LEVELS OF SUPER-EGO PATHOLOGY The spectrum of super-ego pathology presented below is the result of disturbances in the development of the super-ego at the different levels described by Jacobson. I describe a continuum of superego pathology ranging in severity from virtually incurable

FORMATION OF EGO AND SUPER-EGO Orthodox definition: archaic ego Mechanism of perception in an infant. The newborn, as we know, has no ego. The infant's ego is differentiated only under the influence of the external environment. He is not aware of the world, at best he is simply

FORMATION OF EGO AND SUPER-EGO Orthodox point of view Development of the super-ego. According to Freud (26), the superego is the heir of the Oedipus complex. The boy experiences sexual attraction to his mother and cruelty to his father due to fear of castration. According to Freud, the complex

Rank's concept of the superego Rank (40) considers the basis of the superego to be the relationship between mother and child, and sees the origin of its functions in inhibited sadism. There are three different super-egos or three different stages in the development of the super-ego: 1) biological super-ego

The formation of the ego and superego Anna Freud describes the development in this period as follows (21, pp. 157-158): “The latent period begins with a physiologically determined decrease in the strength of instincts, and on the part of the ego there also comes reconciliation in a defensive war. Now the ego

Formation of the ego and superego In the age preceding adolescence, as we have seen, the balance between the ego and id, achieved during the latent period, is disrupted. Physiological forces stimulate instinctive processes and shift the balance. The ego, already strengthened and strengthened, desperately

The Super-Ego and Shyness The remarkable thing about psychoanalytic approaches to shyness is that they explain everything but prove nothing. The reasoning of psychoanalysts is full of such scenarios as a clash of internal forces, defense, aggression, regrouping, hidden

Superego Dilemmas In this article, the author suggests that no adequate discussion of the functions of the superego can be had without taking into account culturally conditioned views of power. Contemporary deconstructionist trends in the academy,

Fordham agreed with Giegerich that Neumann had misused the concept of archetype. But his main criticism of Neumann's views on the development of consciousness in Neumann and Childhood (1981) is that they are adultomorphic, that is, the phenomena of infancy are viewed from the point of view of an adult. Although children know less about the lives of adults than adults, there is no evidence that they are completely unconscious or passive in the way Neumann describes.

Fordham cites research that shows that in some respects a child's perception of reality is more differentiated than that of an adult. Visual, auditory and tactile functions and perceptions are present at birth, and the young child has a very wide range of perception. Much has also been learned about intrauterine life, in which the fetus "develops quite complex skills and interacts with its aquatic environment." Most importantly, the newborn baby is well equipped to engage in initiating behavior rather than simply being reactive or reflexive. This behavior, says Fordham, "can best be understood by considering its effect on the mother... it seems that his look, his cry, his movements are so constructed as to play on the feelings of the mother and bind her to him" (1980, p. 317).

Fordham believes that a consensus is emerging that at birth there are already organized perceptual functions of the ego and that "there is no basis for the supposition that the natural faculties of the child are unorganized, but this view is still widespread and deserves mention" (1976, p. 46). But, as we will see in the next chapter, Fordham does not attribute this organization primarily to the ego or ego-consciousness, but rather to the organization of the self.

Fordham's study of ego functions is of considerable interest because it demonstrates modern point view, based on some of Jung's formulations. The functions of the ego are: (a) Perception - although not all types of perception cross the threshold of consciousness, (b) Memory, (c) Organization of mental functioning (presumably through the two positions and four functions of consciousness defined by Jung). It also includes the role played by the ego in the integration of fantasy, (d) Control of mobility. This is important for two reasons: firstly, because the roots of the ego have been shown to be in the body, and secondly, because the ego reacts to the actual separation from the mother, (e) Reality Testing, (f) Speech. What is important here is why words such as "I", "you", "he" have different meanings at different stages of development and why they are used with greater or less frequency, (g) Defense mechanisms. Fordham's list of defense mechanisms and its division into later defense mechanisms follows traditional practice based on developments in psychoanalysis. But he emphasizes that ego defenses, which were previously often seen in negative terms and as something that can be done without in mental health, are now understood as an element of maturation. If defense mechanisms are not too rigid, and the person does not become overly dependent on one particular type of defense, they cannot be considered psychopathological. If the ego does not use such mechanisms as projection, introjection and identification, it can neither protect itself from anxiety nor add anything to itself, (h) The ability to exercise controlling and organizing functions. Fordham devotes considerable attention to this, and his paradoxical idea is that only a sufficiently strong ego can allow other parts of the psyche to develop (1969a, pp. 93–6).

It should be noted that Fordham, speaking about the ego that gives away its power, moved away from the unitary view of the ego.

Because Fordham is not prepared to accept the use of myths and ideas about myths in discussions of infant functioning, he is very critical of Neumann's idea of ​​stages in the development of ego consciousness. The problem with stages is how they are thought to represent a development of the internal structure of an archetype, or an aspect of the archetype. Like Giegerich, Fordham argues that it is conceptually incorrect to say that an archetype is capable of development, and instead proposes the idea that development requires consciousness in the first place (1981).

NOTE 1

There are some questions that do not concern the usefulness of the heroic motif as a metaphor for ego consciousness and, in particular, the adequacy of the hero for matters of moral choice. Archetypal metaphors do change with each generation; it does not imply a change in the archetype as such. New metaphors gain cultural acceptance, and each successive generation has a different stock of images from which to choose. For example, generations following the start of the women's movement will encounter a completely different constellation of images around women. One side of this image became available; the image “turned” towards us or we saw it from the other side.

Different authors use the term “R. e." differently. Most psychoanalysts use it in one of three areas: a) when describing the period of formation of the sense of self, or ego, in the first 2-3 years of life; b) when describing the development of all functions of the ego, including what X. Hartmann called. “conflict-free sphere of the ego”, i.e. locomotion, speech, etc.; c) when describing such aspects of R. e., which E. Erikson characterized as psychosocial tasks intertwined with psychosexual development (for example, the development of drives and their derivative structures) and associated with age-related tasks of life. In clinical psychoanalytic practice, R.'s violations of e. correlate with problems that arise during the formation of the ego; Apparently, they lead to serious impairments in the ability to adapt to the environment or to the formation of “borderline” personality types.

Among psychologists, a different understanding of R. e. has developed, the origins of which can be found in the Interpersonal theory of psychiatry by G. S. Sullivan. Psychol. R.'s concept of e., in addition to describing the sequence of age stages, takes into account the aspect of individual differences, which affect development at any age, although not to such an extent that its higher stages are detected in early childhood, and the lower ones in adulthood (the latter , if it occurs, it is rare). To characterize various aspects of stage R. e. terms such as moral development, interpersonal reliability, and cognitive complexity were needed.

Stages of Ego Development

The earliest stage (or stages) - the period of ego formation - occurs in infancy. This is a pre-social, first autistic, and later symbiotic (in relationship with the mother or maternal figure) stage. Language acquisition is believed to be an important factor leading to the end of this period.

Following this comes the impulsive stage. The child, showing stubbornness, asserts an existence separate from the mother, but remains dependent on her and others in terms of impulse control. People at this stage of development are absorbed in their own needs, often physical, and look to others as a source of supply. They live in a conceptually simplified world, at least in part of the people. relations, - the world. Norms and rules of behavior are perceived by them as individual prohibitions or individual obstacles to desires, and not as a system of social. regulation.

Further development occurs first in the form of providing more guaranteed satisfaction of needs and desires due to the ability to tolerate delays and workarounds, which leads to a transition to the stage of protecting one's own interests. At this stage, children often try to assert a certain level of autonomy in order to free themselves from excessive dependence; however, their relationships with others remain exploitative. They are interested in issues of power and control, dominance and submission. In early childhood this period is usually successfully overcome with the help of rituals; in cases where people remains at this stage further - in adolescence, youth and even adulthood - opportunism can become his life credo. Such a person. correctly interprets the norms and rules of behavior, but manipulates them for selfish interests.

Usually in late childhood a fundamental transition occurs, a kind of “payback for self-interest.” The individual identifies with a peer group and identifies his own well-being with the well-being of this group. Norms and rules of behavior are partially internalized and become mandatory because they are accepted and supported by the group. This is the conformist stage, which has been universally recognized and described as a personality type. Conformity is valued for its own sake, and people tend to perceive themselves and others as following established norms and rules.

Apparently, many nevertheless, they move beyond the conformist stage due to the realization that they themselves do not always act in accordance with the high standards of behavior supported by the society, and do not always experience the feelings approved by it in typical situations. This stage in the development of the so-called. the level of a conscious conformist, or the level of introspection. The question of whether this stage is a transition between the conformist stage and the stage of consciousness cannot yet be answered unambiguously. At this level people. considers various possibilities acceptable.

At the stage of consciousness, genuine internalization of norms and rules of behavior occurs. Person obeys them not only because of their approval by a certain group, but because he himself assessed and accepted these norms and rules as true and fair. Relationships between people are interpreted based on feelings and motives, and not just actual actions. People at this stage have a rather complex inner world and a wealth of distinctive features, which are used to characterize others instead of the previous limited set of stereotypical images. So, for example, parents in their description no longer look like idealized portraits or completely negative characters, but real people with their own strengths and weaknesses. Self-characteristics acquire halftones and become more balanced; people no longer describes himself as ideal or, on the contrary, worthless, but notices certain shortcomings, which he strives to correct. Achievements are now assessed not only in terms of competition or social. recognition, but also regarding the requirements made by people. to yourself. People at this stage of development may feel extremely responsible for participating in the lives of others.

Moving in their development beyond the stage of consciousness, people begin to value individuality for its own sake, and therefore this transitional level is called. individualistic. It is characterized by increased conceptual complexity: instead of perceiving life in the form of mutually exclusive options, people. begins to see the variety of possibilities in it. A spontaneous interest in people appears. development and understanding of psychology. causation.

At the autonomous stage, the distinctive features of the individualistic level are further developed. Name “autonomous” is to some extent arbitrary, as is the name. all other stages. No aspect of behavior appears suddenly at one stage of development and disappears without a trace during the transition to the next. What is characteristic of this stage can be defined as respect for the autonomy of others. The decisive test is related to the recognition of the independence of one’s children, especially their right to make their own mistakes. At this stage, people are often aware of differences in functioning in different roles. They have to cope with such internal conflict as the conflict between their own needs and responsibilities. Conflict is now perceived as an integral part of people. state, and not as a result of ego weakness, shortcomings of other family members or the community as a whole.

Perception and understanding of oneself in the wider social sphere. context, beginning at the stage of consciousness, becomes especially characteristic of the higher stages of ego development.

This is especially true for those who have reached the integrated stage and have acquired the ability to combine the interests of the community and their own interests into a single integrated approach to life.

Related areas

Mn. the authors offered schematic descriptions of the stages of development, closely related to the sequence of stages of R. e. mentioned above. K. Sullivan, Margaret K. Grant and J. D. Grant called. your cx. stages of “interpersonal integration”. Their concept was used in research. individual approach when working with various subtypes of delinquents.

Kohlberg developer a system for describing the stages of development of moral judgments. His ideas have found wide application. In schools, they were used as the basis for creating programs to promote the moral development of students, including the creation of alternative schools modeled on “just communities.”

Selman uses as a marking for his cx. stages the expression “taking an interpersonal perspective.” He studied school-aged children, and therefore his work concerns, ch. arr., early stages. In addition, Selman studied a small clinical sample.

The sequence of stages proposed by Perry is consistent with some of the higher stages of R. e. described here. Cx. J.M. Broughton covers a wide age range. Broughton studied the development of “natural epistemologies” - the spontaneous formation of the concepts of soul, self, reality and knowledge.

Study methods

Although the idea of ​​character development dates back at least to Socrates, modern. The study of this topic begins with the works of J. Piaget. Kohlberg, Selman and others borrowed from the developer. them the method of clinical conversation. Kohlberg presented his subjects with unfinished stories that ended in the form of a moral dilemma. After the subject chooses one of the outcome options, a probing conversation is held with him, during which the motives for his choice are clarified; the stage of moral development attributed to him will depend precisely on the nature of the arguments he uses. Rest developed Kohlberg's technique into an objective test. Broughton and Perry developed. interview techniques that begin with broad, vague questions.

Lovinger, Wessler and Redmore developers. a guide to the incomplete sentence test that is detailed enough to give the test at least partial objectivity, and includes exercises for self-study. Margaret Warren (formerly Grant) et al., working with the interpersonal integration system of C. Sullivan and his colleagues, used a variety of instruments, including interview techniques, incomplete sentence tests, and objective tests.

Two main theories can be formulated. question: 1) why the ego (or I) is so stable; 2) if it does change, then how and why does this happen?

All ego stability theories are variants of the “anxiety selection” theory proposed by G. S. Sullivan. What Sullivan called The “I-system” acts as a kind of filter, template or criterion for our perception and understanding of the human world. relationships. Any observations that are inconsistent with the current value of such a criterion are cause for alarm. However, the main The purpose of the ego system is to avoid or reduce anxiety. Therefore, perceptions capable of causing anxiety are either distorted in order to fit into an already established system, or, as Sullivan puts it, “selectively deaf ears.” Thus, this theory states that because the self-system (or ego) is a structure, it has a tendency to self-preserve.

Kohlberg has a structural theory of change. When a person at a certain stage (of the development of moral judgments) repeatedly encounters reasoning and arguments exactly one stage above his own and at the same time tries to grasp their course and meaning, optimal conditions are created for their assimilation and, therefore, for progress towards next stage.

Identification is a key concept for modern. psychoanalytic theory of R. e. Person moves forward partly because he identifies with a certain model, which arouses his admiration and is (or is perceived as being) in several ways. higher level than himself. Despite the fact that Kohlberg's theory is essentially cognitive, and psychoanalytic theory is affective, both embody Piaget's model of balancing, loss of balance and its restoration at a new level. In fact, both of them are theories of “social”. learning,” although they are radically different from what is usually called. theory of social learning.

There is another element in psychoanalytic theory, the origin of which can be attributed to socialism. learning, but which then becomes purely internal for the individual. Ideal, to whom people. strives, or the model he wants to resemble, should not be located in the external environment at all. The ability to create your own model is the essence of what is called. "Ideal-I".