How grammatical meanings are expressed. Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings

GCs are expressed using various grammatical means (=grammatical indicators, formal indicators).

In Russian, there are the following means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. The main intra-word means of expressing grammatical meanings:

1) endings (= inflections) express CG forms of gender, number, case of nouns, adjectives, participles, pronouns: mo to her new Ouch unfinished Ouch books And ; case of numerals: twenty And dv mind ; persons, numbers, gender of the verb: write at, wrote A and bud at write.

2) formative affixes:

A) suffixes- past tense of the verb speak l, writing l a, moving l is; comparative and superlative adjectives fast her, strong to her, new eysh ii; aspectual forms of the verb know wa th, redistribution yva th, sense Well th.

b) prefixes- aspectual forms of the verb on write, about read; superlative forms of adjectives: nai best, nai smartest.

V) postfixes- pledge forms wash Xia , captivate Xia , bend Xia .

2. Additional intra-word means of expressing grammatical meanings:

1) stress– stress only: case forms house A (I.p. pl.) - d O ma(Gen. p.s.ch.), waters s (Gen. n.) - V O dy(pl.); stress + affixation: person forms of the verb: write at (1 l.) - P And sew(2 l.), forms of the form: vst A t (owl) - getting up A t (inn.); stress + alternation of sounds: wives s (Gen.p. unit) - and yo us(Im.p., singular).

2) alternation of sounds in the base- case forms of the noun: and e n A(Im.p., singular) - f yo us(Im.p., pl.), alternating with zero sound in case forms: With O n(I.p.) - sleep(R.p.); specific forms of the verb: Izve st it - know sch at; personal forms of the verb: ka hat (1 l.) - ka Tish (2 l.), etc.

3) intonation- grammatical forms of the imperative mood: go!, sit down!, write!;

3. Non-verbal means of expressing grammatical meanings:

1) prepositions- in unity with inflections, they are a means of expressing case meanings: About work(object value P..p.), At work(local value of P. p.), at home(R..p.), To home(D.p.);

2) auxiliary words– forms of the subjunctive mood of the verb: particle would go, would meet; forms of the future tense of imperfective verbs: linking verb be: I will, you will, we will ... read; forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs: deeper, most wonderful, more detailed.

Depending on the nature of the means of expressing the grammatical meaning, the grammatical form of a word can be represented either by one word form say, say, or a combination of two word forms: a significant word and a function word (linking verb, particle) I'll speak, would say. In the first case we have synthetic morphological forms, and in the second - analytical word forms. In the Russian language there are also suppletive word forms that, as part of the morphological paradigm, are formed from different lexical bases with the same lexical meaning: a) unit forms. and many others. noun numbers - Human(unit) – People(pl.), b) owls. and nesov. verb type: put(unsov.v.) - put(sov.v.); c) verb tense: go - went; d) case forms of pronouns: me - me, he is his; e) comparative degree adjectives: good - better.

Therefore, there are 3 ways to express grammatical meaning in a word:

1. Synthetic, in which the means of expressing grammatical meanings are in the word itself.

2. Analytical, in which the means of expressing grammatical meanings are outside the word.

3 suppletive, in which the grammatical meaning is expressed in word forms of the same lexeme, formed from different roots.

In the morphological paradigm of one word, there may be word forms formed in all three ways. For example, go, go, go, go.

The above means and ways of expressing grammatical meaning are associated with the formation of word forms as part of morphological paradigms, therefore they are called paradigmatic. In addition to paradigmatic, grammatical meanings can be expressed syntagmatic means - with the help of other word forms with which the given one is combined as part of a syntagma (in a phrase and a sentence).

In the case of the speech use of grammatically modified words, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement each other. For example, in the phrase new suit new suits the meanings of the number are expressed in the endings of both the noun and the adjective. If a grammatically invariable word functions in speech, in which there are no paradigmatic means of expressing the GP, then the only way to detect grammatical meaning is syntagmatics - grammatical compatibility: new coat – new coats, new coats etc.

The Russian language is inflectional, it is characterized by a synthetic way of expressing the GZ. However, in the 20th century there is a trend towards an increase in the degree of analyticism. About 2000 unchangeable words, the grammatical meanings of which are expressed outside of this word. Analytic (invariable) adjectives appear beige dress, flared trousers.

When determining the grammatical meanings of word forms, it is necessary to take into account all the means of expressing grammatical meanings in the complex.

1. grammar category.

Formally expressed grammatical meanings that are in opposition (opposed to each other) are grammatical category.

E.V. Klobukov: « Grammar category is a systemic opposition of all homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by formal grammatical means” (2005, p. 498).

L.I. Rakhmanov: « Grammar category generalizes correlative and opposing grammatical meanings that find their expression in certain grammatical forms.

Grammatical (=morphological) category is a two-way language unit, represented by the unity of grammatical semantics, morphological forms of the word and their formal indicators expressing this semantics. Within the framework of the grammatical category, the morphological meanings of the word are opposed to other morphological meanings expressed by formal indicators.

From a semantic point of view, grammatical categories represent a set of homogeneous but contrasting grammatical meanings; From a formal point of view, grammatical categories are a set of grammatical forms that express this grammatical meaning.

Brief Russian grammar (V.V. Lopatin): "A grammatical category is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings" (KG, 1989, p. 11).

GK = MK belong to the most common grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, pronouns.

Grammar categories have paradigmatic organization. A paradigm is a system of grammatical forms united by an integral meaning and opposed to each other at the same time by components of a grammatical meaning that have formal means of expression. The opposition of series of forms within a grammatical category is carried out on the basis of the presence or absence of one of the formally expressed particular grammatical meanings in the opposed forms. (Ibid.). For example, within the category of noun gender, masculine, feminine, and neuter forms are distinguished.

Particular grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical forms as part of a category form oppositions.

Differ private And equivalent opposition:

IN privative oppositions are opposed by a strong (+) and a weak (-) member of the opposition. A strong member of the opposition is characterized by the presence of a certain component of grammatical meaning, and a weak member of the opposition is characterized by the absence of this component of meaning.

The perfect form of the verb (+) expresses CG 'action limited by the limit', the imperfect form (-) - ' long-term action, which has no limit.

The indicative mood of the verb (+) expresses GZ ‘actually occurring action’,

Imperative and subjunctive (-) – ‘unreal (desired, possible) action’.

IN equivalent oppositions are opposed to equally specific members, each of which is opposed to all the others.

Feminine gender, masculine, neuter gender; singular - plural.

There are binary oppositions, in which two terms are opposed to each other, and non-binary oppositions, which include a greater number of oppositions.

inflectional category, if the paradigm of one lexeme contains at least two meanings of this grammatical category (categories of number and case, tense of the verb).

classifying categories, if one grammatical meaning of the category is represented in the paradigm of one lexeme - the category of the gender of the noun.

Grammatical categories are obligatory and regular for all words of one part of speech; they characterize significant parts of speech and determine their morphological specificity. They are distributed differently between parts of speech: nouns - gender, number, case; verb - aspect, pledge, mood, tense, person, number, gender. GC, characterizing the words of different parts of speech, are in a relationship of hierarchical subordination. For example, the category of case characterizes nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles. But the basic category is the case of nouns. GCs are systemic and hierarchical in nature and within one part of speech. So, the basic verbal categories are aspect, voice, tense and mood, because characterize the action itself, called the verb. The category of a person is communicatively oriented, the categories of number and gender are syntagmatically (syntactically) determined by the combination of a verb with nouns. GCs are in close interaction with each other and show a tendency to interpenetrate: the form and tense of the verb, the person of verbs and pronouns, the number of the noun and other parts of speech.

A grammatical way is a material expression of grammatical meanings (both relational and derivational). Grammatical meanings are expressed not directly by phonemes (or even more so by speech sounds), but by well-known technical combinations from phonetic material, which are grammatical methods.

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings are ways of forming word forms.

There are a limited number of grammatical ways used in the language

I. SYNTHETIC METHOD- expression of meanings in the word itself:

Affixation(from Latin affixus - attached) - the formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes, infixes, postfixes (table, table, table, etc.; do - do, write - write, etc.; justify - justify, exchange - exchange, etc.

Flexion(lat. flexio - bending, transition) - the same as the end; an inflectional morpheme that expresses the meaning of gender, number, case and person in the word forms of the Russian language, and also serves to express morpho-syntactic relations. For example, inflection -a in the word form water expresses feminine meanings, singular, nominative case, inflection -s in the word form in green expresses the meanings of the plural. numbers and creativity. case.

internal flexion(stem inflection) - a change in the sound composition of the root, expressing the difference in grammatical meanings (alternation of sounds): remove - remove, send - send (alternation of the root vowel with zero sound serves to distinguish between an imperfect and perfect form), wez - woz (alternation of the root vowel serves to distinguish between different lexical and grammatical classes: verb and noun); lock up - lock up, die - die, recruit - recruit, etc.

Zero inflection- an ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in the word by compilation with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented. For example, in the combination of a pair of boots, the second word in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.) highlights in its composition the zero ending of the genitive case plural.

Agglutination and fusion.

Agglutination(lat. agglūtinātio - gluing; the term was introduced by Fr. Bopp) - a way of forming word forms and derivative words by mechanically attaching standard affixes to immutable, devoid internal inflection, bases or roots (note that each affix has only one grammatical meaning, as well as each meaning is always expressed by the same affix): in Turkish, oda means “room”, lar is a plural suffix, yes is a locative suffix ( to the question where?); when these elements are combined, an odalard is obtained with the meaning "in the rooms"; ara (Kazakh “saw”) + ha (D.p. singular) + lar (I.p. pl.) = ara-lar-ga (D.p. pl.); bala (Tat. “child”) + ha (D.p. singular) + lar (I.p. pl.) = bala-lar-ga (D.p. pl.).

Fusion(lat. fūsio - alloy; the term was introduced by E. Sapir) - the merging of morphemes, accompanied by a change in their phonemic composition. Most often, there is a close morphological connection of the modified root with multi-valued non-standard affixes, leading to the blurring of boundaries between morphemes. These include:

1. the interlacing of the prefix and the root, as a result of which the same sound belongs to both morphemes: I will come (at + I go), open (raz + yawn), etc .;
2. merging the final sound of the root with the initial sound of the suffix: grow (grow + ti);
3. the double role of the suffix: Sverdlovsk region(Sverdlov + -sk + -sk + -aya, where the first -sk is the basis of the noun, the second -sk should have served as a suffix relative adjective);
4. interweaving of parts in a compound word as a result of dropping one of the two directly following friend after another identical syllables (haplology): porcupine (dik + o + image), mineralogy (mineral + o + logy), morphonology (mor + pho + phonology).

Agglutination is characteristic of most languages ​​of Asia, Africa and Oceania (in which there are affixes), fusion is mainly a property of Indo-European languages, although they also have elements of agglutination. For example, in Russian lang. cases of agglutination are manifested in prefixation, tk. prefixes in Russian lang. unambiguous, standard different parts speeches and their attachment to the roots do not have the character of a close fusion: run, run over, run-run, run-run, run-run, run-run.

stress- permutation of stress: pour - pour; cut - cut; castle - castle, etc.

suppletivism(from late Latin suppletivus - complementary) - the formation of forms of the same word from different roots. The root morphs of such word forms are devoid of formal (phonemic) proximity and therefore cannot be combined into one morpheme. Found in Russian C. singular and plural forms of nouns(man - people, child - children), case forms of personal pronouns - forms of the nominative case, on the one handside, and indirect cases - on the other(I - me, me; we - us, us; he, she, it - him, him, her, her, etc.), comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs(good - better, bad - worse, a lot - more, little - less), short form of adjective(big - big) formspast tense of the verb(go, go, walking - walked, walked, walked) aspectual pairs of the verb(take - take, put - put, speak - say, catch - catch).

reduplication(lat. reduplicatio - doubling) - a way of expressing grammatical meaning, consisting in full or partial doubling (repetition) of the stem: barely, honor honor, glad-radeshenek, hand in hand, white-white, slightly, blue-blue , lived-were, for a long time, etc.

II. ANALYTICAL METHOD- expression of meanings outside the word: I write - I will write, beautiful - more beautiful, etc.

III. MIXED WAY- a combination of elements of synthetic and analytical methods in the formation of word forms: in the book (preposition and case ending); i read (personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person).

Depending on the GP and the way it is expressed, the very structure of the language also differs: analytical and synthetic languages.

Analytical languages ​​are languages ​​in which grammatical meanings (relationships between words in a sentence) are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by functional words with significant words, the order of significant words, and the intonation of the sentence. Analytical languages ​​include, for example, English, French, Italian, Spanish, Bulgarian, Danish, etc.

Synthetic languages ​​are languages ​​in which grammatical meanings are expressed within the word itself (affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism, etc., i.e., by the forms of the words themselves). To express the relationship between words in a sentence, elements of the analytical system (functional words, order of significant words, intonation) can also be used. Synthetic languages ​​include, for example, Ancient Greek, Latin, Old Church Slavonic, Russian, German, Lithuanian, etc.

A grammatical way is a set of classes of grammatical forms with homogeneous means of expressing grammatical meanings. There are no abstract grammatical methods without taking into account grammatical forms and meanings. Ways of expressing grammatical meanings are divided into two large groups: synthetic and analytical.

With the synthetic method, the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by its form. Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings include affixation, agglutination, inflection and morpheme-operations. In the analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings, lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed separately. Analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings include function words and word order. Accordingly, in accordance with the predominance of synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings in a language, languages ​​are conditionally divided into synthetic and analytical.

synthetic methods.

• 1. Affixation is the most common way. With it, grammatical forms are formed with the help of affixes, materially expressed, or zero, attached to the formative basis: for example, house - at home, do - do - did;
• 2. Agglutination. With this way of expressing grammatical meanings, each grammatical meaning is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has its own function. The formative basis remains, as a rule, unchanged. For example: in the Kazakh language, the suffix -lar- denotes the plural, and the suffix -gad is the dative case. Then if the child, in Kazakh, is bala, then the children are balalar, and the children are balalarga, if the girl is kyz, then the girls are kyzlar, and the girls are kyzlarga. This method is used in languages ​​of the agglutinative type (Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Japanese, etc.);
• 3. Inflection. With inflection, inflection is carried out through affixes or inflections. The same inflection is capable of conveying several grammatical meanings. Here we also encounter the phenomenon of fusion - the interpenetration between the formative basis and affixes. This can be considered a tautology, but inflection is characteristic of languages ​​of the inflectional type, which include most Indo-European languages. For example: to fly - I'm flying, a man - a peasant (a man and ck and ii get a peasant);
• 4. Morphemes - operations. When implementing this method of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical meanings are conveyed by suprasegmental morphemes:
  • A) emphasis. In this case, grammatical meanings are expressed by shifting the stress. For example, us`ypat - pour, cut - cut. This method can in some cases be observed even in languages ​​with fixed stress.
  • B) Alternations (internal flexion). With internal inflection, grammatical meanings are expressed by alternating the root morpheme. The most striking example:
    • - English. Sing - sang - sung - song;
    • - foot - feet;
    • - man - men.

In russian language:

• - friend [k] - friend [g] - friends - friendly;
• - naked [l] - goal [l "];
• - look - I look.

In French:

• - doux - douce;
• - oeil - yeux.
• C) Reduplication (repeats). When implementing this type of morphemes - operations, the grammatical meaning is expressed by the full or partial construction of the root, stem or the whole word. For example: Russian. Barely, slightly, big-big, thought-thought express an increase in the intensity of an action or sign. Latin. Mordeo (I bite) - momordi (I have bitten). In a number of languages, reduplication is a normative way of plural formation: Chinese zhen (person) - zhen-zhen (people), Armenian gund (regiment) - gund - gund (many regiments). Reduplication as a grammatical phenomenon is widespread in Polynesian and other Austronesian languages: beat - beat, beat - beat, take - take, lava - lava.
• D) suppletivism. When implementing this grammatical method, grammatical methods are formed by completely changing the basis. For example, in Russian: good - better, bad - worse, I - me, etc. In many Indo-European languages, the phenomenon of suppletivism is observed in verbs with the meaning "to be" and "to go".

When implementing the analytical method of forming grammatical meanings, lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed separately. The analytical method includes a function word method and a word order method.

With the method of functional words, the grammatical meaning is transmitted; the grammatical meaning is transmitted using a combination of a significant and a functional word. For example, I will read - the meaning of the future tense, I would read - the meaning of the conditional mood, more beautiful - the meaning of the degree of comparison.

The function words are:

• A) Articles: English. a/the apple (def./undef.).
• B) Prepositions: I went to my sister, I look at you, I know her - they clarify case relations.
• B) postpositions. They are functionally identical to prepositions, but come after the significant word to which they refer. For example, Azeri Yer balalaruchun ( kindergarten) - literally - "a place for children." "Uchun" is a postposition with the meaning "for".
• D) Particles: I would like, where "would" is a particle expressing the category of the conditional mood of the verb.
• E) Auxiliary verbs are full-value words that have undergone de semantics: I will read.

The word order method, as a way of expressing grammatical meanings, is most productive in languages ​​with a fixed word order, such as French and English. However, this way can also be found in Russian: compare twenty people (exactly) and twenty people (approximately).

A hybrid or mixed way of expressing grammatical meanings allows you to use both analytical and synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings in a complex. For example, in Russian the meaning of the prepositional case (if it is not specified) is expressed both synthetically - by case inflection, and analytically - by the preposition: on earth.

A grammatical field is a set of grammatical units united by a common content and / or formal indicators and reflecting the conceptual, subject or functional similarity of the designated phenomena.

Grammar fields, for example:

• - voice field, represented in the language by both grammatical (morphologized) units and units that are on the verge of paradigmatics and syntagmatics (free and semi-free phrases);
• - syntagmatic fields - phrases and others syntactic units as manifestations of the semantic compatibility of their components, for example, "go" - "legs", "bark" - "dog";
• - sets of structural models of sentences united by common semantic tasks;
• - for example, in the syntactic field of imperativeness, all models are included, with the help of which an order is expressed.

The term "field" is often used in an undifferentiated way along with the terms "group" (lexico-semantic group, thematic group), "paradigm" (lexico-semantic, syntactic paradigm), etc.

Formal and functional grammars.

NS grammar.

The grammar of direct constituents arose within the framework of descriptive linguistics. NN grammar is a formal method in which a sentence is considered as a set of non-overlapping elements.

The principle of parsing a proposal according to the NS principle is extremely simple. Two adjacent elements are combined into a structure if they are syntactically related. It sounds a little vague in words, but let's look at an example.

Example, in Russian:

In fact, the proposal is considered as a linear chain of elements, combined into blocks according to certain rules.

This type of parsing works well in cases with direct word order, but if the word order in the language is free, as, for example, in Russian, then such parsing raises difficulties, sometimes insurmountable, since the parsing becomes either meaningless or takes place " intersection” of branches, which contradicts the rules of the National Assembly. In addition, according to the rules of the grammar of the National Assembly, the simplest construction must be formed from two elements located directly next to each other. In a good way, in fact, difficulties can arise even when parsing sentences in English.

In addition, such a grammar, in isolation from semantics, is vulnerable both from the point of view of explanatory adequacy and from the point of view of generation, i.e. in fact - predictive power. That is, if we evaluate the NN model according to three criteria for evaluating models: explanatory adequacy, descriptive efficiency and predictive power, then the NN model does not seem attractive. They tried to overcome the shortcomings of the grammar of the National Assembly in the USA with the help of TRANSFORMATIONAL (GENERATIVE, GENERATIVE) GRAMMAR.

GENERATIVE LINGUISTICS is one of the branches of the formal trend in linguistics, which arose under the influence of the ideas of N. Chomsky in the 50s and 60s. 20th century and based on the description of the language in the form of formal models of a certain type. The initial and basic type of formal models for generative linguistics are transformational generative grammars, sometimes abbreviated as transformational grammars or generative grammars. This theory arose in the United States as a reaction to American descriptism (see Descriptive Linguistics) and the method (apparatus) of syntactic analysis of a sentence by its immediate constituents, but in its meaning it went beyond the limits of the national linguistic school. Generative linguistics has put forward several fundamental oppositions: "competence" - knowledge of the language and "use" - the use of language in speech activity are clearly distinguished. Transformational generative grammar describes, first of all, the competence of the speaker.

The structure of this grammar has three main components: syntactic, semantic and phonological, of which the main, central, is syntax, and semantics and phonology perform interpretive functions in relation to syntax. Two levels of syntactic representation are introduced into the transformational generative grammar:

• - deep (deep structure) and surface (surface structure);
• - the task of the syntactic description is the calculation of all deep and surface structures, as well as the establishment of a strict correspondence between them.

The syntax contains the base and transformation subcomponents. The base - a system of elementary rules, supposedly close to different languages ​​- calculates a limited set of deep structures, prototypes of future sentences. First base rule:

• S=NP+VP
• - decomposes the original symbol of the sentence S into a sequence of components: NP - a nominal group (which is a subject group) and VP - a verb group.

In the right part of the rules, both non-terminal and terminal (finite, further indecomposable) symbols are possible.

Terminals include, in particular, symbols of parts of speech: S - Sentence (Sentence), NP - Noun Phrase (Nominal group), VP - Verb Phrase (Verb group), T - The (Article), Attr (A) - Attribute ( Definition), N - Noun (Name), V - Verb (Verb), Aux - Auxiliary (Auxiliary Verb), Part - Participle (Participle), Adv - Adverb (Adverb), presented as a so-called marked-up tree of direct constituents or in in the form of marked bracket notation. So, to generate the sentence "Chomsky created a generative grammar", the rules of the base will build approximately a trace, a structural characteristic: the category of time, and the main verb (MV - main verb).

The main verb consists of the verb (V) and the noun phrase of the direct object. This noun phrase, represented in the surface structure as an attribute combination "generating grammar", in the original structural characteristic contains the noun phrase "grammar" and the embedded (embedded) relative sentence S2 "which (=grammar) generates", the decomposition of which is similar to the decomposition of the matrix (matrix ), that is, the main clause S1. Such a structure is interpreted by the semantic component (all terminal symbols in accordance with the combined, stored in the dictionary entries of the lexicon of the generative grammar).

Thus, the structure of the National Assembly of the sentence we have already analyzed before will have the following form:

The transformational subcomponent generates sentence surface structures from the structures obtained as a result of the action of the basic rules. If the Deep Structure consists of a system of nested sentences, then the transformational rules are applied cyclically, starting with the most deeply nested sentences (those that no longer depend on any clauses) and ending with the main clause.

From a formal point of view, thanks to transformations, four types of operations on symbols can be performed: adding, omitting (erasing), rearranging, and replacing symbols. In terms of content, transformations reveal regular correspondences between synonymous sentences of the type:

• - (1a) "Chomsky created the theory of generative grammars";
• - (1b) "Chomsky created the theory of generative grammars";
• - (2a) "It turned out that the theory of generative grammars is incorrect";
• - (2b) “The theory of generative grammars turned out to be incorrect”, etc., as well as between constructions that are similar in structure and meaning;
• - (3) "The theory of generative grammars explains the language";
• - (4a) "The theory of generative grammars seeks to explain language";
• - (4b) "The theory of generative grammars does not seek to explain the language";
• - (4c) "Does the theory of generative grammars seek to explain language?"
• - (4d) "The aspiration of the theory of generative grammars to explain the language";
• - (4e) "The theory of generative grammars, seeking to explain the language", etc. There are about two dozen fundamentals. transformations (processes), as a result of which the main types of syntactic constructions of various languages ​​are obtained.

For example:

• - negative transformation creates a negative sentence of type 4b;
• - interrogative transformation creates sentences like 4c;
• - transformation of passivity builds sentences of type 1b from the same deep structure as 1a;
• - transformation nominally transforms the sentence, e.g. 4a, into a type 4d noun phrase;
• - transformation transforms a sentence of type 4a into relates, a sentence of type 4e;
• - the transformation of the omission of noun phrases when inserting a sentence of type 3 into the structure underlying the sentence of type 4a omits the subject of the inserted sentence;
• - lifting transformation from the structures underlying sentence type 2a, builds sentences of type 2b by lifting the subject of the inserted sentence into the matrix;
• - transformation replaces (as part of one sentence) noun phrases with a reflexive pronoun (for example, “Mom bought herself gloves”), etc.

After the transformational subcomponent, the phonological component “works”, providing a phonetic interpretation of the sentence. At the output of the phonological component, the sentence is transformed into a chain of phonetic symbols (representing the matrix of phonetic features in short). Formally in general view the rules of the transformational generative grammar are:

A => Z / X - Y

That is, they are substitution rules indicating that the character A is converted to a string of characters Z when surrounded by X on the left and Y on the right. The general structure of this grammar can be represented as a diagram.

Generative linguistics was widely developed both in the USA and abroad in the 60s. 20th century She increased the demand for a linguistic description given in the form of a calculus. Draws attention to unobservable syntax objects whose existence is determined indirectly. Contributed to the development of an apparatus for describing syntax, comparable in detail with the apparatus for describing morphology; introduced into linguistics the technique of description formalization, which facilitates, in particular, the automation of language processes with the help of computers. However, immediately after Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), which reflected the stage of the so-called standard theory, opposition currents arose within generative linguistics itself, for example, generative semantics, case grammar. In the 70s. the influence of the ideas of generative linguistics is significantly weakened, many of its weak sides, for example, a priori in the selection of initial syntactic units and rules of the base component. Not focusing on modeling speech activity and, in particular, underestimating the role of the semantic component and pragmatic factors. Weak applicability to the description of languages ​​with different structures. In the 80s. the ideas of generative linguistics continue to be developed by Chomsky and his students (the so-called "Extended Standard Theory", "Revised Extended Standard Theory", etc.). These theories also did not overcome the shortcomings of generative linguistics. However, the terminological apparatus of transformational generative grammar has entered into linguistic use and is used by many linguists working outside the framework of generative linguistics (for example, deep structure, surface structure, transformations, and some others).

DEPENDENCY STRUCTURE:

On a linearly ordered chain of word forms of the sentence P, a binary relation of dependence is set, reflecting in a meaningful way the fact that two word forms in a sentence that form a phrase are usually “unequal” both in grammatical and semantic terms. This relation of dependence can be considered as a generalization of the relations of control, coordination and contiguity traditionally singled out in the sentence. A set of such dependencies between the word forms of a sentence provides essential information about the syntactic structure of this sentence. Empirical observations show that in most cases this set of dependencies on the set of occurrences of the word forms of the sentence P can be represented as a graph that is a tree.

The dependency tree of a sentence P is a finite graph on the set of occurrences of word forms (nodes) of a sentence P such that:

there is a single word form that does not depend on any other (this word form is called the dereza root, or, in linguistic terminology, its top);

any word form other than the one at the top depends on exactly one other word form;

there are no closed paths in the graph.

The path in the dependency tree forms a sequence of word forms, in which each next word form depends on the previous one. For each node in the tree, there is only one path from the top of the tree. A closed path is a path in which its beginning and end coincide. If a path leads from the word form x in the sentence P to the word form y, then we say that the word form x indirectly subordinates the word form y (or: the word form y indirectly depends on the word form x). They also use the term "l: governs the word form y".

The set of all word forms indirectly dependent on word forms v is called the dependency group of this word form. Note that the direct dependence of y on the word form x is a special case of indirect dependence.

The relationship of dependence between word forms is denoted by the arc X-Y.

The dependency group of the preposition for includes a phrase to represent the syntactic structure of the sentence. The dependency group of the top of the tree uses includes the entire clause.

Like component structures, dependency trees have enough "distinctive power" to resolve the structural homonymy of sentences.

Dependency structure (1) corresponds to the meaning of the sentence: He took out a pipe made of clay, structure (2): He took out a pipe that lay in clay.

When analyzing natural language sentences, so-called labeled dependency trees are often used. In a tagged dependency tree, each arc (dependency relation) is assigned to a certain type of grammatical connection between word forms in a sentence. So, for example, the relationship between the subject and the predicate is predicative (prev.), between the noun and the adjective agreed with it - definitive (def.), between the noun and the inconsistent definition - attributive (atrib.), between the verb and the circumstance associated with it - adverbial (vow.), etc. The set of types of grammatical relations depends on the specific grammar of the language. In his work, I.A. Melchuk (1964) considers 31 types of addictions in Russian.

The annotated dependency tree for the above sentence would be:

Marked dependency structures make it possible to distinguish the homonymy of sentences or constructions in their composition in the case when it is not possible to assign two different unmarked dependency trees to a homonymous sentence.

There is another graphical representation of the dependency structure in the form of the so-called nested dependency tree (Sevbo, 1981). This way of depicting the structure of a sentence consists in choosing a two-dimensional coordinate system, along one of the axes of which (abscissa axes) the word forms are arranged in the linear order of them in the sentence, and along the other axis (y-axis) the nodes of the dependency tree are placed in accordance with the level, occupied by this node in the tree.

In this case, the y-axis is usually directed from top to bottom, so that the top (root) of the dependency tree, according to linguistic terminology, remains the top of the tree (the tree "grows" from top to bottom).

1 - 2 - 3 - 4.

Sentence structure To represent syntactic structure:

4 - 5 - 6 - 7.

A sentence using a dependency tree in the form of a nested dependency tree in a two-dimensional coordinate system (cf. the one-dimensional representation of the “arrow” structure of this sentence above) will look like this:

Since the hierarchy of nodes of the dependency structure is determined by the y-axis, arrows can be omitted when displaying the located dependency tree.

PROJECTIVE DEPENDENCE STRUCTURES:

The formal representation of the structure of a sentence in the form of a dependency tree allows us to rigorously formulate one of the essential syntactic patterns of natural languages. This is the so-called property of the design of natural language sentence dependency structures.

Above, the concept of the dependency group of the word form x in the sentence P was defined. Recall that the dependency group of the word form x includes all word forms of the sentence П that depend directly or indirectly on x.

The projective dependency structure of a sentence P is such a structure in which the dependency group of each word form is an inseparable segment in the linear order of the words of the sentence.

This property of the sentence structure is also known as the “compactness” property, when the syntactically related word forms of the sentence (phrases) are connected in it, forming an inseparable segment of the sentence. In the located dependency tree, the violation of the project property is formally expressed in the fact that the projection lines leading from word forms linearly located along the abscissa axis intersect the dependency tree arcs, reflecting the structural relationships between word forms in the sentence, or the arcs of the located dependency tree intersect with each other. With a one-dimensional (linear) representation of the dependency tree, when both the linear order of words in the sentence and the structural relationships between word forms are taken into account, the formal sign of a violation of the pattern of the project is the intersection of arrows (arcs) of dependencies between word forms.

A special case of project violation is the “covering” of the top of the sentence by the arrow.

In this case, there is no intersection of the arcs of the dependency tree, but the main feature of the project is violated: “discontinuous” groups of dependencies of individual word forms appear in the sentence (that is, groups that are not segments in the linear order of the words of the sentence).

The dependency structure design property is a statistically proven strong pattern in natural language, and it is usually violated in two ways:

a) in sentences with a clear violation of the normalized word order (“in grammatically incorrect sentences”):

b) in sentences, when the project is violated in order to achieve a certain artistic (stylistic) effect:

The project as a regularity of natural language syntax, which regulates linear order relations and structural connections between word forms in a sentence, sometimes turns out to be so strong that native speakers prefer a projective syntactic structure to a non-projective one, to the detriment of the correct semantic interpretation of the sentence.

1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5.

The proposal considered above He brought from foggy Germany:

Scholarship fruits are usually interpreted as projective:

But the structure corresponding correct understanding of this sentence, will be different, moreover, it will not be projective:

AGREED STRUCTURES OF COMPONENTS AND DEPENDENCES:

Structures of components and dependencies in principle reflect significantly different information about the structure of the proposal.

The main differences between these two representations of the syntactic structure of a sentence are as follows.

Elementary units in the dependency tree are occurrences of word forms, elementary syntactic units in the structure of components are word combinations (including, as a special case, individual word forms and a complete sentence).

The structure of dependencies is based on an "unequal" relationship between two word forms x and y, when one of them depends on the other. In the structure of the components of the relationship between the direct components of some component A without hierarchy, i.e., among them, not a single direct component is singled out as the main (basic) one on which other direct components would depend. This is quite logical for phrases in which the selection of the main elements is not required - an example of such phrases are homogeneous groups - nominal or verbal:

But at the same time, many syntactic relations between the elementary units of a sentence require the separation of the main and subordinate units:

2) The structure of the components allows for the possibility of combining “semantically close” phrases into one component, when the dependency structure cannot distinguish between such semantic shades. An example here is the analysis of the phrase ancient walls of the city, for. which only one dependency structure is possible:

But two possible structures of constituents:

The question of how significantly to distinguish between such semantic shades in the analysis of a sentence, we will not discuss here.

Nevertheless, it is possible to determine a significant relationship between the two models of representation of the syntactic structure of a sentence - in the form of a structure of components and in the form of a dependency structure - there is. To do this, it is necessary to introduce additional information about the orientation of syntactic links into the structure of the components, namely, in each component A, to single out one of its immediate components as the main direct component, considering the remaining components in A as non-principal.

This procedure of attributing information to A about the main direct component can be carried out formally, but for a specific grammar of the language, some meaningful criteria can be used. The system of components, in which for each component among its immediate components one is singled out as the main one, is called the oriented structure of the components.

A graphical representation of the oriented structure of the constituents may be as follows - the arrows mark the non-principal constituents. The transition from the oriented structure of components to the structure of dependencies is obvious.

The structure of the components of the sentence P and the structure of the dependencies of this sentence are called consistent if:

dependency groups of all nodes of the dependency structure are components of the sentence structure P;

each component of the sentence structure P is a dependency group or a truncated dependency group of some node of the dependency structure of sentence P.

The truncated dependency group of the node x in the dependency tree of sentence P is understood to be an arbitrary part of the complete dependency group of this node, for example, returned yesterday, returned home late in the evening, etc. components, namely: truncated groups as components should not partially intersect (only the inclusion of one truncated group in another or their non-intersection is allowed).

grammatical way is a set of classes of grammatical forms with homogeneous means of expressing grammatical meanings. There are no abstract grammatical methods without taking into account grammatical forms and meanings. Ways of expressing grammatical meanings are divided into two large groups: synthetic And analytical.

At synthetic way the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by its form. Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings include affixation , agglutination , inflection And morphemes-operations . At analytical way expressions of grammatical meanings lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed apart. TO analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings include official words And word order . Accordingly, in accordance with the predominance of synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings in a language, languages ​​are conditionally divided into synthetic And analytical .

Synthetic ways.

• 1. Affixation is the most commonly used method. With it, grammatical forms are formed with the help of affixes, materially expressed, or zero, attached to the formative basis: for example, house? - houseA , do - do - done.
• 2. Agglutination . With this way of expressing grammatical meanings, each grammatical meaning is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has its own function. The formative basis remains, as a rule, unchanged. For example: in the Kazakh language the suffix is ​​- lar- denotes the plural, and the suffix - ha- dative. Then if the child, in Kazakh, - bala, then the children balalar, and for children balalarga, if a girl - kyz, then the girls - kyzlar and girls - kyzlarga. This method is used in languages ​​of the agglutinative type (Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Japanese, etc.)
• 3. Inflection . With inflection, inflection is carried out through affixes or flexion . The same inflection is capable of conveying several grammatical meanings. Here we also encounter the phenomenon fusion - interpenetration between the formative basis and affixes. This can be considered a tautology, but inflection is characteristic of languages ​​of the inflectional type, which include most Indo-European languages. For example: fly - flying, man - peasant(muzhik + sk + ij = muzhik).
• 4. Morphemes - operations. When implementing this method of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical meanings are conveyed by suprasegmental morphemes:
  • A) stress . In this case, grammatical meanings are expressed by shifting the stress. For example, us - pour, cut - incision. This method can in some cases be observed even in languages ​​with fixed stress.
  • B) alternations (internal flexion). With internal inflection, grammatical meanings are expressed by alternating the root morpheme. The most striking example: English. Sing - sang - sung - song; foot - feet; man - men. In Russian, friend [k] - friend [g] - friends - friendly; naked [l] - goal [l "]; to look - I look. In French, doux - douce; oeil - yeux.
  • IN) reduplication (repeats). When implementing this type of morphemes - operations, the grammatical meaning is expressed by the full or partial construction of the root, stem or the whole word. For example: Russian. Barely, slightly, slightly, big-big, thought-thought express an increase in the intensity of an action or sign. Latin. Mordeo (I bite) - momordi (I have bitten). In a number of languages, reduplication is a normative way of plural formation: Chinese zhen (person) - zhen-zhen (people), Armenian gund (regiment) - gund - gund (many regiments). Reduplication as a grammatical phenomenon is widespread in Polynesian and other Austronesian languages: beat - beat, beat - beat, take - take, lava - lava.
  • G) suppletivism . When implementing this grammatical method, grammatical methods are formed by completely changing the basis. For example, in Russian: good - better, bad - worse, I - me, etc. In many Indo-European languages, the phenomenon of suppletivism is observed in verbs with the meaning "to be" and "to go".

When implementing analytical method formation of grammatical meanings lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed separately. The analytical method includes function words And way of word order .

With the method of functional words, the grammatical meaning is transmitted; the grammatical meaning is transmitted using a combination of a significant and a functional word. For example, I will read- the meaning of the future tense, would have honored- the value of the conditional mood, more beautiful- the value of the degree of comparison.

The function words are:

• A) Articles : English a/the apple(def. nedef.)
• B) Prepositions : went to my sister, I look at you, familiar with her- clarify case relations.
• IN) Postpositions . They are functionally identical to prepositions, but come after the significant word to which they refer. For example, Azeri Yer balalar uchun(kindergarten) - literally - "a place for children." " Wuchun" - postposition with meaning " For".
• G) Particles : I would like to, Where " would" - a particle expressing the category of the conditional mood of the verb.
• D) Auxiliary verbs - these are full-meaning words that have undergone desemantization: will read.

The word order method, as a way of expressing grammatical meanings, is most productive in languages ​​with a fixed word order, such as French and English. However, this method can also be found in Russian: compare twenty people(exactly) and twenty people(approximately).

A hybrid or mixed way of expressing grammatical meanings allows you to use both analytical and synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings in a complex. For example, in Russian, the meaning of the prepositional case (if it is not specified) is expressed both synthetically - by case inflection, and analytically - by a preposition: on the ground.

grammar field - this is a set of grammatical units united by a common content and/or formal indicators and reflecting the conceptual, subject or functional similarity of the designated phenomena. Grammatical fields, for example, a voice field, represented in the language by both grammatical (morphologized) units and units that are on the verge paradigmatics And syntagmatics ( free and semi-free phrases); syntagmatic fields - phrases and other syntactic units as manifestations of the semantic compatibility of their components, for example, "go" - "legs", "bark" - "dog"; sets of structural models of sentences united by common semantic tasks; for example, in the syntactic field of imperativeness, all models are included, with the help of which an order is expressed. The term "field" is often used in an undifferentiated way along with the terms "group" (lexico-semantic group, thematic group), "paradigm" (lexico-semantic, syntactic paradigm), etc.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY them. I. KANTA

FACULTY OF LINGUISTICS AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT OF THEORY OF LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

WAYS OF EXPRESSING GRAMMAR MEANINGS

Work completed:

student of FLIMK, 1st year, group 2AP

A. A. Slobodskikh

Kaliningrad

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….3

CHAPTER 1………………………………………………………..4

CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………..5

CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………..9

CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………..12

CONCLUSION………………………………………………...13

References……………………………………………..14

Annex 1…………………………………………………...15

INTRODUCTION

Grammar [ Annex 1] defines the type of language, being the most stable part of it. If phonetics and vocabulary occupy a peripheral position in the structure of the language, then grammar occupies a central position. But at the same time, it is always indirect, since its connection with reality is carried out only through vocabulary. Also, grammar is unthinkable without phonetics, since what is not expressed phonetically is also absent in grammar.

Thus, we can say that every grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: the internal one - the grammatical meaning, and the external one - the grammatical way of expression.

As a science, grammar includes two parts - morphology [ Annex 1] and syntax. The object of study in morphology are individual words and their grammatical properties.

Each significant word, in turn, has two meanings - lexical and grammatical. If there can be only one lexical meaning, then a word can have several grammatical meanings, and they find their morphological and syntactic expression in the language.

In the field of morphology, grammatical meaning is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general, opposed to each other within the framework of grammatical categories [ Annex 1] (for example, the meaning of a particular tense, person, number, or gender).

ABOUT various ways expression of grammatical meanings in the language and will be discussed in this paper.

The concept of grammatical meaning .

Grammatical meaning is a generalized abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words or word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in the language.

As already mentioned, each significant word has a lexical and grammatical meaning. The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. The grammatical, on the other hand, acts as an additive to the lexical and expresses relations. For example, the relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relation to the person performing the action, or the relation of the reported fact to reality and time. .

The grammatical meaning is not determined by the lexical meaning of the word and, unlike the lexical meaning inherent in a particular word, does not focus on one word. It is common to many words in the language. In addition, the same word can have several grammatical meanings, changing its grammatical form, but retaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word table has a number of forms table , table , tables, - which express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

The grammatical meaning of a certain word in one form or another is expressed in a certain grammatical way. [ Annex 1]. There are a limited number of these methods used in languages ​​- affixation, internal inflection, reduplication, suppletivism, stress and intonation, word order, auxiliary words. The grammar of any language can only be expressed in these ways. Some languages ​​(for example, Russian, English) use all of the above methods, while others (for example, French, Chinese) use only some. Moreover, it should be noted that in different languages these ways are combined with different grammatical meanings, which creates a new form each time.

Grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meanings are easily countable and visible. There are three main ways of expression: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

Synthetic Ways of Expressing Values

The synthetic method consists in expressing the meaning in the word itself and includes affixation, alternations and internal inflection, reduplication, suppletivism, additions and stress mode.

Way of affixing

The affixing method consists in attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words [ Annex 1], serving to express grammatical meanings.

For example: House House A- house at, do - With do, write n to write, to be late - to be late yva th.

Affixes can be divided into prefixes before the root and postfixes after the root. There are languages ​​that do not use prefixes (for example, Turkic), but express grammar only with postfixes, and vice versa - languages ​​that do not recognize postfixes (for example, Swahili). The Indo-European group of languages, in particular Russian, use both prefixes and postfixes, which in turn are divided into suffixes and inflections. Suffixes are postfixes with a derivational meaning, and inflections are postfixes with a relational meaning.

There are also affixes of a different type, although suffixes and prefixes are most common in the languages ​​of the world:

1) Interfixes– service morphemes [ Annex 1], which serve to connect roots in compound words. For example, connecting vowels in Russian: stars- O-fall, snow- O-move .

2) Confixes- combinations of two affixes - prefix and postfix - that act together. For example, German verbs: loben- "praise" and ge - lob - t- "praised", where -ge and - t surround the root, making the word together.

3) Infixes- affixes inserted inside the root or stem. For example, in Latin: en - m - p - o- "I'm breaking" r ū p -ī - "I've broken". "Insertive" nasal consonant type [m].

4) Transfixes- affixes that break the root, consisting of only consonants. This phenomenon is characteristic of the Semitic languages. For example, the Hebrew GNōB- "to steal" GāNaB- “stealed”, where is the root HDD means the idea of ​​"stealing", and transfix vowels mean word forms: the infinitive and the past tense form.

It also plays an important role in many languages. zero affix - the absence of an affix in one form of the paradigm in the presence of affixes in other forms. For example, for the word horn the zero affix is ​​an indicator of the nominative case, the singular, since in all other cases of the singular and plural there are affixes - horn-a, horn-y, horn-á, horn-ov.

Method of alternation and internal inflection

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself. Alternations of sounds - mutual replacement in the same places and in the same morphemes - can be:

1) Phonetic. The change in sound is due to position, and variants of one phoneme alternate. For example, the alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels in Russian: water[water] - water[wadá], or voiced and voiceless consonants: Friend[druk] - friend[friend].

2) Non-phonetic. Sound changes do not depend on position, different phonemes alternate. For example, [friend-] - [druz׳-] - [friend-] in words friend - friends - friendly .

Among the non-phonetic alternations, in turn, there are:

a) Morphological. Alternation is not determined by phonetic position, but it does not express grammatical meaning either, but only accompanies the formation of grammatical forms. For example, forehead - forehead, stump - stump- the phenomenon of "fluent vowel". Alternation [k - h], [g - f], [x - w] - ne To y - ne h eat, be G y - be and uh, su X oh-su sh e. Alternating combinations of consonants with one consonant: [sk - u], [st - u], [zg - f], [zd - f] - plo sk awn - flat sch hell, about st oh - easy sch order zd at - by zzh e.

b) Grammar. The alternation does not depend on the phonetic position, and independent phonemes alternate with each other, with zero, or one phoneme with two. .That's what it is internal flexion .

Ablaut - the most ancient type of internal inflection, characterized by a change in the vowel in the root during the formation of the main forms of the verb. For example, the English verb:

In this case, the alternation of the vowel in the root of the word is clearly visible.

Umlaut - a kind of internal inflection, formed in the medieval period in various languages ​​independently. Umlaut is characterized by a change in vowels in the root during the formation of the plural form. For example, in English:

F oo t – f ee t

"leg legs"

reduplications

reduplication (repeat) consists in the complete or partial repetition of the root, stem or the whole word without changing the sound composition or with its partial change.