Animal tissue structure, classification, functions. Main types of animal tissues

Main types of animal tissues:
■ epithelial (integumentary);
■ connecting;
■ muscular;
■ nervous.

Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissue, or epithelium, is a type of integumentary tissue in animals that forms the outer coverings of the body, glands, and also lining the internal walls of the hollow organs of the body.

❖ Functions of the epithelium:

■ protection of underlying structures from mechanical damage, exposure to harmful substances and infection;

■ participation in metabolism (provides absorption and release of substances);

■ participation in gas exchange (in many groups of animals it breathes through the entire surface of the body);

■ receptor (sensitive epithelium may contain cells with receptors that perceive external irritation, for example, odors);

■ secretory (for example, mucus secreted by goblet cells of the cylindrical epithelium of the stomach protects it from the effects of gastric juice).

The epithelium is formed, as a rule, from ecto- and endoderm and has a high ability to recover. It forms one or more layers of cells lying on a thin basement membrane devoid of blood vessels. The cells adhere tightly to each other, forming a continuous layer; There is almost no intercellular substance. The epithelium is nourished by the underlying connective tissue.

basement membrane- a layer of intercellular substance (proteins and polysaccharides) located at the boundaries between different tissues.

Classification of epithelium according to cell shape:

■ flat (consists of polygonal cells, forms the surface layer of the skin and lines the vessels of the circulatory and lymphatic systems, pulmonary alveoli, body cavities);

■ cubic (consists of cuboidal cells; present in renal tubules, the retina of vertebrates, the lining of the pancreas and salivary glands, noted in the outer epithelia of invertebrates);

■ cylindrical , or columnar (its cells are oblong and resemble columns or columns; this epithelium lines the intestinal tract of animals and forms the outer epithelium of many invertebrates);

■ ciliary , or ciliary (a type of cylindrical), on the surface of the columnar cells of which there are numerous cilia or single flagella (lining the respiratory tract, oviducts, ventricles of the brain, spinal canal).

Classification of surface epithelium depending on the number of cell layers:

■ single-layer (its cells form only one layer); characteristic of invertebrates and lower chordates. In vertebrates, it lines the blood and lymphatic vessels, the heart cavity, the inner surface of the cornea of ​​the eye, etc. (squamous epithelium), the choroid plexuses of the brain, the kidney tubules (cuboidal epithelium), gallbladder, papillary ducts of the kidneys (columnar epithelium);

■ multilayer (its cells consist of several layers); forms the outer surfaces of the skin, some mucous membranes (oral cavity, pharynx, some parts of the esophagus - columnar and squamous epithelium), ducts of the salivary and mammary glands, vagina, sweat glands (cuboidal epithelium), etc.

Epidermis- the outer layer of the skin, in direct contact with the environment and consisting of living and dead, thickened, keratinized and constantly exfoliating cells, which are replaced by new ones thanks to regeneration - cell division that occurs very quickly in this tissue.

■ In humans, epidermal cells are renewed every 7-10 days.

Leather- the outer cover of the body of terrestrial vertebrates (reptiles, birds, mammals), which performs the function of maintaining a constant body temperature.

Goblet cells- single-celled glands with a characteristic goblet shape, scattered among the epithelial cells of some organs (for example, the mucus secreted by some goblet cells is necessary for land organisms to breathe and protect them from drying out).

Gland- an animal or human organ that produces special substances - secretions (milk, sweat, digestive enzymes, etc.) that participate in metabolism (examples: salivary, sweat, mammary, sebaceous glands, endocrine glands - thyroid, pancreas, etc. ).

Sensitive epithelium- epithelium containing cells that perceive external stimuli ( example: epithelium of the nasal cavity, which has receptors that perceive odors).

Glandular epithelium- a special type of epithelial tissue in vertebrates, consisting of a collection of cells that form a multicellular gland .

Types of secretory cells of the glandular epithelium:

■ exocrine cells, forming exocrine glands(liver, pancreas, stomach and intestinal glands, salivary glands), secrete secretion onto the free surface of the epithelium through the excretory ducts of the glands;

■ endocrine cells, forming endocrine glands(thyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, etc.), secrete secretions directly into the intercellular space, penetrated by blood vessels, from where they enter the blood and lymph.

Connective tissue

Connective tissue is the main supporting tissue of the body, connecting other tissues and organs and forming the internal skeleton of many animals. Connective tissue is formed from mesoderm.

Connective tissues include:

■ bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, dentin (located between the tooth enamel and the pulp cavity of the tooth);

■ red bone marrow;

■ blood and lymph, as well as tissue surrounding blood vessels and nerves at the points of their entry or exit into a particular organ;

■ subcutaneous fatty tissue, etc.

❖ Functions of connective tissue:
■ supporting (main function),
■ protective (phagocytosis),
■ metabolic (transport of substances throughout the body),
■ nutritional (trophic),
■ hematopoietic (red bone marrow),
■ restorative (regeneration).

❖ Features of connective tissue: its different types have different structures, but in all cases
■ the fabric has a complex structure;
■ it has a very high ability to recover;
■ it may include a variety of cells (fibroblasts, fibrocytes, fat, fat and pigment cells plasma cells , lymphocytes, granular leukocytes, macrophages, etc.), located loosely, at a considerable distance from each other;

■structureless (amorphous) soft is well expressed intercellular substance , separating cells from one another, which may include fibers protein nature ( collagenous, elastic and reticular ), various acids and sulfates and non-living waste products of cells. Collagen fibers are flexible, especially strong, non-stretchable fibers formed from collagen protein, the molecular chains of which have a helical structure and can twist and combine with each other; are easily subject to temperature denaturation.

Elastic fibers- fibers formed mainly by protein elastin , capable of stretching approximately 1.5 times (after which they return to their original state) and performing a supporting function. Elastic fibers intertwine with each other, forming networks and membranes.

Reticular fibers - these are thin, branched, stretchable, intertwined fibers that form a finely looped network in the cells of which cells are located. These fibers form the framework of the hematopoietic and immune system organs, liver, pancreas and some other organs, surround blood and lymphatic vessels, etc.

Fibroblasts- the main specialized fixed cells of connective tissue, synthesizing and secreting the main components of the intercellular substance, as well as substances from which collagen and elastic fibers are formed.

Fibrocytes— multi-processed spindle-shaped cells, into which fibroblasts turn as they age; fibrocytes synthesize intercellular substance very weakly, but form a three-dimensional network in which other cells are held.

Mast cells- these are cells very rich in large (up to 2 microns) granules containing biologically active substances.

Reticular cells- elongated multi-processed cells, which, connecting with their processes, form a network. At unfavorable conditions(infection, etc.) they become rounded and become capable of phagocytosis (capture and absorption of large particles).

Fat cells There are two types - white and brown. White fat cells are spherical in shape and almost completely filled with fat; they carry out the synthesis and intracellular accumulation of lipids as a reserve substance. Brown fat cells contain droplets of fat and a large number of mitochondria.

Plasmocytes- cells that synthesize proteins and are located near small blood vessels in the organs of the immune system, in the mucous membrane of the digestive and respiratory systems. They produce antibodies and thus play a vital role in protecting the body.

Classification of connective tissues depending on the composition of cells, the type and properties of the intercellular substance and related functions in the body: loose fibrous connective tissue, dense fibrous, cartilaginous and bone connective tissue and blood.

Loose fibrous connective tissue- very flexible and elastic tissue consisting of sparsely located cells different types(many star-shaped cells), interwoven reticular or collagen fibers and liquid intercellular substance filling the spaces between cells and fibers. Forms stroma - the framework of organs and the outer membrane internal organs; located in the layers between organs, connects the skin to the muscles and performs protective, storage and nourishing functions.

Dense fibrous connective tissue consists mainly of bundles of collagen fibers arranged tightly and parallel to each other or intertwined in different directions; there are few free cells and amorphous matter. The main function of dense fibrous connective tissue is support. This tissue forms ligaments, tendons, periosteum, deep layers of skin (dermis) of animals and humans, lining the inside of the skull and spinal canal, etc.

Cartilage tissue is an elastic tissue consisting of round or oval cells ( chondrocytes), lying in capsules (from one to four pieces in each capsule) and immersed in a well-developed, dense, but elastic basic intercellular substance containing thin fibers. Cartilaginous tissue covers the articular surfaces of bones, forms the cartilaginous part of the ribs, nose, auricle, larynx, trachea, bronchi and intervertebral discs (in the latter it plays the role of a shock absorber).

Functions of cartilage tissue- mechanical and connecting.

Depending on the amount of intercellular substance and the type of predominant fibers, they are distinguished hyaline, elastic and fibrous cartilage.

IN hyaline cartilage(it is the most common; it lines the articular heads and sockets of the joints) the cells are arranged in groups, the ground substance is well developed, collagen fibers predominate.

IN elastic cartilage(forms the auricle) elastic fibers predominate.

Fibrous cartilage(located in the intervertebral discs) contains few cells and basic intercellular substance; it is dominated by collagen fibers.

Bone is formed from embryonic connective tissue or from cartilage and is distinguished by the fact that it is deposited in its intercellular substance inorganic substances(calcium salts, etc.), giving the tissue hardness and fragility. Characteristic of vertebrates and humans, in which it forms bones.

The main functions of bone tissue— supporting and protective; this tissue is also involved in mineral metabolism and hematopoiesis (red bone marrow).

Types of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts (participate in the resorption of old osteocytes).

Osteoblasts- polygonal branched young cells, rich in elements of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, developed Golgi complex, etc. Osteoblasts synthesize organic components of the intercellular substance (matrix).

Osteocytes- mature, multi-processed spindle-shaped cells with a large nucleus and a small number of organelles. They don't share; when there is a need for structural changes in the bones, they are activated, differentiated and transformed into osteoblasts.

The structure of bone tissue.

Bone cells are connected to each other by cellular processes. Dense basic intercellular substance This tissue contains crystals of calcium salts of phosphoric and carbonic acids, nitrate and carbonate ions, which give the tissue hardness and fragility, as well as collagen fibers and protein-polysaccharide complexes, which give the tissue firmness and elasticity (30% of bone tissue consists of organic compounds and 70% - from inorganic: calcium (bone tissue is the depot of this element), phosphorus, magnesium, etc.). Bone tissue contains Haversian canals - tubular cavities in which blood vessels and nerves pass.

Fully formed bone tissue consists of bone plates having different thicknesses. In an individual plate, collagen fibers are located in one direction, but in adjacent plates they are located at an angle to each other, which gives the bone tissue additional strength.

Depending on the location of the bone plates, compact and cancellous bone substance .

IN compact substance bone plates are located in concentric circles near the Haversian canals, forming osteon. Between the osteons are insert plates .

Spongy the substance consists of thin, intersecting bone plates and crossbars, forming many cells. The direction of the crossbars coincides with the main stress lines, so they form vaulted structures.

All bones are covered on top with dense connective tissue - periosteum , providing nutrition and growth of bone thickness.

Adipose tissue formed by fat cells (more details above) and performs trophic (nutritional), form-building, storage and thermoregulatory functions. Depending on the type of fat cells, it is divided into white (mainly performs a storage function) and brown (its main function is to produce heat to maintain the body temperature of animals during hibernation and the temperature of newborn mammals).

Reticular connective tissue- a type of connective tissue that forms, in particular, red bone marrow - the main site of hematopoiesis - and The lymph nodes .

Muscle

Muscle- tissue that makes up the bulk of the muscles of animals and humans and performs a motor function. Characterized by the ability to contract (under the influence of various stimuli) and subsequent restoration of length; is part of the musculoskeletal system, the walls of hollow internal organs, and blood vessels.

❖ Features of muscle tissue:
■ it consists of separate muscle fibers and has the following properties:
■ excitability(able to perceive irritations and respond to them);
■ contractility(fibers can shorten and lengthen),
■ conductivity(capable of conducting stimulation);
■ individual muscle fibers, bundles and muscles are covered with a sheath of connective tissue in which blood vessels and nerves pass. The color of muscles depends on the amount of protein present in them myoglobin .

Muscle fiber formed by the finest contractile fibers - myofibrils, each of which is a regular system of strands of protein molecules myosin (thicker) and actin (more subtle). The muscle fiber is covered with an excitable plasma membrane, whose electrical properties are similar to the membrane of nerve cells.

Sources of energy for muscle contraction: ATP (basic), as well as creatine phosphate or arginine phosphate (during vigorous muscle contraction), carbohydrate reserves in the form of glycogen and fatty acids (during intense muscular work).

Types of muscle tissue:

■ striated (skeletal) ; forms skeletal muscles, muscles of the mouth, tongue, pharynx, upper esophagus, larynx, diaphragm, facial muscles;

■ cardiac ; forms the bulk of heart tissue;

■ smooth ; in lower animals it forms almost the entire mass of their muscles; in vertebrates it is part of the walls of blood vessels and hollow internal organs.

Skeletal (striated) muscles- muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton and providing movement of the torso and limbs). They consist of bundles formed by many long (1-40 mm or more) multinuclear muscle fibers with a diameter of 0.01-0.1 mm, having transverse striations (which is caused by thin myofibrils regularly located relative to each other).

Features of striated muscle tissue:

■ it is innervated by the spinal nerves (via the central nervous system),

■ capable of fast and strong contractions,

■ but fatigue quickly develops in it, and a lot of energy is required for its work.

Heart muscle forms the bulk of the heart tissue and consists of transversely striated myofibrils, but differs from skeletal muscle in structure: its fibers are not arranged in a parallel bundle, but branch, and adjacent fibers are connected to each other end to end, as a result of which all the fibers of the cardiac muscle form a single network . Each fiber of the heart muscle is enclosed in a separate membrane, and between the fibers connected at their ends, many special gap junctions (shiny stripes) are formed, allowing nerve impulses to flow from one fiber to another.

Features of cardiac muscle tissue:
■ its cells contain a large number of mitochondria;
■ she has automatic : capable of generating contractile impulses without the participation of the central nervous system;
■ contracts involuntarily and quickly;
■ has low fatigue;
■ contraction or relaxation of the heart muscle in one area quickly spreads throughout the entire muscle mass, ensuring the simultaneity of the process;

Smooth muscle - a type of muscle tissue characterized by slow contraction and slow relaxation and formed by spindle-shaped cells (sometimes branched) about 0.1 mm long, with one nucleus in the center, in the cytoplasm of which there are isolated myofibrils. Smooth muscle tissue contains all three types of contractile proteins - actin, myosin and tropomyosin. Smooth muscles lack cross-striations because they lack an ordered arrangement of actin and myosin filaments.

Features of smooth muscle tissue:
■ it is innervated by the autonomic nervous system;
■ contracts involuntarily, slowly (contraction time is from several seconds to several minutes), with little force;
■ can remain in a contracted state for a long time;
■ gets tired slowly.

In lower (invertebrate) animals, smooth muscle tissue forms the entire mass of their muscles (with the exception of the motor muscles of arthropods, some mollusks, etc.). In vertebrates, smooth muscles form the muscular layers of internal organs (digestive tract, blood vessels, respiratory tract, uterus, Bladder and etc.). Smooth muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue- tissue of animals and humans, consisting of nerve cells - neurons (the main functional elements of tissue) - and the cells between them neuroglia (auxiliary cells performing nutritional, supporting and protective functions). Nervous tissue forms the ganglia, nerves, brain and spinal cord.

❖ Basic properties of nervous tissue:
■ excitability (she is able to perceive irritations and respond to them);
■ conductivity (capable of conducting stimulation).

Functions of nervous tissue- receptor and conductor: perception, processing, storage and transmission of information coming both from the environment and from inside the body.

❖ Neuron is a nerve cell, the main structural and functional unit of nervous tissue; formed from ectoderm.

The structure of a neuron. A neuron consists of body stellate or spindle-shaped with one core, several short branching processes - dendrites - and one long shoot - axon . The body of the neuron and its processes are penetrated by a dense network of thin filaments - neurofibrils; its body also contains accumulations of a special substance rich in RNA. Different neurons are connected to each other by intercellular contacts - synapses .

Clusters of neuron bodies form nerve ganglia - ganglia - and nerve centers gray matter brain and spinal cord, neuron processes form nerve fibers, nerves and white matter brain

Basic function of a neuron- receiving, processing and transmitting excitation (i.e. information encoded in the form of electrical or chemical signals) to other neurons or cells of other tissues. A neuron is capable of transmitting excitation in only one direction - from the dendrite to the cell body.

■ Neurons have secretory activity: they can secrete mediators and hormones .

❖ Classification of neurons depending on their functions:

■ sensitive, or afferent, neurons transmit excitement caused by external irritation from the peripheral organs of the body to the nerve centers;

■ motor, or efferent, neurons transmit motor or secretory impulses from nerve centers to body organs;

■ insertion, or mixed, neurons communicate between sensory and motor neurons; they process information received from the senses through sensory nerves, switch the excitation impulse to the desired motor neuron and transmit the corresponding information to the higher parts of the nervous system.

Classification of neurons by number of shoots: unipolar (ganglia of invertebrates), bipolar , pseudounipolar And multipolar .

Dendrites- short, highly branched processes of neurons that provide the perception and conduction of nerve impulses to the body of the neuron. They do not have a myelin sheath or synaptic vesicles.

Axon- a long thin process of a neuron covered with a myelin sheath, through which excitation is transmitted from this neuron to other neurons or cells of other tissues. Axons can unite into thin bundles, and these, in turn, into a thicker bundle covered by a common membrane. - nerve.

Synapse- specialized contact between nerve cells or nerve cells and cells of innervated tissues and organs, through which a nerve impulse is transmitted. Formed by two membranes with a narrow gap between them. One membrane belongs to the nerve cell that sends the signal, the other membrane belongs to the cell that receives the signal. The transmission of nerve impulses occurs through chemical substances- mediators synthesized in the transmitting nerve cell upon receipt of an electrical signal.

Mediator- a physiologically active substance (acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.), synthesized in neurons, accumulated in special vesicles of synapses and ensuring the transfer of excitation through the synapse from one neuron to another or to a cell of another tissue. It is released by exocytosis from the end of the axon of the excited (transmitting) nerve cell, changes the permeability of the plasma membrane of the receiving nerve cell and causes the appearance of an excitation potential on it.

Glial cells (neuroglia)- cells of nervous tissue that are not capable of conducting excitation in the form of nerve impulses, serving to transfer substances from the blood to nerve cells and back (nutritive function), forming myelin sheaths, and also performing supporting, protective, secretory and other functions. Formed from mesoderm. Capable of sharing.

Ganglion- a group of nerve cells (neurons) that process and integrate nerve impulses.

Blood, tissue fluid and lymph and their characteristics in humans

Blood- one of the types of connective tissue; circulates in the circulatory system; consists of a liquid medium - plasma (55-60% volume) - and cells suspended in it - shaped elements blood ( erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets ).

■ The composition and quantity of blood varies from organism to organism. In humans, blood makes up about 8% of the total body weight (with a weight of 80 kg, blood volume is about 6.5 liters).

■ Most of the blood available in the body circulates throughout the body, the rest of it is in the depot (lungs, liver, etc.) and replenishes the blood flow during intense muscular work and during blood loss.

■ Blood is the basis for the formation of other fluids of the internal environment of the body (intercellular fluid and lymph).

❖ Basic functions of blood:

■ respiratory (transfer of oxygen from the respiratory organs to other organs and tissues of the body and transfer of carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratory organs);

■ nutritional (transfer of nutrients from the digestive system to tissues);

■ excretory (transfer of metabolic products from tissues to excretory organs);

■ protective (capture and digestion of particles and microorganisms foreign to the body, formation of antibodies, ability to clot during bleeding);

■ regulatory (transfer of hormones from endocrine glands to tissues);

■ thermoregulatory (by regulating blood flow through the capillaries of the skin; based on the high heat capacity and thermal conductivity of blood);

■ homeostatic (participates in maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body).

Plasma- pale yellow liquid consisting of water and substances dissolved and suspended in it (in human plasma there is about 90% water, 9% proteins and 0.87% mineral salts, etc.); carries out the transport of various substances and cells throughout the body. In particular, it transports about 90% of carbon dioxide in the form of carbonate compounds.

Main components of plasma:
■ proteins fibrinogen and prothrombin necessary to ensure normal blood clotting;
■ Belsk albumen gives blood viscosity and binds calcium present in it;
■ α — globulin binds thyroxine and bilirubin;
■ β — globulin binds iron, cholesterol and vitamins A, D and K;
■ γ — globulins(called antibodies) bind antigens and play an important role in the body’s immunological reactions. Plasma transports about 90% of carbon dioxide in the form of carbonate compounds.

Serum- this is plasma without fibrinogen (does not clot).

❖ Red blood cells- red blood cells in vertebrates and some invertebrate animals (echinoderms), containing hemoglobin and enzyme carbonic anhydrase and involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, respectively, throughout the body and in maintaining the pH level of the blood through the hemoglobin buffer; determine the color of blood.

The number of red blood cells in one cubic millimeter of blood in a person is about 4.5 million (in women) and 5 million (in men) and depends on age and health; In total, there are an average of 23 trillion red blood cells in human blood.

❖ Structural features of red blood cells:
■ in humans they have the shape of biconcave disks with a diameter of about 7-8 microns (slightly less than the diameter of the narrowest capillaries);
■ their cells do not have a nucleus’,
■ the cell membrane is elastic and easily deformed;
■ cells contain hemoglobin, a specific protein bound to an iron atom.

Red blood cell formation: red blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow of the flat bones of the sternum, skull, ribs, vertebrae, clavicles and shoulder blades, long heads tubular bones; in an embryo with not yet formed bones, red blood cells are formed in the liver and spleen. The rates of formation and destruction of red blood cells in the body are usually the same and constant (in humans - approximately 115 million cells per minute), but under conditions of low oxygen content, the rate of formation of red blood cells increases (this is the basis for the mechanism of adaptation of mammals to low oxygen levels in high mountains).

Destruction of red blood cells: red blood cells are destroyed in the liver or spleen; their protein components are broken down into amino acids, and the iron contained in the heme is retained by the liver, stored there as part of the protein ferritin and can be used in the formation of new red blood cells and in the synthesis of cytochromes. The rest of the hemoglobin is broken down to form the pigments bilirubin and biliverdin, which, together with bile, are excreted into the intestines and give color to the stool.

Hemoglobin- a respiratory pigment found in the blood of some animals and humans; is a complex of complex proteins and heme (the non-protein component of hemoglobin), which includes iron. The main function is to transport oxygen throughout the body. In areas with a high concentration of O 2 (for example, in the lungs of land animals or in the gills of fish), hemoglobin binds with oxygen (turning into oxyhemoglobin) and releases it in areas with a low concentration of O 2 (in tissues).

Carbonic anhydrase- an enzyme that ensures the transport of carbon dioxide through the circulatory system.

Anemia(or anemia) is a condition of the body in which the number of red blood cells in the blood decreases or the hemoglobin content in them decreases, which leads to oxygen deficiency and, as a consequence, to a decrease in the intensity of ATP synthesis.

Leukocytes, or white blood cells, - colorless blood cells capable of capturing (phagocytosis) and digesting proteins, particles and pathogens foreign to the body, as well as forming antibodies. They play an important role in protecting the body from diseases and ensure the development of immunity.

❖ Structural features of leukocytes:
■ larger than red blood cells;
■ do not have a permanent shape;
■ cells have a nucleus;
■ capable of division;
■ capable of independent amoeboid locomotion.

Leukocytes are formed in the red bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen; their lifespan is several days (for some types of leukocytes - several years); are destroyed in the spleen, foci of inflammation.

White blood cells can pass through small holes in the walls of capillaries; found both in the blood and in the intercellular space of tissues. There are approximately 8,000 leukocytes in 1 mm 3 of human blood, but this number varies greatly depending on the condition of the body.

❖ The main types of human leukocytes: grainy (granulocytes) and non-grainy (agranulocytes).

❖ Granular leukocytes, or granulocytes, are formed in the red bone marrow and contain in the cytoplasm characteristic granules (grains) and nuclei, divided into lobes, which are connected to each other in pairs or threes by thin bridges. The main function of granulocytes is to fight foreign microorganisms that have entered the body.

A sign that distinguishes a woman's blood from a man's blood: in women's blood granulocytes, a drumstick-shaped process extends from one of the lobes of the nucleus.

■ Forms of granulocytes(depending on the staining of cytoplasmic granules with certain dyes): neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils (they are all called microphages).

Neutrophils capture and digest bacteria; they make up about 70% of the total number of leukocytes; their granules are colored violet with basic (blue) and acidic (red) dyes.

Eosinophils effectively absorb complexes antigen - antibody B; they usually make up about 1.5% of all leukocytes, but in allergic conditions their number increases sharply; when treated with the acidic dye eosin, their granules turn red.

Basophils produce heparin(blood clotting inhibitor) and histamine(a hormone that regulates smooth muscle tone and gastric juice secretion); make up about 0.5% of all leukocytes; Basic dyes (such as methylene blue) turn their granules blue.

❖ Non-granular leukocytes, or agranulocytes, contain a large round or oval nucleus, which can occupy almost the entire cell, and non-granular cytoplasm.

■ Forms of agranulocytes: monocytes And lymphocytes .

Monocytes (macrophages)- the largest leukocytes, capable of migrating through the walls of capillaries to foci of inflammation in tissues, where they actively phagocytose bacteria and other large particles. Normally, their number in human blood is about 3-11% of the total number of leukocytes and increases in some diseases.

Lymphocytes- the smallest of leukocytes (slightly larger than red blood cells); have a round shape and contain very little cytoplasm; are able to produce antibodies in response to foreign protein entering the body, and participate in the development of immunity. Formed in the lymph nodes, red bone marrow, spleen; make up about 24% of the total number of leukocytes; can live more than ten years.

Leukemia- a disease in which the uncontrolled formation of pathologically altered leukocytes begins in the red bone marrow, the content of which in 1 mm 3 of blood can reach 500 thousand or more.

❖ Platelets (blood platelets)- these are the formed elements of blood, which are cells or fragments of cells of irregular shape and contain substances involved in blood clotting . They are formed in the red bone marrow from large cells - megakaryocytes. There are approximately 250 thousand platelets in 1 mm 3 of blood. They are destroyed in the spleen.

Features of the structure of platelets:
■ sizes are approximately the same as those of red blood cells;
■ have a round, oval or irregular shape;
■ cells do not have a nucleus;
■ surrounded by membranes.

❖ Blood coagulation is a chain process of stopping bleeding through the enzymatic formation of fibrin clots, in which all blood cells (especially platelets), some plasma proteins, Ca 2+ ions, the vessel wall and the tissue surrounding the vessel take part.

❖ Stages of blood clotting:

■ when tissues, vessel walls, etc. rupture. are destroyed platelets, releasing the enzyme thromboplastin, which initiates the blood clotting process;

■ under the influence of Ca 2+ ions, vitamin K and some components of blood plasma, thromboplastin converts an inactive enzyme (protein) prothrombin into active thrombin;

■ thrombin, with the participation of Ca 2+ ions, initiates the conversion of fibrinogen into the thinnest strands of insoluble fibrin protein;

■ fibrin, which forms a spongy mass, in the pores of which the formed elements of blood (erythrocytes, leukocytes, etc.) get stuck, forming a blood clot - a thrombus. The thrombus tightly plugs the hole in the vessel, stopping the bleeding.

❖ Features of the blood of certain groups of animals

■ In the blood annelids hemoglobin is present in dissolved form, in addition, colorless amoeboid cells circulate in it, performing a protective function.

■ U arthropods blood ( hemolymph ) is colorless, does not contain hemoglobin, has colorless amoeboid leukocytes and serves to transport nutrients and metabolic products to be excreted. Instead of hemoglobin, the blood of crabs, lobsters and some shellfish contains a blue-green pigment hemocyanin containing copper instead of iron.

■ In fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds There are red blood cells in the blood that contain hemoglobin and (unlike human red blood cells) have a nucleus.

❖ Tissue (intercellular) fluid- one of the components of the internal environment of the body; surrounds all cells of the body, is similar in composition to plasma, but contains almost no proteins.

It is formed as a result of blood plasma leaking through the walls of capillaries. Provides cells with nutrients, oxygen, hormones, etc. and removes the end products of cellular metabolism.

A significant part of the tissue fluid returns back to the bloodstream by diffusion, either directly into the venous ends of the capillary network, or (most) into the lymphatic capillaries closed at one end, forming lymph.

❖ Lymph- one of the types of connective tissue; a colorless or milky-white liquid in the body of vertebrates, similar in composition to blood plasma, but with a smaller (3-4 times) amount of proteins and a large number of lymphocytes, circulating through the lymphatic vessels and formed from tissue fluid.

■ Performs transport (transport of proteins, water and salts from tissue to blood) and protective functions.

■ The volume of lymph in the human body is 1-2 liters.

Hemolymph- a colorless or slightly colored liquid that circulates in the vessels or intercellular cavities of many invertebrate animals that have an open circulatory system (arthropods, mollusks, etc.). Often contains respiratory pigments (hemocyanin, hemoglobin), cellular elements (amebocytes, excretory cells, less often erythrocytes) and (in a number of insects: ladybugs, some grasshoppers, etc.) are potent poisons, making them inedible for predators. Provides transport of gases, nutrients, products.

Hemocyanin- a blue copper-containing respiratory pigment found in the hemolymph of some invertebrate animals and providing oxygen transport.

Behavior: evolutionary approach Nikolay Anatolievich Kurchanov

7.7. Epithelial and connective tissues

Epithelial tissue is a type of animal tissue derived from all three germ layers. All kinds of epithelium are united by a strong connection of cells into a single layer located on basement membrane, and the resulting polarity of the formation. In the body, epithelium performs barrier, excretory, secretory and other functions. Traditionally, they are divided into two groups: integumentary and glandular.

The first group is unusually diverse and includes tissues covering the body and abdominal organs (intestines, airways, ducts of the excretory and reproductive systems). The second group specializes in secretory function, which causes the cells to have a high degree of development of ER and AG involved in the secretory process.

Secretory cells are usually part of multicellular glands, which are divided into exocrine glands, or exocrine(secrete secretion through ducts to the outside), and endocrine glands, or endocrine(secret into the blood). The functioning of the endocrine glands is greatly related to behavior. Their activities are studied by the science of endocrinology, which is increasingly acquiring general theoretical significance and will be discussed by us in a special section.

Connective tissues(or tissues of the internal environment) represent the most diverse type of animal tissue. However, unlike epithelial and muscle tissues, all connective tissues have the same origin from mesenchyme(germ tissue of mesoderm). Despite their morphological diversity, they all consist of cells and noncellular matter. Like epithelia, connective tissues are traditionally also divided into two groups: stromal tissues and free cell elements (FCEs).

The first group includes numerous tissues that perform trophic and support functions. Their structural feature is the presence of two types of fibers in the intercellular substance: collagen And elastic. The intercellular substance itself consists mainly of various mucopolysaccharides. Different ratios of these components determine different degrees of hardness, mechanical strength and elasticity in different types of stromal tissues. These include: reticular tissue, loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone. Some of these tissues are involved in the process of movement, which is the external expression of behavior: bone and cartilage tissue form the basis of the skeleton, and dense connective tissue is part of the tendons and ligaments that attach muscles to the skeleton. In addition, it forms sheaths for muscles, nerves and nerve ganglia.

The SCE system performs the functions of maintaining homeostasis, transporting substances throughout the body and protecting it from infection. Its cells circulate freely through the three fluid environments of the body (tissue fluid, blood, lymph), and therefore it is very difficult to delineate the boundaries of a specific tissue. In the tradition of Western science, it is customary to isolate blood into a special, 5th type of tissue. Considering its sharp structural and functional differences from other types of connective tissues, such a classification seems justified. But SCEs can pass through the walls of blood vessels and integrate into the connective tissue. Moreover, some SCEs perform their main functions only after integration, and for them the blood is simply a transport system. Therefore, it is more logical to consider the SCE system as a liquid connective tissue that does not have fibers in the intercellular substance.

Among the SCEs of mammals and humans, seven varieties are distinguished: erythrocytes, blood platelets, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, monocytes And lymphocytes. The first two types are anucleate, and the plates are “fragments” of the cytoplasm. The last five cell forms are usually grouped together as “leukocytes,” but this division is more of a historical tradition. The study of the process of hematopoiesis (hematopoiesis) showed that its first stage is the differentiation of precursors lymphocytes from the predecessors of all other types of SCE.

The largest blood cells are monocytes. They are capable of phagocytosis and perform protective functions. Monocytes can leave the bloodstream, penetrating various tissues. There they give rise to a wide variety of cells, which are collectively called “macrophages.” These include histiocytes connective tissue, osteoclasts bone tissue, cells microglia nervous tissue and many others.

Lymphocytes include populations T lymphocytes And B lymphocytes, which determine the cellular and humoral immunity of the body. Immunology is the study of immunity, which, as already mentioned, is becoming one of the leading biological sciences. Its fundamental developments acquire general theoretical significance. There is no doubt that they will help reveal many secrets of behavior.

The close relationship between immunology and neurophysiology is demonstrated by the phenomenon blood-brain barrier– unique brain structure. Its basis is made up of cells endothelium, forming the walls of capillaries. Endothelium different authors classify them as either epithelial or connective tissues, depending on the principles of classification taken as a basis. Usually endothelium passes various substances, including proteins, into the tissue fluid, from where they are removed through the lymphatic capillaries. In the CNS, where there are no lymphatic capillaries, endothelial cells are connected in a dense, continuous layer. This layer is surrounded by a layer of thick basement membrane, which is surrounded by a layer astrocytes.

The blood-brain barrier serves as an insurmountable barrier to large molecules. Many microbes, viruses, toxins, and medications cannot overcome it, which explains the brain’s resistance to infections. The exception is the hypothalamus, the most vulnerable part of the brain.

The blood-brain barrier isolates the brain, which has a huge number of specific components, from its own immune system. Some authors believe that in the process of evolution it turned out to be easier for an organism to fence off the brain than to complicate the mechanism of recognition between “one’s own and someone else’s” (Savelyev S.V., 2005). However, there is data that does not support such a clear conclusion. The mechanisms of the relationship between the nervous and immune systems are not yet fully understood.

The structural and functional features of various tissues and their cells are studied in detail in cytology and histology courses. Short review The diversity of cells that form different tissues was necessary for us to better understand the cellular mechanisms of behavior. It could be noted that all types of tissues take part in the implementation of behavior. The signaling function of nerve cells plays a decisive integrative role here.

From the book Fundamentals of Neurophysiology author Shulgovsky Valery Viktorovich

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Chapter 34. Biochemistry of connective tissue Connective tissue makes up about half of the dry mass of the body. All types of connective tissue, despite their morphological differences, are built according to general principles: 1. Contains few cells compared to others

Epithelium is a collection of cells covering the surfaces of the body and lining its cavities. Epithelial tissue plays a protective, receptor function. It ensures the absorption of substances and their release, and participates in gas exchange. There are cubic, flat and columnar epithelium. Flat is found in the vessels of the circulatory and lymphatic systems, pulmonary alveoli, and body cavities. Cuboidal epithelium is located in the retina of the eyes, columnar epithelium is located in the intestinal tract.

Connective tissue consists of fibers - well-developed intercellular structures (elastic, collagen and reticular), as well as the main structureless substance. The types of connective tissue are: loose, dense (cartilage, bone), reticular. It performs storage, protective and nutritional functions.

In cartilage tissue, chondrocytes are embedded in the ground substance. There are elastic, hyaline, fibrous cartilage. Hyaline cartilage lines the joint sockets and articular heads. Elastic cartilage is found in the auricles, fibrous cartilage is found in the intervertebral discs. The functions of cartilage are mechanical and connective.

Bone tissue is formed from connective tissue or by replacing cartilage. Its main substance consists of collagen fibers and protein-polysaccharide complexes. Fully formed bone tissue consists of bone plates, inside of which lie osteocytes.

Reticular connective tissue is associated with large, branched, reticular cells that can develop into phagocytes or blood elements. Reticular cells and fibers form a supporting network, within which free cells are present. Lymphatic organs and hematopoietic tissues have a similar structure.

Muscle and nerve tissue

Muscle tissue is divided into smooth and striated. Smooth muscle consists of spindle-shaped cells and is characterized by slow contraction and slow relaxation. Smooth muscles form the muscles of internal organs: blood vessels, uterus, intestines, respiratory tract, ureters. Muscle tissue is innervated by the autonomic nervous system.

Striated tissue is formed by multinucleated cells called muscle fibers. It consists of skeletal muscles, which are innervated by spinal nerves. Striated muscles can contract quickly and fatigue quickly.

Nerve tissue consists of nerve cells (neurons) and glial cells. Nerve cells receive signals from the environment and translate these signals into nerve impulses that are carried to nerve endings. Neurons exhibit secretory activity; they secrete mediators - physiologically active substances involved in contacts between cells. Neurons can also release hormones.

Glial cells are necessary for the transport of substances to nerve cells from the blood and back. They form myelin sheaths and perform supporting and protective functions.

Tissue is a collection of cells and intercellular substance that have the same structure, function and origin.

In the body of mammals, animals and humans, there are 4 types of tissues: epithelial, connective, in which bone, cartilage and adipose tissue can be distinguished; muscular and nervous.

Tissue - location in the body, types, functions, structure

Tissues are a system of cells and intercellular substance that have the same structure, origin and functions.

Intercellular substance is a product of cell activity. It provides communication between cells and creates a favorable environment for them. It can be liquid, such as blood plasma; amorphous - cartilage; structured - muscle fibers; hard - bone tissue (in the form of salt).

Tissue cells have different shape, which determines their function. Fabrics are divided into four types:

• epithelial - border tissues: skin, mucous membrane;
• connective - the internal environment of our body;
• muscle;
• nerve tissue.

Epithelial tissue

Epithelial (border) tissues - line the surface of the body, the mucous membranes of all internal organs and cavities of the body, serous membranes, and also form the glands of external and internal secretion. The epithelium lining the mucous membrane is located on the basement membrane, and its inner surface directly faces the external environment. Its nutrition is accomplished by the diffusion of substances and oxygen from blood vessels through the basement membrane.

Features: there are many cells, there is little intercellular substance and it is represented by a basement membrane.

Epithelial tissues perform the following functions:

• protective;
• excretory;
• suction

Classification of epithelia. Based on the number of layers, a distinction is made between single-layer and multi-layer. They are classified according to shape: flat, cubic, cylindrical.

If all epithelial cells reach the basement membrane, it is a single-layer epithelium, and if only cells of one row are connected to the basement membrane, while others are free, it is multilayered. Single-layer epithelium can be single-row or multi-row, which depends on the level of location of the nuclei. Sometimes mononuclear or multinuclear epithelium has ciliated cilia facing the external environment.

Stratified epithelium Epithelial (integumentary) tissue, or epithelium, is a boundary layer of cells that lines the integument of the body, the mucous membranes of all internal organs and cavities, and also forms the basis of many glands.

Glandular epithelium The epithelium separates the organism (internal environment) from the external environment, but at the same time serves as an intermediary in the interaction of the organism with the environment. Epithelial cells are tightly connected to each other and form a mechanical barrier that prevents the penetration of microorganisms and foreign substances into the body. Epithelial tissue cells live for a short time and are quickly replaced by new ones (this process is called regeneration).

Epithelial tissue is also involved in many other functions: secretion (exocrine and endocrine glands), absorption (intestinal epithelium), gas exchange (lung epithelium).

The main feature of the epithelium is that it consists of a continuous layer of tightly adjacent cells. The epithelium can be in the form of a layer of cells lining all surfaces of the body, and in the form of large accumulations of cells - glands: liver, pancreas, thyroid, salivary glands, etc. In the first case, it lies on the basement membrane, which separates the epithelium from the underlying connective tissue . However, there are exceptions: epithelial cells in the lymphatic tissue alternate with connective tissue elements; such epithelium is called atypical.

Epithelial cells, arranged in a layer, can lie in many layers (stratified epithelium) or in one layer (single-layer epithelium). Based on the height of the cells, epithelia are divided into flat, cubic, prismatic, and cylindrical.

Single-layer squamous epithelium - lines the surface of the serous membranes: pleura, lungs, peritoneum, pericardium of the heart.

Single-layer cubic epithelium - forms the walls of the kidney tubules and the excretory ducts of the glands.

Single-layer columnar epithelium - forms the gastric mucosa.

Bordered epithelium - a single-layer cylindrical epithelium, on the outer surface of the cells of which there is a border formed by microvilli that ensure the absorption of nutrients - lines the mucous membrane of the small intestine.

Ciliated epithelium (ciliated epithelium) is a pseudostratified epithelium consisting of cylindrical cells, the inner edge of which, i.e. facing the cavity or canal, is equipped with constantly oscillating hair-like formations (cilia) - the cilia ensure the movement of the egg in the tubes; removes germs and dust from the respiratory tract.

Stratified epithelium is located at the border between the body and the external environment. If keratinization processes occur in the epithelium, i.e., the upper layers of cells turn into horny scales, then such a multilayered epithelium is called keratinization (skin surface). Multilayer epithelium lines the mucous membrane of the mouth, food cavity, and cornea of ​​the eye.

Transitional epithelium lines the walls of the bladder, renal pelvis, and ureter. When these organs are filled, the transitional epithelium stretches, and cells can move from one row to another.

Glandular epithelium - forms glands and performs a secretory function (releases substances - secretions that are either released into the external environment or enter the blood and lymph (hormones)). The ability of cells to produce and secrete substances necessary for the functioning of the body is called secretion. In this regard, such an epithelium was also called secretory epithelium.

Connective tissue

Connective tissue Consists of cells, intercellular substance and connective tissue fibers. It consists of bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, blood, fat, it is present in all organs (loose connective tissue) in the form of the so-called stroma (framework) of organs.

In contrast to epithelial tissue, in all types of connective tissue (except adipose tissue), the intercellular substance predominates over the cells in volume, i.e., the intercellular substance is very well expressed. Chemical composition And physical properties intercellular substance is very diverse in different types of connective tissue. For example, blood - the cells in it “float” and move freely, since the intercellular substance is well developed.

In general, connective tissue makes up what is called the internal environment of the body. It is very diverse and is represented by various types - from dense and loose forms to blood and lymph, the cells of which are in the liquid. The fundamental differences in the types of connective tissue are determined by the ratios of cellular components and the nature of the intercellular substance.

Dense fibrous connective tissue (muscle tendons, joint ligaments) is dominated by fibrous structures and experiences significant mechanical stress.

Loose fibrous connective tissue is extremely common in the body. It is very rich, on the contrary, in cellular forms of different types. Some of them are involved in the formation of tissue fibers (fibroblasts), others, which is especially important, provide primarily protective and regulatory processes, including through immune mechanisms (macrophages, lymphocytes, tissue basophils, plasma cells).

Bone

Bone tissue Bone tissue, which forms the bones of the skeleton, is very durable. It maintains body shape (constitution) and protects organs located in the skull, chest and pelvic cavities, and participates in mineral metabolism. The tissue consists of cells (osteocytes) and intercellular substance in which nutrient channels with blood vessels are located. The intercellular substance contains up to 70% mineral salts (calcium, phosphorus and magnesium).

In its development, bone tissue passes through fibrous and lamellar stages. In various parts of the bone it is organized in the form of compact or spongy bone substance.

Cartilage tissue

Cartilage tissue consists of cells (chondrocytes) and intercellular substance (cartilage matrix), characterized by increased elasticity. It performs a supporting function, as it forms the bulk of cartilage.

There are three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, which is part of the cartilage of the trachea, bronchi, ends of the ribs, and articular surfaces of bones; elastic, forming the auricle and epiglottis; fibrous, located in the intervertebral discs and joints of the pubic bones.

Adipose tissue

Adipose tissue is similar to loose connective tissue. The cells are large and filled with fat. Adipose tissue performs nutritional, shape-forming and thermoregulatory functions. Adipose tissue is divided into two types: white and brown. In humans, white adipose tissue predominates, part of it surrounds the organs, maintaining their position in the human body and other functions. The amount of brown adipose tissue in humans is small (it is found mainly in newborns). The main function of brown adipose tissue is heat production. Brown adipose tissue maintains the body temperature of animals during hibernation and the temperature of newborns.

Muscle

Muscle cells are called muscle fibers because they are constantly stretched in one direction.

Classification of muscle tissue is carried out on the basis of the structure of the tissue (histologically): by the presence or absence of transverse striations, and on the basis of the mechanism of contraction - voluntary (as in skeletal muscle) or involuntary (smooth or cardiac muscle).

Muscle tissue has excitability and the ability to actively contract under the influence of the nervous system and certain substances. Microscopic differences allow us to distinguish two types of this tissue - smooth (unstriated) and striated (striated).

Smooth muscle tissue has a cellular structure. It forms the muscular membranes of the walls of internal organs (intestines, uterus, bladder, etc.), blood and lymphatic vessels; its contraction occurs involuntarily.

Striated muscle tissue consists of muscle fibers, each of which is represented by many thousands of cells, fused, in addition to their nuclei, into one structure. It forms skeletal muscles. We can shorten them at will.

A type of striated muscle tissue is cardiac muscle, which has unique abilities. During life (about 70 years), the heart muscle contracts more than 2.5 million times. No other fabric has such strength potential. Cardiac muscle tissue has transverse striations. However, unlike skeletal muscle, there are special areas where the muscle fibers meet. Thanks to this structure, the contraction of one fiber is quickly transmitted to neighboring ones. This ensures simultaneous contraction of large areas of the heart muscle.

Also, the structural features of muscle tissue are that its cells contain bundles of myofibrils formed by two proteins - actin and myosin.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells: nerve (neurons) and glial. Glial cells are closely adjacent to the neuron, performing supporting, nutritional, secretory and protective functions.

Neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of nervous tissue. Its main feature is the ability to generate nerve impulses and transmit excitation to other neurons or muscle and glandular cells of working organs. Neurons can consist of a body and processes. Nerve cells are designed to conduct nerve impulses. Having received information on one part of the surface, the neuron very quickly transmits it to another part of its surface. Since the processes of a neuron are very long, information is transmitted over long distances. Most neurons have two types of processes: short, thick, branching near the body - dendrites, and long (up to 1.5 m), thin and branching only at the very end - axons. Axons form nerve fibers.

A nerve impulse is an electrical wave traveling at high speed along a nerve fiber.

Depending on the functions performed and structural features, all nerve cells are divided into three types: sensory, motor (executive) and intercalary. Motor fibers running as part of nerves transmit signals to muscles and glands, sensory fibers transmit information about the state of organs to the central nervous system.

Now we can combine all the information received into a table.

Types of fabrics (table)

Fabric group	Types of fabrics	Tissue structure	Location
Epithelium	Flat	The surface of the cells is smooth. Cells are tightly adjacent to each other	Skin surface oral cavity, esophagus, alveoli, nephron capsules	Integumentary, protective, excretory (gas exchange, urine excretion)
	Glandular	Glandular cells produce secretions	Skin glands, stomach, intestines, endocrine glands, salivary glands	Excretory (secretion of sweat, tears), secretory (formation of saliva, gastric and intestinal juice, hormones)
	Ciliated (ciliated)	Consists of cells with numerous hairs (cilia)	Airways	Protective (cilia trap and remove dust particles)
Connective	Dense fibrous	Groups of fibrous, tightly packed cells without intercellular substance	The skin itself, tendons, ligaments, membranes of blood vessels, cornea of ​​the eye	Integumentary, protective, motor
	Loose fibrous	Loosely arranged fibrous cells intertwined with each other. The intercellular substance is structureless	Subcutaneous fatty tissue, pericardial sac, nervous system pathways	Connects skin to muscles, supports organs in the body, fills gaps between organs. Provides thermoregulation of the body
	Cartilaginous	Living round or oval cells lying in capsules, the intercellular substance is dense, elastic, transparent	Intervertebral discs, laryngeal cartilage, trachea, auricle, joint surface	Smoothing the rubbing surfaces of bones. Protection against deformation of the respiratory tract and ears
	Bone	Living cells with long processes, interconnected, intercellular substance - inorganic salts and ossein protein	Skeleton bones	Supportive, motor, protective
	Blood and lymph	Liquid connective tissue consists of formed elements (cells) and plasma (liquid with organic and mineral substances dissolved in it - serum and fibrinogen protein)	Circulatory system of the whole body	Carries O 2 and nutrients throughout the body. Collects CO 2 and dissimilation products. Ensures the constancy of the internal environment, chemical and gas composition of the body. Protective (immunity). Regulatory (humoral)
Muscular	Cross-striped	Multinucleate cylindrical cells up to 10 cm in length, striated with transverse stripes	Skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle	Voluntary movements of the body and its parts, facial expressions, speech. Involuntary contractions (automatic) of the heart muscle to push blood through the chambers of the heart. Has excitability and contractility properties
	Smooth	Mononuclear cells up to 0.5 mm long with pointed ends	Walls of the digestive tract, blood and lymph vessels, skin muscles	Involuntary contractions of the walls of internal hollow organs. Raising hair on the skin
Nervous	Nerve cells (neurons)	Nerve cell bodies, varied in shape and size, up to 0.1 mm in diameter	Forms the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord	Higher nervous activity. The body's connection with external environment. Centers of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Nervous tissue has the properties of excitability and conductivity
		Short processes of neurons - tree-branching dendrites	Connect with processes of neighboring cells	They transmit the excitation of one neuron to another, establishing a connection between all organs of the body
		Nerve fibers - axons (neurites) - long processes of neurons up to 1.5 m in length. Organs end with branched nerve endings	Nerves of the peripheral nervous system that innervate all organs of the body	Pathways of the nervous system. They transmit excitation from the nerve cell to the periphery via centrifugal neurons; from receptors (innervated organs) - to the nerve cell along centripetal neurons. Interneurons transmit excitation from centripetal (sensitive) neurons to centrifugal (motor) neurons

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Tissue as a collection of cells and intercellular substance. Types and types of fabrics, their properties. Intercellular interactions.

There are about 200 types of cells in the adult human body. Groups of cells that have the same or similar structure, are connected by a common origin and are adapted to perform certain functions form fabrics . This is the next level of the hierarchical structure of the human body - the transition from the cellular level to the tissue level (see Figure 1.3.2).

Any tissue is a collection of cells and intercellular substance , which can be a lot (blood, lymph, loose connective tissue) or little (integumentary epithelium).

The cells of each tissue (and some organs) have their own name: the cells of the nervous tissue are called neurons , bone tissue cells - osteocytes , liver - hepatocytes and so on.

Intercellular substance chemically is a system consisting of biopolymers in high concentration and water molecules. It contains structural elements: collagen fibers, elastin, blood and lymph capillaries, nerve fibers and sensory endings (pain, temperature and other receptors). This provides the necessary conditions for the normal functioning of tissues and the performance of their functions.

There are four types of fabrics in total: epithelial , connecting (including blood and lymph), muscular And nervous (see figure 1.5.1).

Epithelial tissue , or epithelium , covers the body, lines the internal surfaces of organs (stomach, intestines, bladder and others) and cavities (abdominal, pleural), and also forms most of the glands. In accordance with this, a distinction is made between the integumentary and glandular epithelium.

Covering epithelium (type A in Figure 1.5.1) forms layers of cells (1), closely - practically without intercellular substance - adjacent to each other. It happens single-layer or multilayer . The integumentary epithelium is a border tissue and performs the main functions: protection from external influences and participation in the metabolism of the body with the environment - absorption of food components and release of metabolic products ( excretion ). The integumentary epithelium is flexible, ensuring the mobility of internal organs (for example, contractions of the heart, distension of the stomach, intestinal motility, expansion of the lungs, and so on).

Glandular epithelium consists of cells, inside of which there are granules with a secret (from the Latin secretio- department). These cells synthesize and secrete many substances important to the body. Through secretion, saliva, gastric and intestinal juices, bile, milk, hormones and other biologically active compounds are formed. The glandular epithelium can form independent organs - glands (for example, the pancreas, thyroid gland, endocrine glands, or endocrine glands , releasing hormones directly into the blood that perform regulatory functions in the body and others), and may be part of other organs (for example, gastric glands).

Connective tissue (types B and C in Figure 1.5.1) is distinguished by a wide variety of cells (1) and an abundance of intercellular substrate, consisting of fibers (2) and amorphous substance (3). Fibrous connective tissue can be loose or dense. Loose connective tissue (type B) is present in all organs, it surrounds blood and lymphatic vessels. Dense connective tissue performs mechanical, supporting, shaping and protective functions. In addition, there is also very dense connective tissue (type B), which consists of tendons and fibrous membranes (dura mater, periosteum, and others). Connective tissue not only performs mechanical functions, but also actively participates in metabolism, the production of immune bodies, the processes of regeneration and wound healing, and ensures adaptation to changing living conditions.

Connective tissue also includes adipose tissue (View D in Figure 1.5.1). Fats are deposited (deposited) in it, the breakdown of which releases a large amount of energy.

Play an important role in the body skeletal (cartilage and bone) connective tissues . They perform mainly supporting, mechanical and protective functions.

Cartilage tissue (type D) consists of cells (1) and large quantity elastic intercellular substance (2), it forms intervertebral discs, some components of joints, trachea, bronchi. Cartilage tissue does not have blood vessels and receives the necessary substances by absorbing them from surrounding tissues.

Bone (type E) consists of bone plates, inside of which lie cells. The cells are connected to each other by numerous processes. Bone tissue is hard and the bones of the skeleton are built from this tissue.

A type of connective tissue is blood . In our minds, blood is something very important for the body and, at the same time, difficult to understand. Blood (type G in Figure 1.5.1) consists of intercellular substance - plasma (1) and weighed in it shaped elements (2) - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets (Figure 1.5.2 shows their photographs obtained using an electron microscope). All formed elements develop from a common precursor cell. The properties and functions of blood are discussed in more detail in section 1.5.2.3.

Cells muscle tissue (Figure 1.3.1 and types Z and I in Figure 1.5.1) have the ability to contract. Since contraction requires a lot of energy, muscle cells have a higher content mitochondria .

There are two main types of muscle tissue - smooth (type 3 in Figure 1.5.1), which is present in the walls of many, and usually hollow, internal organs (vessels, intestines, gland ducts and others), and striated (view I in Figure 1.5.1), which includes cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue. Bundles of muscle tissue form muscles. They are surrounded by layers of connective tissue and penetrated by nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels (see Figure 1.3.1).

General information on tissues is given in Table 1.5.1.

Table 1.5.1. Tissues, their structure and functions

Fabric name	Specific cell names	Intercellular substance	Where is this fabric found?	Functions	Drawing
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Covering epithelium (single-layer and multilayer)	Cells ( epithelial cells ) fit tightly to each other, forming layers. The cells of the ciliated epithelium have cilia, while the cells of the intestinal epithelium have villi.	Small, does not contain blood vessels; the basement membrane demarcates the epithelium from the underlying connective tissue.	The internal surfaces of all hollow organs (stomach, intestines, bladder, bronchi, blood vessels, etc.), cavities (abdominal, pleural, articular), the surface layer of skin ( epidermis ).	Protection from external influences (epidermis, ciliated epithelium), absorption of food components (gastrointestinal tract), excretion of metabolic products (urinary system); ensures organ mobility.	Fig.1.5.1, view A
Glandular epithelium	Glandulocytes contain secretory granules with biologically active substances. They can be located singly or form independent organs (glands).	The intercellular substance of the gland tissue contains blood, lymphatic vessels, and nerve endings.	Glands of internal (thyroid, adrenal glands) or external (salivary, sweat) secretion. Cells can be located singly in the integumentary epithelium ( respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract).	Output hormones (section 1.5.2.9), digestive enzymes (bile, gastric, intestinal, pancreatic juice, etc.), milk, saliva, sweat and tear fluid, bronchial secretions, etc.	Rice. 1.5.10 “Skin structure” - sweat and sebaceous glands
Connective tissues
Loose connective	The cellular composition is characterized by great diversity: fibroblasts , fibrocytes , macrophages , lymphocytes , single adipocytes and etc.	A large number of; consists of an amorphous substance and fibers (elastin, collagen, etc.)	Present in all organs, including muscles, surrounds blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves; main component dermis .	Mechanical (sheath of vessel, nerve, organ); participation in metabolism ( trophism ), the production of immune bodies, processes regeneration .	Fig.1.5.1, view B
Dense connecting		Fibers predominate over amorphous matter.	Framework of internal organs, dura mater, periosteum, tendons and ligaments.	Mechanical, shaping, supporting, protective.	Fig.1.5.1, view B
Fat	Almost the entire cytoplasm adipocytes occupies a fat vacuole.	There is more intercellular substance than cells.	Subcutaneous fatty tissue, perinephric tissue, abdominal omentum, etc.	Deposition of fats; energy supply due to the breakdown of fats; mechanical.	Fig.1.5.1, view D
Cartilaginous	Chondrocytes , chondroblasts (from lat. chondron- cartilage)	It is distinguished by its elasticity, including due to its chemical composition.	Cartilages of the nose, ears, larynx; articular surfaces of bones; anterior ribs; bronchi, trachea, etc.	Supportive, protective, mechanical. Participates in mineral metabolism (“salt deposition”). Bones contain calcium and phosphorus (almost 98% of the total calcium!).	Fig.1.5.1, view D
Bone	Osteoblasts , osteocytes , osteoclasts (from lat. os- bone)	Strength is due to mineral “impregnation”.	Skeletal bones; auditory ossicles in the tympanic cavity (malleus, incus and stapes)		Fig.1.5.1, view E
Blood	Red blood cells (including juvenile forms), leukocytes , lymphocytes , platelets and etc.	Plasma 90-93% consists of water, 7-10% - proteins, salts, glucose, etc.	Internal contents of the cavities of the heart and blood vessels. If their integrity is violated, bleeding and hemorrhage occur.	Gas exchange, participation in humoral regulation, metabolism, thermoregulation, immune defense; coagulation as a defensive reaction.	Fig.1.5.1, view G; Fig.1.5.2
Lymph	Mostly lymphocytes	Plasma (lymphoplasma)	Internal contents of the lymphatic system	Participation in immune defense, metabolism, etc.	Rice. 1.3.4 "Cell Shapes"
MUSCLE TISSUE
Smooth muscle tissue	Orderly arranged myocytes spindle-shaped	There is little intercellular substance; contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers and endings.	In the walls of hollow organs (vessels, stomach, intestines, urinary and gall bladder, etc.)	Gastrointestinal peristalsis, bladder contraction, maintenance blood pressure due to vascular tone, etc.	Fig.1.5.1, view 3
Cross-striped	Muscle fibers can contain over 100 cores!		Skeletal muscles; cardiac muscle tissue is automatic (chapter 2.6)	Pumping function of the heart; voluntary muscle activity; participation in thermoregulation of the functions of organs and systems.	Fig.1.5.1 (view I)
NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous	Neurons ; neuroglial cells perform auxiliary functions	Neuroglia rich in lipids (fats)	Brain and spinal cord, ganglia (nerve ganglia), nerves (nerve bundles, plexuses, etc.)	Perception of irritation, generation and conduction of impulses, excitability; regulation of the functions of organs and systems.	Fig.1.5.1, view K

The preservation of shape and the performance of specific functions by the tissue is genetically programmed: the ability to perform specific functions and to differentiate is transmitted to daughter cells via DNA. The regulation of gene expression as the basis of differentiation was discussed in section 1.3.4.

Differentiation is a biochemical process in which relatively homogeneous cells, arising from a common precursor cell, transform into increasingly specialized ones, specific types cells that form tissues or organs. Most differentiated cells usually retain their specific characteristics even in a new environment.

In 1952, scientists from the University of Chicago separated chicken embryo cells by growing (incubating) them in an enzyme solution with gentle stirring. However, the cells did not remain separated, but began to unite into new colonies. Moreover, when liver cells mixed with retinal cells, the formation of cellular aggregates occurred in such a way that the retinal cells always moved to the inner part of the cell mass.

Cell interactions . What allows fabrics not to crumble at the slightest external influence? And what ensures the coordinated work of cells and their performance of specific functions?

Many observations prove that cells have the ability to recognize each other and respond accordingly. Interaction is not only the ability to transmit signals from one cell to another, but also the ability to act together, that is, synchronously. On the surface of each cell there are receptors (see section 1.3.2), thanks to which each cell recognizes another similar to itself. And these “detector devices” function according to the “key-lock” rule - this mechanism is repeatedly mentioned in the book.

Let's talk a little about how cells communicate with each other. There are two main methods of intercellular interaction: diffusion And adhesive . Diffusion is an interaction based on intercellular channels, pores in the membranes of neighboring cells located strictly opposite each other. Adhesive (from Latin adhaesio- adhesion, adhesion) - mechanical connection of cells, long-term and stable holding them at a close distance from each other. The chapter on cell structure describes different kinds intercellular connections (desmosomes, synapses and others). This is the basis for the organization of cells into various multicellular structures (tissues, organs).

Each tissue cell not only connects with neighboring cells, but also interacts with intercellular substance, receiving with its help nutrients, signal molecules (hormones, mediators) and so on. Through chemicals delivered to all tissues and organs of the body, humoral type of regulation (from Latin humor- liquid).

Another way of regulation, as mentioned above, is carried out using the nervous system. Nerve impulses always reach their target hundreds or thousands of times faster than delivery of chemicals to organs or tissues. The nervous and humoral ways of regulating the functions of organs and systems are closely interrelated. However, the very formation of most chemicals and their release into the blood are under constant control of the nervous system.

Cell, fabric - these are the first levels of organization of living organisms , but even at these stages it is possible to identify general regulatory mechanisms that ensure the vital activity of organs, organ systems and the body as a whole.