Towards correct speech: collocations vs. grammatical structures

Formation« quasi-spatial» representations begin with the introduction of prepositions by comparing them with the spatial representations developed above . For example, the child is asked to do the following : « Stand up (or sit down) before,behind,left,on right,on,under item » , « Place or place an item before,behind,left,on right,above,under yourself » etc . P . Gradually, through the verbal designation of the corresponding spatial representations, a transition from the concepts « higher » , « below » to concepts « above » , « under » etc . d .

75. « Put down your pen ». Give your child two different objects, such as a pen and a pencil case. . Invite him to put down his pen V,on,under,above,before,behind,left,on right from the pencil case .

76. « Where is the pencil? ». Place the pencil on the notebook and ask the child to determine its position relative to the notebook ( « The pencil lies on the notebook, and the notebook ... , and the table ...» ). So play by moving the pencil under,V,left from the notebook, picking it up above, hiding behind or placing before notebook . Each time, ask your child to make a sentence about a notebook and a pencil, drawing his attention to the fact that the preposition changes in the sentence . Then swap these items ( « The notebook lies under the pencil » ).

When the child has mastered the task, do it again, but this time ask him to say only the appropriate preposition. .

77. « Draw a preposition ». Invite (with your help) the child to draw (not write) prepositions in any way convenient for him, for example, as in Fig. . 10.

78. « Encrypted message ». The child must read the message, the content of which is clear from the picture (see . rice . 11), and write it down right under the pictures .

Draw several similar phrases with different prepositions . Invite your child to come up with and write you similar messages using prepositions he knows. .

79. « Teremok ». There is a four-story tower in a field : a butterfly lives above a wolf, a snail - under the wolf, and above all - a lion . The child resettles the residents, then he himself gives the task to other children and monitors the correct execution .

80. « Housewarming ». Having mastered the previous exercise, the child, according to the idea, solves such problems :

« They settled in the little mansion : frog - under the arm, bunny - over the fox, and the mouse - under the fox . Who lives on what floor? »

« Built a new four-story house . One family should live on each floor : Borisovs - near Karpov, Ivanov - over the Chernovs, and the Karpovs - near Chernov . Help new residents find their apartments ».

Now we can move on to more complex prepositions denoting movement in a certain direction .

81. « Traffic pattern ». Take a small car and a book . Ask your child to make the car drive onto the book, drive off it, drive under it, drive out from under it, drive towards it, drive away from it, drive behind it, drive out from behind it. .

Then do the same steps yourself and ask your child to make sentences for each case. . Then - sketch prepositions (Fig. . 12), having previously shown the corresponding action using a typewriter .

Rice . 12

82. « Come up with a proposal ». Based on the skills developed above, offer your child a diagram on which the action is indicated by two stripes . He needs to come up with a suitable sentence for it and write it down under the picture. . Make similar diagrams for various prepositions and actions, and the child will come up with sentences for them . Invite him to compose these for you himself. « tasks .

83. « What, where, who, where? » Ask your child to answer similar questions in relation to his apartment, class, street, etc. . d . Then, using any plot picture, ask him to do the same, interpreting it, t . e . telling who (what) is where, where it is moving, etc. . d .

At the next stage, the child masters orientation in linear sequence at first subject, and then number series in the direction from left to right. By analogy, you can offer him problems related to mastering the alphabet .

84. « Let's put it in order ». The child arranges any subject row into ; direction from left to right, while saying, for example : « Pineapple comes first, second - apple, third - strawberries (up to ten images) ». Then the arrow from left to right indicates the direction in which the fruits and vegetables were laid out . Next, what was drawn is determined « before » any of the images and « after » him . The initial row length is selected in accordance with the child’s current capabilities .

85. « Let's number the row ». Number the row made in the previous exercise . Find the number with your child « before » indicated (preceding) and number « after » , « behind » indicated (subsequent) . In this case, the emphasis is on the fact that when determining the number worth « behind » And « before » any, we move accordingly along the direction of the arrow (from left to right) and against it (from right to left) . In the same way, the understanding that the number « before » is located to the left of the standard in the number series, and the number « after » - on right .

86. « Series of numbers ». Based on the number series from 1 to 10, explain that the further to the left a number is in the series, the smaller it is, and vice versa . Say the first number on the left, the first number on the right . Which one is bigger? This will help a lot « marking » quantities : the next number is higher than the previous one, the next one is even higher, the previous one is lower, etc. . d . In what direction do the numbers in a series increase? The child first draws an arrow in the direction from left to right and then answers . Read the series in reverse order . How does the magnitude of the numbers change in this direction?

87. «« Neighbours » our number ». The psychologist calls together with the child « neighbors » any number . They establish that the number on the right is greater than a given one, and the number on the left is less. . Then the adult calls the number, and the child shows the numbers on the left (right) and calls them . A conclusion is drawn about the magnitude of these numbers .

88. « Put the number back in its place ». A number series is given in which a number is missing . Sample answer : « Missing number seven . It is one unit greater than six, which means it stands to the right of it ». Or : « The number seven is one less than eight, which means it is to the left of it ».

Formation« quasi-spatial» ideas is impossible without mastering comparative verbal constructions.

89. « Synonyms and antonyms ». Using visual material and playing with a ball, reinforce spatial concepts such as « high - long » , « big - huge » , « close - far » , « small - tiny » , « high - short » , « wide - narrow » , « thin - thick » , « near - far - close » , « ahead - behind » etc . P .

90. « Complete the sentence, answer the questions ». Invite your child to complete sentences like : « Before you come home, ...» , « Children stood in a row according to height . The tallest one stood last . The first one was ...».

The child answers questions like : « What is higher, a person or a house? » , « What lasts less than a year but more than a week? » , « When are the days longer, winter or summer? ».

91. « What happened before? ». Let the child determine which event happened earlier and which later : « After the wind blew, the window swung open » , « We went for a walk before dinner ».

92. « Who is the best? » You need to answer questions like : « Tolya is more fun than Katya . Katya is more fun than Alik . Who's the most fun? » , « Faith is higher than Lisa . Vera is lower than Katya . Who is the lowest? » , « Tolya is darker than Misha . Misha is younger than Vova . Vova is shorter than Tolya . Tolya is older than Vova . Vova is lighter than Misha . Misha is taller than Tolya . Who is the brightest? Who is the oldest? Who is the tallest? ».

93. « Who's older? » « Show in the picture who is older, younger (etc.) . P . )». Any suitable stimulus material can be used here. . « Olya is older than Seryozha and younger than Katya . Where are Olya, Katya, Seryozha in the picture? »

94. « Location of items » Invite your child to identify and name the location of objects . Ask questions : « Ruler under eraser or eraser under ruler? » , « What's between a vase and a clock? » , « Is the beetle on the right or left of the knife? » , « Who is higher (lower)? » etc . P . Invite him to pick up the missing ones - . , adverbs and prepositions : to the right of And on the left of,behind from etc . P . For example : « Table ... from an ax and ... from the castle ; lamp ... table and ... from the window ; bottle ... from a candle and ... from the umbrella ».

95. « Compare and interpret ». The child must interpret (first looking at the pictures) such logical and grammatical constructions as « my hand - in my hand - with my hand » , « owner of the doll - mistress doll » , « Mother's daughter - daughter's mother » , « dog owner - owner's dog » etc . P .

When you start learning English, at first your eyes run wide from the countless rules, exceptions and constructions that you need to know, understand, and even use correctly. Only after some time do you realize that this language is not as creepy as it seemed at the very beginning, and you begin to discern in the text set expressions, phrasal verbs and more.

It is for those who are just starting to learn English, who still have a mess in their heads and who want to isolate the so-called must have or in our case must know from all this grammatical chaos, that I wrote this article. Today I’ll tell you about the basic constructions and speech patterns that are important to know and that will help you express your thoughts.

1. There is/there are

The main purpose of this construction is to tell the interlocutor that something is somewhere, present. We use there is/there are when we talk about what attractions there are in our city, when we describe our room or house, when we tell what is in our bag or backpack.

Please note that sentences with this construction are translated from the end, and there is/there are doesn't translate at all. There is we use with singular, A there are, respectively, with plural.

For example:

2. To be going to

Design to be going to translated as “to gather.” We use it when we say that we will definitely do something in the future. It is important to remember that this construction works in cases where the decision was made before the conversation, that is, you decided to learn Italian and after making the decision you talk to a friend and share your plan with him:

I am going to learn Italian.

Now let's look at how to implement it into a proposal. Verb to be as always changes to am/is/are/was/were/will be depending on pronoun and tense; going to remains unchanged and is translated as “getting ready,” and then there is always a verb that tells you what exactly you are going to do.

They are going to get married this winter. - They are going to get married this winter.
We are going to earn a lot of money next summer. - We're going to make a lot of money next summer.
I am going to leave for London tomorrow. - I'm going to leave for London tomorrow.

3. The way

This figure of speech is, in my opinion, the most interesting because it can be applied to many situations. The word itself way translated as “road” and “direction”. Very often, beginners in English cannot understand how the road relates, for example, to the description of a person. We will talk about such situations now.

Turnover the way can convey an image of action. For example, you can say that you like the way she dances or the way she looks. In this case, “how” is our turn the way:

I like the way you dance. - I like the way you dance.
He likes the way I cook. - He likes the way I cook.

Also turnover the way can be translated as "way". For example:

Working hard is the only way to get your goal. - Working hard is the only way to achieve your goal.

I would like to point out that this is not the only meaning and possibility of use. the way. With this phrase there are both stable expressions and verbal constructions, but for the first time the meaning discussed above will be quite sufficient.

4. It takes

This design is also quite common and will definitely be useful to you when traveling abroad. This phrase is used when we say how long something takes. We can use it to ask how long a flight to a destination will take, or how long a taxi ride to a city center will take.

It takes me an hour to get to work. - The journey to work takes me one hour.
The flight to Moscow takes 3 hours. - The flight to Moscow takes three hours.
My morning exercises take me 15 min. - My morning exercises take me 15 minutes.

Let's summarize and repeat once again what situations each of these designs is suitable for:

• there is/there are we use it when we tell what objects are in the room, house, bag, city, and so on;
• to be going to we use it when we are going to do something;
• the way suitable for describing a course of action;
• it takes we use when we report how long something takes.

And finally, I would like to give a little advice for those who are just starting to learn English: do not try to understand all the rules at once. Accumulate knowledge step by step, learn first simple words, rules and times, and then move on to more complex ones. And, of course, be patient with yourself and with English.

This post is copied with permission from the Tokado administration. Link to the publisher's website, or for the publishing group is required

Below is the original text, which has undergone little changes.

Today we have a “theory of limits”, in other words - grammar with かぎり　（限り）. Basically, all these grammatical constructions take place in 1-2 kyyu. And today we will talk about them

N2

One of the first designs with ～かぎり、 which is taught in textbooks can be called the construction ている/辞書形/の＋名詞＋限り　（ continuous form or dictionary form, or noun + の)

This construction makes sense that until, “up to a certain limit”, until something happens and further: I would like to do something (intend to do something), or else In the second part of the construction shapes can often be seen てほしい、頑張ろう、たい 、as well as the “necessary-don’t need” constructions 必要がありません、可能性があります　and so on.

Example:
本にいる限り、日本語は必要だ(ほんにいるかぎり、にほんごはひつようだ) – While I’m in Japan, Japanese is necessary.

私たちはできる限りの努力をします（わたしたちはできるかぎりのどりょくをします） － we will try our best

What else? Below are designs that have many similarities, so keep an eye on the particles!

～にかぎり。This construction goes only(!) with a noun. Always used with exceptional cases, events, promotions.

新規のお客様に限りカラー価格￥7020(税込)→￥4320(税込）（しんきのおきゃくさまにかぎ?み） ） － According to the new rules, for you, dear client, it will cost not 7020 (with taxes), but 4320 (with taxes)

～かぎり（は） and this form is preceded by な-adj　（It can also be with である)
, noun + である、and also 普通形 (always look at the difference between constructions based on particles and the forms of the parts of speech that are used with them)

The form means: How much, since, so far... (and I would like to continue, I think, I plan). This form is often linked to the very first one above in this publication. For example, this is what the creators of the textbook 新完全マスター do

体が丈夫な限りはがんばりたいです（からだがじょうぶなかぎりはがんばりたいです） － As long as my body is healthy, I will try my best

私が友人である限り、あなたを手伝うよ(わたしがゆうじんであるかぎり、あなたをてつだうよ) - As long as I am your friend, I will definitely help you out

限りでは – this handicap is preceded by a noun with 　の（！), as well as the dictionary form of the verb, the た form of the verb (this is an important difference) and the ている form of the verb. This form is often used with 見る、調査、調べた、聞く、覚えている、知ってる and similar expressions that carry a subtext of information and informativeness)

私が知っている限りでは、彼は昔優秀な生徒だった（わたしがしっているかぎりでは、かれはむかしゆうしゅうなせいとだった） － As far as I know, he used to be an outstanding student

And, the largest form in terms of contexts of use: に限って（にかぎって）

First context: noun + にかぎって – (often describes an exceptional situation). This construction is often used with lamentations and unfavorable events.

なぜ今日に限ってこんなに強風なんだ！！（なぜきょうにかぎってこんなにきょうふうなんだ!!） － But why, why is there such a strong wind today?!!

Also, the second subtext is similar to the first, so it was combined into one, the above-mentioned context with differences. However, this may not always describe the complaint. And yet... one more example:
どうしてその日に限って休みなんだ？思い出せない（どうしてそのひにかぎってやすみなんだ?おもいだせない） － Why exactly that day there was a day off... I can’t remember now. (just a difference, no complaint)

And also the subtext of the construction Exist + にかぎって – protection and expression of mistrust/denial in relation to some bad deed or rumor

うちの子に限って絶対そんなことしません！（うちのこにかぎってぜったいそんなことしません!） － Yes, my child, he won’t do anything like that!!!

Noun + に限らず Means that not only in this area, some rule is widespread or some event occurs, but it also happens in a larger area. Often this construction is accompanied by the words 「も」、「ほかにも」、「さまざまな」、「みんな」 and so on

? － Not only in my city , but in general in any window you can get an ID and go through the procedure (registration)

N1

な/い adjectives with 限りだ. It means “as much”, “strongly” and so on. Used with emotional adjectives and enhances that emotion

鈴木さんが出席できないとは、残念な限りだ（すずきさんがしゅっせきできないとは、ざんねんなかぎりだ） ー Oh, what a shame that Suzuki-san couldn’t attend

Noun + （を）＋かぎりに. Noun usually expresses time (often the current moment). Often the construction in JLPT preparation textbooks is presented in the sense of “from today I will do exercises every day,” “from this month I will stop eating sweets at night,” and so on. Example:

今日を限りに、もう二度と飲みません（きょうをかぎりに、もうにどとのみません） － From today I won’t drink anymore!

Also another construction: noun + を限り（に）、noun +の限り（に） – at the limit of possibilities. Due to some similarity (if の、 is used, を） can be confused with the previous one. However, you need to remember that a limited set of vocabulary is used with this construction. Mainly this is: 力、声、命.

In addition to differences in grammatical structure, some grammatical constructions, such as the absolute construction, the passive voice, the causative construction, and the subjunctive mood, can present difficulties when translating the original text from English into Russian.

· Absolute designs.

Absolute constructions (AK) refer to constructions that do not have a complete correspondence in Russian.

An absolute construction is “a complex consisting of a subject member (noun, pronoun) and a predicative member (participle, adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase), where the subject member performs the function of the subject in relation to the predicative member, without being the subject of the entire sentence.”

Many linguists consider the main feature by which an absolute construction can be determined to be “the absence of a grammatical connection with the main structure of the sentence, its independence.”

ME AND. Retzker identifies several types of translation of absolute constructions:

Using the preposition "with":

Once it is found, the archaeologists start to deal with the records of the excavation.

Archaeologists will begin working with excavation records as soon as it is found.

Using sentence division:

At midnight, no reply having been received, the two countries entered upon the formal state of war.

Midnight came and there was still no answer. The two countries were formally at war.

Using an adverbial phrase:

You implied that you"re mad,” Perrin said, hand resting on his hammer again as he walked.

"You're implying that you've gone mad," Perrin replied, placing his hand on his hammer again as he walked.

By using subordinate clause time or reason:

Pizza restaurants expect to sell a frightful number of pies Friday with Halloween falling on the busiest pizza night on the week.

With Halloween falling on the busiest night for pizza deliveries, pizzerias are expecting huge sales of their baked goods.

· Passive voice.

Collateral category in English language indicates whether an action is performed by a person or an object, or whether the object itself is affected by the action. The object is expressed by a noun or pronoun with the function of a subject.

The passive voice shows that the object is experiencing some kind of influence:

About 500 million books are published in Moscow annually.

The main difficulty in translating the passive voice is that sentences with it can be translated in at least three ways.

Using reflexive verbs: The problem is discussed. The problem is being discussed.

Using the verb "to be" + short form of the passive participle:

The book was published last year.

Using an indefinite personal phrase with a verb in the active voice form in the 3rd person singular:

Modern furniture is often made of plastic. Modern furniture is often made of plastic.

The second option is used only when it comes to compound predicate, expressed by the combination to be + Participle II action.

It also happens that one sentence can be translated in three ways:

The room was examined yesterday.

The room was inspected yesterdayThe room was inspected yesterdayThe room was inspected yesterday.

There are also passive phrases with the formal subject “it”. Such phrases correspond to Russian indefinite-personal phrases, and in the example “It is reported that she was...” the pronoun “it” will be formal and meaningless, and the example will be translated as “They report that she was...”.

· Causative constructions

A causative construction (The Causative Construction, also known as an incentive phrase) is a construction that is a complex addition and expresses an impulse to action or the object testing this action on itself.

A causative construction consists of three parts - a predicate verb, an object expressed by a noun or pronoun, and a third element, which is called the “objective predicative member” and can be built on a gerund, participle or infinitive.

The first element is verbs with pronounced causation, the most common of which are the verbs “force, compel, impel, cause, make, get, have”, which in Russian will be translated almost identically, having the meaning “to encourage, force”, and the translation will depend on the context. There are also cases in which causation in translation into Russian must be changed in accordance with the norms of the Russian language, for example:

The only thought about her made his palm sweaty. - Just thinking about her made his palms covered with sweat. When translated literally, the phrase “The thought alone made his palms sweat” will look ridiculous and “alien to the spirit of the Russian language.”

The main difficulty is the translation of causative constructions with the participle as the third element. Without context, it is difficult to say what it is about, because in Russian you have to restore the missing verb, as can be seen from the examples below:

He had his son studied in Cambridge.

a) He sent his son to study at Cambridge..

b) His son studied at Cambridge.

He had his horse killed.

a) He sent the horse to slaughter.

b) The horse was killed under him.

· Subjunctive mood.

The subjunctive mood shows a possible or desired action through a subjective attitude. If in English there is a difference between the subjunctive mood of the past and present tense, then they will be translated into Russian in only one way using a verb in the past tense and the particle “would”.

It is desirable that all the work will be finished today.

It is desirable that all work be completed today. If your mother were here, she would be mad.

If your mother were here, she would be beside herself.

Thus, we come to the conclusion that there is no single model according to which literary translation should be carried out and there is no ideal translation that would accurately convey all the features of the original text. The translator is required to have an understanding of culture, knowledge of a foreign and native language, the ability to convey the words of the original author and the meaning, preserving the color of the work and making it brighter with the help of the language into which he is translating and at the same time leaving readers with the feeling that they are reading the original text .

There are some constructions, the translation of which into Russian presents certain difficulties - these include absolute constructions, passive voice, causative constructions and the subjunctive mood.

The main means of translation are transformations, which serve to move from original units to translation units. Each scientist defines and classifies transformations in his own way, but in practice they serve the same things.