The Olgovichs had their own special relationship with the Donetsk Polovtsians, and they even preferred to fight with them “in their own way,” so as not to fall under Kiev influence in any way.

Of great importance was the fact that small tribes and individual clans of nomads were recruited into Russian service. They received the common name “black hoods” and usually served Rus' faithfully, protecting its borders from their warlike relatives. According to some historians, their service was also reflected in some later epics, and the fighting techniques of these nomads enriched Russian military art.

The fight against the Polovtsians cost Rus' many victims. Vast areas of fertile forest-steppe outskirts were depopulated by constant raids. In some places, even in the cities, only the same service nomads remained - “hunters and Polovtsians.” According to the calculations of historian P.V. Golubovsky, from 1061 to 1210 the Kipchaks made 46 significant campaigns against Rus', of which 19 were to the Pereyaslav Principality, 12 to Porosye, 7 to the Seversk Land, 4 each to Kiev and Ryazan. The number of small attacks cannot be counted. The Polovtsians seriously undermined Russian trade with Byzantium and the countries of the East. However, without creating a real state, they were unable to conquer Rus' and only plundered it.

The fight against these nomads, which lasted a century and a half, had a significant impact on the history of medieval Rus'. The famous modern historian V.V. Kargalov believes that many phenomena and periods of the Russian Middle Ages cannot be considered without taking into account the “Polovtsian factor.” The mass exodus of the population from the Dnieper region and all of Southern Rus' to the north largely predetermined the future division of the Old Russian people into Russians and Ukrainians.

The fight against nomads preserved the unity of the Kyiv state for a long time, “revitalizing” it under Monomakh. Even the progress of the isolation of Russian lands largely depended on how protected they were from the threat from the south.

The fate of the Polovtsians, who from the 13th century. began to lead a sedentary life and accept Christianity, similar to the fate of other nomads who invaded the Black Sea steppes. A new wave of conquerors - the Mongol-Tatars - swallowed them up. They tried to resist the common enemy together with the Russians, but were defeated. The surviving Cumans became part of the Mongol-Tatar hordes, and everyone who resisted was exterminated.