Quettel considered personality as a system of traits. Raymond Cattell: structural theory of personality traits
Dispositional perspective in personality theory: Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck
At the core dispositional direction There are two general ideas underlying the study of personality. The first is that people have a wide range of predispositions to respond in certain ways in different situations (that is, personality traits). This means that people demonstrate a certain consistency in their actions, thoughts and emotions, regardless of the passage of time, events and life experiences. In fact, the essence of personality is determined by those inclinations that people carry throughout their lives, which belong to them and are inseparable from them.
The second main idea of the dispositional direction is related to the fact that no two people are exactly similar friends on a friend.
Gordon Allport: Dispositional Theory of Personality
Gordon Willard Allport(English) Gordon Willard Allport; November 11, 1897 – October 9, 1967) was an American psychologist and personality trait theorist.
Born in Montezuma, Indiana, into an intelligent family. Having brilliantly graduated from school, he followed his older brother Floyd (later also a famous psychologist) into the famous Harvard University.
In the early 20s, Allport made a two-year trip to Europe, which had a huge influence on his future scientific work. Most texts mention a meeting with Sigmund Freud, during which he was struck by the inadequacy of trying to look for hidden motives in all behavioral manifestations, abandoning clearly obvious motivation. However, own works and further activities Allport were associated rather with the views of William Stern, Eduard Spranger and Gestalt psychologists - Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler.
He was elected President of the American Psychological Association (1939), President of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, received the Award for Outstanding Contributions to Science (1964) and many other awards.
What is personality
However, the question remains: what is the nature of this something Allport (1937) answered this question by proposing, through repeated revisions, a precise definition of personality: “Personality is the dynamic organization of those psychophysical systems within the individual which determine his characteristic behavior and thinking.”
In citing this conceptual definition, Allport noted that the terms character And temperament often used as synonyms for personality. Allport explained how each of these can be easily distinguished from the actual personality. The word "character" traditionally evokes an association with a certain moral standard or value system, according to which an individual’s actions are assessed. For example, when we hear that someone has “good character,” what we are talking about is that their personality traits are socially and/or ethically desirable. Thus, character is indeed an ethical concept. Or, as Allport puts it, character is assessed personality, and personality is not rated character (Allport, 1961). Consequently, character should not be considered as some isolated area within the personality.
Temperament, on the contrary, is the “primary material” (along with intellect and physical constitution) from which personality is built. Allport considered the concept of "temperament" especially important when discussing the hereditary aspects of an individual's emotional nature (such as ease of emotional arousal, prevailing mood background, mood swings and intensity of emotions). Representing one of the aspects of an individual's genetic endowment, temperament limits the development of individuality. According to Allport’s views, figuratively speaking, “you can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.” Thus, as in every good definition personality, in Allport’s concept it is clearly formulated what it essentially is and what has nothing to do with it.
Rice. 6-1. The universality of a trait is determined by the equivalence of the stimulus that activates this trait and the responses caused by it.
Raymond Cattell: structural theory of personality traits
Raymond Bernard Cattell was born in 1905 in Staffordshire, England. In his autobiography, he recalls that his childhood years were happy and filled with activities such as sailing, cave exploration and swimming.
At the age of 16, Cattell entered King's College, University of London, where he studied mainly physics and chemistry. A few months before graduating and receiving his honors degree, he discovered that professional training in physical sciences does not meet his increased interest in social problems. Cattell decides to devote his diploma, and indeed his career, to psychology. In 1929 he received the title of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of London. As a graduate student, he worked as a research assistant for Charles Spearman, the famous British psychologist who developed the method of factor analysis.
After receiving his doctorate in psychology for 5 years (1932-1937), Cattell worked as the director of a psychological clinic in England, after which he went to New York, where he spent a year working as an associate professor with a man of great erudition, a theorist at Columbia University E. Thorndike. Since that time he has remained in the United States. In 1938, he joined the faculty of Clark University, where G. Stanley Hall was a professor of psychology at the time, and then in 1941 he became a lecturer in psychology at Harvard. In 1945, Cattell moved to the University of Illinois, where he remained for nearly 30 years as director of the Laboratory of Personality and Group Analysis. In 1973, Cattell left his position at the University of Illinois and moved to Boulder, Colorado, where he founded the Institute for the Study of Moral and Self-Realization. Since 1977, he has been a consulting professor at the University of Hawaii, as well as a professor emeritus at Illinois. He is still actively involved in research and writing scientific papers.
Being one of the most prolific theorists in the field of personality studies. Cattell published approximately 35 books and 400 research articles during his career. At age 92, Raymond B. Cattell died on February 2, 1998, of natural causes at his home in Honolulu.
According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation. Being a supporter of mathematical analysis of personality, he was of the opinion that the prediction of behavior can be carried out through specification equations The main formula used by Cattell to predict behavior with a certain degree of accuracy is:
It is said here that the nature of a person's specific response (R), meaning what he does, or thinks, or expresses in words, is some indeterminate function (f) of the stimulating situation (S) at a particular time and of the personality structure (P) . The specification equation shows that the characteristic response to a situation is a function of the combination of all the traits that are significant for that situation; each trait interacts with situational factors that may influence it.
Cattell acknowledges how difficult it is to predict the behavior of any person in a given situation. To improve prediction accuracy, a personologist must consider not only the traits a person possesses, but also non-trait variables, such as the person's mood in this moment and specific social roles required by the situation. Moreover, it is necessary to weigh each trait in terms of its significance in the situation under consideration. For example, if a person were to find himself in an emotionally arousing situation, then in predicting his response heaviest weight should be attributed to such a trait as anxiety. Therefore, the equation R = f (S, P) represents a simplified extract of Cattell's theory of personality traits. However, from a cognitive point of view, it must not be forgotten that this main formula confirms Cattell's belief that human behavior can be determined and predicted.
Table The main initial traits identified using the Cattell questionnaire “Sixteen Personality Factors” (16 PF)
Related information.
In contrast to Allport's ideographic study of traits, a significantly different direction in trait psychology is emerging through a statistical method known as factor analysis. Theorists who use factor analysis believe that fundamental aspects of personality are common to everyone. The basic elements from which the personality structure is formed are universal. Proponents of the use of factor analysis to study traits also believe that people have a strong predisposition to respond in certain ways and that the basic elements of personality have a strictly ordered hierarchical structure. The key feature of this approach to the study of personality is the quantitative measurement of personality traits. The leader in the development of factor theories is Raymond Cattell.
The goal of Catell's research was to uncover basic personality traits through rigorous empirical research methods. For this purpose, he used the method of factor analysis.
In his theory, he seeks to explain the interactions between the individual as a system, on the one hand, and the sociocultural environment, on the other hand.
He believes that personality theory should take into account:
- the numerous personality traits that make up individuality;
- the degree to which personality traits are determined by heredity and environmental influences;
- interaction of hereditary and environmental factors with each other.
According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation. Ketell's formula for predicting behavior
R= f (S, P) - specification equation
Its essence: what a person does, thinks or expresses in words (R) or behavior is a function (f) of the currently stimulating situation (S) and of the personality structure (P) or set of traits.
To accurately predict a person’s behavior, you need to consider personality traits (1) + other variables (mood at the moment and other social roles required by the situation) (2).
A trait is something that determines a person's actions when faced with a certain situation.
Personality traits are hypothetical psychological constructs. They are found in behavior and determine the predisposition to act uniformly in different circumstances and at different times. That. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics.
Structural principles: categories of personality traits
As a result of conducting multiple factor analysis procedures in a study of thousands of subjects and the extensive empirical material obtained, Cattell proposed a classification of personality traits (factors). Cattell classified all personality traits.
He based their classification on the following principles or criteria:
1. superficial features - original features
Baseline traits are the fundamental personality traits. They form the blocks from which the personality structure is built. These are combined quantities or factors (traits) that determine the consistency that we observe in human behavior. The initial features are more important, this is some kind of foundation.
Cattell came to the conclusion that personality structure is formed by sixteen initial traits or factors.
Superficial - a set of behavioral characteristics that manifest themselves as a trait when they are inextricably linked. Surface traits are a product of the interaction of initial traits; they are less stable than the original ones. For example, the observable behaviors of inability to concentrate, indecisiveness, and anxiety may be closely related to each other and constitute the surface trait neuroticism. Those. a trait such as neuroticism is confirmed by a set of interrelated elements, and not by one of the elements.
2. constitutional traits - traits, shaped by the environment.
He divides the initial features into:
- Constitutional- develop from the biological and physiological data of the individual. For example, recovery from an addiction to alcohol can cause irritability and depression. This behavior is a consequence of those physiological changes in the body and reflects the original constitutional traits.
- Traits, formed by the environment- are caused by the influence of the social and physical environment. For example, a person who grew up in a metropolis behaves differently than in a provincial town.
- Ability, temperament and dynamic traits.
Initial traits can also be classified in terms of what they are expressed through.
Personality traits that reflect a person's abilities - determine a person's skills and his effectiveness in achieving a goal (intelligence, musical ability, hand-eye coordination).
Temperament traits refer to emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior. Some people solve problems quickly, others slowly, and react to stress calmly and hysterically.
Cattell's most important contribution to personality theory is his systematic description of personality. He believed that in order to get an idea of a person's personality, it is necessary to obtain a systematic description of his personality traits. Those. It is necessary to obtain a picture of the individual’s individual differences, and only after this is it possible to study the personal motives of human behavior. He believed that any researcher needs to identify personality traits. For this purpose, Cattal developed a personality questionnaire of sixteen personality factors (the “Sixteen Personality Factors” questionnaire) and used factor analysis as the main method of personality research. The purpose of the diagnosis was to identify initial personality traits based on self-assessment data. Cattell also developed a statistical manual - a multifaceted abstract variant analysis for assessing the relative contribution of heredity and environment in the formation of a given trait. He believed that personality is determined one-third by genetics and two-thirds by environment.
Cattell's personality structure consists of sixteen factors or initial personality traits. Each factor is designated by a letter indicating the order in which it appeared during factor analysis.
Factor A - responsiveness-alienation
Factor B - intelligence
C - emotional stability-instability
E - dominance-subordination
F - prudence carelessness
G - consciousness-irresponsibility
H - courage-timidity
I - hardness-softness
L - gullibility, suspicion
M - dreaminess practicality
N - diplomacy-straightforwardness
O - tendency to fear - calmness
Q1 - radicalism-conservatism
Q2 - self-sufficiency-comformism
Q3 - indiscipline - controllability
Q4 - relaxation-tension
Regarding the question of the degree to which personality traits influence behavior, Cattell expressed the opinion that one trait is stronger than the other in that case. If it has high loadings on a large number of behavior patterns (that is, the general set of traits that can be used to describe personality). Therefore, Factor A (Responsiveness-Aloofness) is the strongest trait because it has a greater influence on people's behavior in various situations than any other trait. There are not so many situations in which factor B (intelligence) takes part; and even fewer in which factor C plays a significant role (emotional stability. And so on throughout the list.
So we have already indicated that According to Cattell, personality is what allows one to predict what a person will do in a given situation. He views personality as a complex and differentiated structure of traits. The motivation of human behavior depends on dynamic traits. The study of personality must be carried out on the basis of a study of its traits. Personality traits form a real unity, understood by us as a person.
According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation. As a proponent of mathematical personality analysis, he was of the opinion that the prediction of behavior could be achieved through a specification equation. The main formula used by Cattell to predict behavior with a certain degree of accuracy is:
It is said here that the nature of a person's specific response (R), meaning what he does, or thinks, or expresses in words, is some indeterminate function (f) of the stimulating situation (S) at a particular time and of the personality structure (P) .
Cattell acknowledges how difficult it is to predict the behavior of any person in a given situation. To improve predictive accuracy, a personologist must consider not only the traits a person possesses, but also non-trait variables, such as the person's current mood and the specific social roles required by the situation. Moreover, it is necessary to weigh each trait in terms of its significance in the situation under consideration. For example, if a person were to find himself in an emotionally arousing situation, then the trait of anxiety would be given the greatest weight in predicting his response. Therefore, the equation R = f (S, P) represents a simplified extract of Cattell's theory of personality traits. However, from a cognitive point of view, it must not be forgotten that this main formula confirms Cattell's belief that human behavior can be determined and predicted.
Structural principles: categories of personality traits
Despite Cattell's contention that behavior is determined by the interaction of traits and situational variables, his main organizing concept of personality lies in the descriptions of the various types of traits he identified. According to Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in a certain way in different situations and at different times. The range of action of these trends is extremely wide. In other words, traits are hypothetical mental structures found in behavior that determine the predisposition to act consistently in different circumstances and over time. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics and are by far the most important in Cattell's concept.
As noted earlier, Cattell relies heavily on factor analysis to examine the structural elements of personality. Through repeated factor analysis procedures on data collected from a study of thousands of subjects, he concludes that personality traits can be classified or categorized in several ways.
Surface features are the original features. Baseline traits are the fundamental personality traits. They form the blocks from which the personality structure is built. Cattell came to the conclusion that personality structure is formed by sixteen initial traits or factors.
Superficial - a set of behavioral characteristics that manifest themselves as a trait when they are inextricably linked. Surface traits are a product of the interaction of initial traits; they are less stable than the original ones.
After conducting extensive research work Using factor analysis, Cattell concluded that the fundamental structure of personality is formed by approximately sixteen initial traits (Table 6-3). These personality trait factors are perhaps better known in connection with the scale now used to measure them: the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire. This self-esteem scale and several others also developed by Cattell have proven extremely useful and popular in both applied and theoretical research. Below is a discussion of the baseline traits assessed by the 16 PF questionnaire.
Table 6-3. The main initial traits identified using the Cattell questionnaire “Sixteen Personality Factors” (16 PF)
Designation of the factor Name of the factor according to Cattell Quality corresponding to a high score on the factor Quality corresponding to a low score on the factor
A Responsiveness-alienation Good-natured, enterprising, warm-hearted Cynical, cruel, indifferent
B Intelligence Smart, abstract thinker Stupid, concrete thinker
C Emotional stability - emotional instability Mature, realistic, calm Unstable, unrealistic, uncontrollable
E Dominance-submission Confident, competitive, stubborn Shy, modest, submissive
F Reasonable-careless Serious, silent Carefree, enthusiastic
G Conscientiousness-irresponsibility Responsible, moralistic, stoic Ignoring rules, careless, fickle
H Courage-timidity Enterprising, relaxed Unconfident, reserved
I Hardness-softness Self-reliant, independent Clinging to others, dependent
L Gullibility-suspicion Accepting conditions Stubborn to the point of stupidity
M Dreamy-practical Creative, artistic Conservative, down to earth
N Diplomacy-straightforward Socially savvy, smart Socially awkward, unpretentious
O Tendency to fear - calm Restless, preoccupied Calm, complacent
Q1 Radicalism-conservatism Free-thinking liberal Respecting traditional ideas
Q2 Self-sufficiency-conformism Prefers own decisions Unquestioningly follows others
Q3 Indiscipline-controllability Follows own impulses Punctual
Q4 Relaxation-tension Restrained, calm Overtired, excited
I used a slightly different approach when describing the personality of R.B. Cattell, who believed that among personality traits one can distinguish superficial (secondary) And generating (primary, initial), which, in turn, can be divided into constitutional, genetically determined, and developing under the influence of experience and learning, i.e., in other words, into temperamental and characterological (5, 7, 10, 14).
In his empirical work, Cattell followed the path of enlarging the groups of epithets related to personality identified by G. Allport and identified 171 groups of synonyms, which he then, in turn, reduced to 36 bipolar names, and then supplemented them with terms from other studies to 46 pairs .
The system of generative (initial) personality traits, according to Cattell, is heterogeneous and includes:
Temperamental (constitutional generative) traits that determine the style of individual response, such as emotional reactivity, the speed and energy of the individual’s reactions to environmental stimuli;
Traits and abilities that determine the effectiveness of the response;
Dynamic features related to the driving forces of reactions and forming two classes of features - ergi> innate traits that motivate human behavior (orientation toward struggle and competition, herd mentality, autonomy), and sentiments, formed under the influence of sociocultural norms and also including manifestations of interests and attitudes.
To describe the personality of an adult, R. Cattell considered 19 factors he identified to be sufficient, but to describe a child - only 12, and they partially do not coincide. Let us list these factors, indicating their exact scientific (technical) name, in italics, and everyday name. All factors have a positive and negative pole, but this does not mean the values are preferable: psychologically they are equivalent, and can become positive or negative only in the context of a certain situation. Factors found only in the pediatric sample are highlighted in bold (9).
In addition to those given in the table, in the multi-level personality structure there are 4 second-order factors (extraversion - introversion, anxiety - adaptability, cortertia - pathemia (vigilance of the cerebral cortex), independence - humility), which are obtained as a result of factor analysis of these primary factors and are calculated arithmetically, and 5 third-order factors, which are studied mainly in scientific research(force nervous system by arousal, self-criticism, level of responsibility, self-care, degree social adaptation) (7, 9).
The questionnaire developed to diagnose personality structure (16PF) is very popular, which is due to its obvious non-clinical focus, and is used in Russia in three forms - parallel forms A and B, containing 187 statements, and form C, developed in St. Petersburg and containing 123 point. There is also a children's form designed for examination of younger schoolchildren.
Table 17
Features highlighted by R.B. Cattell
Cattell's particular achievement is that he was able to conduct a representative study of the contribution of environment and heredity to the development of personality traits. Having developed a special statistical procedure for processing data obtained using the twin method, he assessed the presence and absence of genetic influence on traits, as a result of which it was discovered that traits were of a different nature. For example, about two-thirds of the variation in intelligence and self-confidence is due to heredity, while the genetic influence on neuroticism and self-awareness appears to be half that. Cattell estimates that, overall, about two-thirds of personality characteristics are determined by influences. environment and one third - by heredity (12),
The desire for a clearer separation of environmental and hereditary factors has generated many additional studies, which, however, have led to conflicting data. Heritability indicators reach a significant level for only a few indicators (different authors note similarities in monozygotic pairs for factors C, F, I, J, O, Q2, Q3, Q4), but they do not agree with each other. Many researchers note the significant contribution of the twin situation to the similarity - difference of observed traits.
Therefore, a number of studies have been devoted to the study of precisely this circumstance - the type of intra-pair relationships. It has been convincingly shown that the sex of monozygotic twins appears to be decisive. Thus, in female couples, significant similarity was found in 12 factors, and in male couples - in only 7. In fact, the results obtained only lead away from solving the problem of environment - heredity into the area of purely role relationships,” and one of the possible explanations is that girls seem to be more sensitive to the influence of social ideas about what twins should be like. That is, heredity and sociocultural ideas in this case “work” for the same result. We can speak with the greatest confidence only about the genetic determination of traits associated with social extraversion (sociability, activity, neuroticism), however, with age, the degree of genetic determination gradually decreases (7, 14).
Cattell also made significant contributions to the study of the action of social groups to which people belong (the range of variability of a trait within a group is called synthality– sintality), also developing Allport’s idea about the existence of general and individual traits.
Unlike many other theorists, Cattell did not begin with clinical observations or intuitions about human nature. On the contrary, his approach is firmly based on the use of rigorous empirical research methods. Cattell's commitment to constructing a scientific model of behavior was determined by one leading goal: to reveal (using the method of factor analysis) the main personality traits. He believes, like Allport, that personality traits form the core of personality structure and are ultimately responsible for what a person will do in a given situation. Like Allport, Cattell distinguishes between common and unique features. However, he does not share Allport's view that traits actually exist within a person. According to Cattell, traits have no real neurophysiological status and as such can only be discovered by accurately measuring observable behavior.
Cattell's attempt to develop a theory of personality traits based on sophisticated statistical analysis of objective behavioral characteristics is admirable. The result of his efforts is perhaps the most comprehensive system of views in modern personology. Despite the complexity of Cattell's theory, his concepts need to be seriously studied by those who devote themselves to the study of personality.
Biographical sketch
Raymond Bernard Cattell was born in 1905 in Staffordshire, England. In his autobiography, he recalls that his childhood was happy and filled with activities such as sailing, cave exploration and swimming (Cattell, 1974). However, the relative peace of his childhood was interrupted when England entered the first world war. The military hospital was next door to their home, and nine-year-old Cattell saw hundreds of wounded soldiers returning from France. He later realized the imprint they had left on him. own life these experiences of childhood: “Constantly and silently, an unchanging sense of seriousness entered my life, based on the feeling that it was hardly permissible to be less selfless than these wounded soldiers, and a new feeling for a boy - the transience of human life and the need to improve it as much as possible " (Cattell, 1974, p. 63).
At the age of 16, Cattell entered King's College, University of London, where he studied mainly physics and chemistry. A few months before graduating with honors, he discovered that professional training in the physical sciences did not meet his increased interest in social problems. Ignoring the advice of friends and classmates, Cattell decides to devote his diploma, and indeed career, to psychology. In 1929 he received the title of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of London. As a graduate student, he worked as a research assistant for Charles Spearman, the famous British psychologist who developed the method of factor analysis.
After receiving his doctorate in psychology for five years (1932-1937), Cattell worked as director of a psychological clinic in England, after which he went to New York, where he spent a year working as an associate professor with a man of great erudition, theorist of Columbia University E . L. Thorndike. Since that time he has remained in the United States. In 1938, he joined the faculty of Clark University, where G. Stanley Hall was a professor of psychology at the time, and then in 1941 he became a lecturer in psychology at Harvard. In 1945, Cattell moved to the University of Illinois, where he remained for nearly 30 years as director of the Laboratory of Personality and Group Analysis. In 1973, Cattell left his position at the University of Illinois and moved to Boulder, Colorado, where he founded the Institute for Research on the Foundations of Morality and Self-Fulfillment. Since 1977, he has been a consulting professor at the University of Hawaii, as well as a professor emeritus at Illinois. He is still actively involved in research and writing scientific papers.
One of the most prolific personality theorists, Cattell published approximately 35 books and 400 research articles during his career. The most worthy of attention are the following of his books: “Description and Measurement of Personality” (1946); "Personality: a systematic theoretical and factual study" (1950); "Scientific Analysis of Personality" (1965); “The Inheritance of Personality and Abilities” (1982) and “Beyondism: Religion from Science” (1987).
Personality Trait Theory: Basic Concepts and Principles
Cattell's theory seeks to explain the complex interactions between the personality system and the larger sociocultural matrix of the functioning organism. He believes that an adequate theory of personality must take into account the many traits that make up personality, the degree to which these traits are due to heredity and environmental influences, and the way in which genetic and environmental factors interact to influence behavior. He argues that an adequate theory of personality functioning and development must necessarily be based on rigorous research methods and accurate measurements. His favorite methods for studying personality are multivariate statistics and factor analysis.
According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation (Cattell, 1965). As a proponent of mathematical personality analysis, he was of the opinion that the prediction of behavior could be achieved through a specification equation. The main formula used by Cattell to predict behavior with a certain degree of accuracy is:
It is said here that the nature of a person's specific response (R), meaning what he does, or thinks, or expresses in words, is some indeterminate function (f) of the stimulating situation (S) at a particular time and of the personality structure (P) . The specification equation shows that the characteristic response to a situation is a function of the combination of all the traits that are significant for that situation; each trait interacts with situational factors that may influence it.
Cattell acknowledges how difficult it is to predict the behavior of any person in a given situation. To improve predictive accuracy, a personologist must consider not only the traits a person possesses, but also non-trait variables, such as the person's current mood and the specific social roles required by the situation. Moreover, it is necessary to weigh each trait in terms of its significance in the situation under consideration. For example, if a person were to find himself in an emotionally arousing situation, then the trait of anxiety would be given the greatest weight in predicting his response. Therefore, the equation R = f (S, P) represents a simplified extract of Cattell's theory of personality traits. However, from a cognitive point of view, it must not be forgotten that this main formula confirms Cattell's belief that human behavior can be determined and predicted.
Structural principles: categories of personality traits
Despite Cattell's contention that behavior is determined by the interaction of traits and situational variables, his main organizing concept of personality lies in the descriptions of the various types of traits he identified. According to Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in a certain way in different situations and at different times. The range of action of these trends is extremely wide. In other words, traits are hypothetical mental structures found in behavior that determine the predisposition to act consistently in different circumstances and over time. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics and are by far the most important in Cattell's concept.
As noted earlier, Cattell relies heavily on factor analysis to examine the structural elements of personality (Cattell, 1965, 1978). Through repeated factor analysis procedures on data collected from a study of thousands of subjects, he concludes that personality traits can be classified or categorized in several ways. Let's consider the principles of classification of traits proposed by Cattell (Cettell also uses the term factors).
Surface features - initial features. A superficial trait is a set of behavioral characteristics that, when observed, appear in an “inextricable” unity. For example, the observed symptoms of inability to concentrate, indecision, and anxiety may be closely related to each other and constitute the surface trait of neuroticism. Here, neuroticism is confirmed by a set of interrelated visible elements, and not by any one of them. Since surface traits do not have a single basis and temporal constancy, Cattell does not consider them significant in explaining behavior.
Initial traits, on the contrary, are fundamental structures that, according to Cattell, form the building blocks of the personality building itself. These are certain combined quantities or factors that ultimately determine the constancy that is observed in human behavior. Initial traits exist at a “deeper” level of personality and determine various shapes behavior over a long period of time.
After extensive research using factor analysis, Cattell (1979) concluded that the underlying structure of personality is composed of approximately sixteen underlying traits. These personality trait factors are perhaps better known for the scale now used to measure them: Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). This self-esteem scale and several others also developed by Cattell have proven extremely useful and popular in both applied and theoretical research. Below is a discussion of the baseline traits assessed by the 16 PF questionnaire.
The main initial traits identified using the Cattell questionnaire “Sixteen Personality Factors” (16 PF)
| Factor designation | Cattell factor name | Quality corresponding to a high factor rating | Quality corresponding to a low factor score |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | Responsiveness-detachment | Good-natured, enterprising, warm-hearted | Cynical, cruel, indifferent |
| B | Intelligence | Smart, abstract thinker | Stupid, concrete thinker |
| C | Emotional stability – emotional instability | Mature, realistic, calm | Unsustainable, unrealistic, uncontrollable |
| E | Dominance-submission | Confident, competitive, stubborn | Shy, modest, submissive |
| F | Prudence-carelessness | Serious, silent | Carefree, full of enthusiasm |
| G | Consciousness-irresponsibility | Responsible, moralistic, stoic | Ignorant of rules, careless, fickle |
| H | Courage-timidity | Enterprising, uninhibited | Insecure, withdrawn |
| I | Hardness-softness | Self-reliant, independent | Clinging to others, dependent |
| L | Gullibility-suspicion | Accepting terms | Stubborn to the point of stupidity |
| M | Dreaminess-practicality | Creative, artistic | Conservative, down to earth |
| N | Diplomacy-straightforwardness | Socially savvy, savvy | Socially awkward, unpretentious |
| O | Tendency to fear - calmness | Restless, preoccupied | Calm, complacent |
| Q1 | Radicalism-conservatism | Freethinking liberal | Respectful of traditional ideas |
| Q2 | Self-sufficiency-conformism | Prefers own solutions | Unquestioningly following others |
| Q3 | Indiscipline-controllability | Following your own impulses | Punctual |
| Q4 | Relaxation-tension | Discreet, calm | Overtired, excited |
Constitutional traits - traits formed by the environment. According to Cattell, basic traits can be divided into two subtypes, depending on their source. Constitutional traits develop from the biological and physiological data of an individual. For example, recovery from cocaine addiction may cause sudden irritability, depression, and anxiety. Cattell might argue that such behavior is a consequence of changes in human physiology and thus reflects constitutional underlying traits.
Environmentally shaped traits, on the other hand, are determined by influences in the social and physical environment. These traits reflect the characteristics and styles of behavior learned through learning and form the pattern imprinted on the individual by his environment. Therefore, a person who grew up on a Midwestern farm behaves differently than a person who spent his life in an urban slum.
Ability, temperament and dynamic traits. The original features, in turn, can be classified in terms of the modality through which they are expressed. Abilities as traits determine a person's skills and effectiveness in achieving a desired goal. Intelligence, musical ability, hand-eye coordination are some examples of abilities. Temperament traits refer to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior. For example, people can work on a task either quickly or slowly; they can react to some crisis calmly or hysterically. Cattell considers temperamental traits as constitutional initial traits that determine a person’s emotionality. Finally, dynamic traits reflect the motivational elements of human behavior. These are traits that activate and direct the subject towards specific goals. For example, a person may be characterized as ambitious, striving for power, or interested in acquiring material wealth.
Common features – unique features. Like Allport, Cattell (1965) believed that it makes sense to classify traits into common and unique. A common trait is a trait that is present to varying degrees in all members of the same culture. For example, self-esteem, intelligence, and introversion are common traits. In contrast, unique traits are traits that only a few or even one person has. Cattell suggests that unique traits are especially likely to manifest themselves in areas of interest and attitude. For example, Sally is the only person to have compiled a collection of reports on infant mortality in Sweden and Canada in 1930. Very few people, if any, would share this interest.
Almost all of Cattell's research is devoted to general traits, but his recognition of unique traits makes it possible to emphasize the importance of the unique individuality of people. He also believes that the organization of common traits in personality itself is always unique. However, we should not exaggerate the significance of Cattell's recognition of the unique combination of traits in each individual person. In reality he was much more interested general principles behavior than the personality of a particular individual.
Sources of data for factor analysis
We have already noted that Cattell especially emphasizes the importance of factor analysis for determining the main personality traits. However, before proceeding to the factor analysis procedure, it is necessary to first collect a mass of data from a huge sample. Cattell draws his data from three main sources: real-life data (L-data), self-report data from questionnaires (Q-data), and objective test data (OT-data).
The first, L-data, are measures of behavior in specific everyday situations, such as school performance or peer relationships. These data may also include ratings of personality traits given by people who know the subject well in real life. life situations(for example, employees). Q data, on the other hand, is a person's self-assessments regarding his behavior, thoughts and feelings. Such information reflects introspection and introspection of the individual. To obtain Q-data, Cattell developed special self-esteem tests, of which the Sixteen Personality Factors questionnaire deserves the most attention (Cattell et al., 1970). At the same time, he expresses certain doubts about this type of data: people do not always know themselves well enough or may deliberately distort or falsify answers. He cautions researchers that self-report data should be treated with caution. And finally, OT data is obtained as a result of modeling special situations in which an individual’s actions in performing certain tasks can be assessed objectively. Here, according to Cattell, distinctive feature is that a person is placed in invented “miniature situations”, and he reacts without knowing by what criteria his responses are evaluated. For example, a person may be offered a Rorschach test, which does not provide the opportunity for any kind of forgery. So, OT data is difficult to distort.
Identification of initial traits empirically. To reflect the complexity of personality and create a multidimensional research strategy, Cattell believes it is necessary to use many data sources. This approach simultaneously takes into account various manifestations of personality parameters, but it does not allow the researcher to manipulate variables. Cattell argues: if such a multidimensional study as factor analysis is truly capable of reliably identifying the functional blocks of personality, then the same factors or initial traits can be obtained from the three above-mentioned various types data. This logical statement assumes that each data source actually measures common and fundamental personality traits.
Cattell initially subjected only the L data to factor analysis. He discovered 15 factors that seemed to best explain a person's personality. He and his colleagues then tried to determine whether similar factors would be derived from Q data. Literally thousands of questionnaire items were developed and asked to be completed very a large number people, after which the data were subjected to factorization in order to determine the matching items. The result of this enormous research effort was "16 PF". The list of original traits derived by "16 PF" is presented in the above table. In general, the factors identified using the Q data were consistent with those identified using the L data; only some of them turned out to be unique for both types of data. And in particular, the first 12 factors listed in the table occurred in both the Q-data and the L-data, while the last four factors obtained from the Q-data did not fit the L-data.
Addressing the question of the degree to which personality traits influence behavior, Cattell (1965) expressed the opinion that one trait is stronger than another if it has high loadings in more patterns of behavior (that is, a general set of traits that can be used to describe personality). Therefore, Factor A (Responsiveness-Aloofness) is the strongest trait listed because it has a greater influence on people's behavior in various situations than any other trait. Whether we are talking about such events as school performance, efficiency in secretarial work, the heroic deed of a soldier, or a successful marriage, in all these cases the A factor makes a very significant contribution to human activity. There are not so many situations in which factor B (intelligence) takes part; and even fewer in which factor C (emotional stability) plays a significant role, and so on, throughout the list. Consequently, the strength of a trait is determined by its significance for regulating behavior in various circumstances.
The role of heredity and environment. What makes Cattell unique as a scientist is that he attempted to determine the relative contributions of heredity and environment to the development of personality traits. To this end, he developed a statistical procedure, Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA), which assesses not only the presence or absence of genetic influence, but also the extent to which traits are due to genetic or environmental influence (Cattell, 1960). This procedure involves collecting data on various similarities between identical twins raised in the same family; between siblings (brothers and sisters) who grew up in the same family; identical twins raised in different families and siblings raised apart. The results of using the MAVA technique (based on the use of personality tests to assess a particular personality trait) show that the significance of genetic and environmental influences varies significantly from trait to trait. For example, evidence suggests that about 65-70% of the variance in intelligence and self-confidence scores can be attributed to genetic influences, while the genetic influence on traits such as self-awareness and neuroticism is likely to be half that . In general, Cattell estimates that about two-thirds of personality characteristics are determined by environmental influences and one-third by heredity.
According to Cattell, in addition to the direct influence of situational factors, people's behavior is significantly influenced by the groups to which they belong (family, church, peer groups, colleagues, school, nationality). Personality traits can describe not only individual people, but also social groups, of which they are members. The range of traits by which groups can be objectively characterized is called their syntality. Using factor analysis, Cattell (1949) studied the synergy of various religious, educational and professional groups. He also studied a group of traits that make up the synergy of entire nations (Cattell et al., 1952). The main features that determine the synthetic nature of countries include the size of its territory, morale, wealth and degree of industrialization. No other personologist has done as much as Cattell in the direction of a detailed description of the traits that characterize society as a whole, as well as the study of the influence of these traits on human behavior.
Final comments
In terms of the breadth and scale of research in the field of personality, there is no doubt that Cattell is worthy of recognition as the most outstanding personologist of our time. His scientific and research activities have touched almost all aspects relevant to personality theory - structure, development, motivation, psychopathology, mental health and change. His efforts to build a theory based on precise measurement techniques are truly impressive. As one of his followers notes, Cattell is worthy of all admiration: "It should be noted that Cattell's original program for the study of personality was the result of an extremely rich theoretical system, which has proven far more fruitful in terms of empirical research than any other theory" (Wiggins, 1984, p. . 190). However, unfortunately, Cattell’s theory did not receive proper assessment from many personologists who studied human personality, and remained essentially little known to the general public. Critics point out that Cattell's works are written in complex language and are difficult to understand. There is also criticism of his excessive commitment to factor analysis, as well as the subjectivity of his proposed formulations, interpretations and names of the main features obtained by the statistical method. Despite the lack of attention to his work and some well-deserved criticism of him, Cattell remains a strong believer in his approach, which is likely to provide us with the opportunity to understand the structure and function of personality. We hope that this short review will serve as an incentive for students to become more seriously acquainted with Cattell's theory. We especially recommend the work he wrote as a final year university student - “The Scientific Analysis of Personality” (Cattell, 1965).
Cattell can by no means be considered the only personologist who devoted himself to studying the basic structure of personality traits. Hans Eysenck also used factor analysis to identify a range of aspects needed to explain human behavior.
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