Sparta: political and social system. What remains of ancient Sparta Where was Sparta and what is there now

The state was founded through the efforts of Lacedaemon, who ruled Laconia. Sparta received its name from the name of the ruler’s beloved. During the first hundred years of its history, the city was not fenced; later, during the reign of Naviz, walls were erected, then they were destroyed during one of the conflicts, but the next ruler restored them.

Internal foundations and population groups

An interesting fact is that at the beginning of its existence, Sparta adhered to the division of the population into groups that bore the names:

1. Spartans
2. Perieki
3. Helots

The first lived on the territory of their city and observed its law. Also, they had the opportunity to engage in any activity, however, they avoided agricultural activities because it was contrary to their upbringing and was considered humiliating. The Spartans had at their disposal a significant part of the territory of Laconia, which was prepared by the helots. Also, the Spartan was obliged to give part of his booty to the public table, which was called “sissitium”; disobedience to this law was punishable by the annulment of the rights of a citizen of the offender.

Among the Perieki there were also people who had the rights of citizens, but at the same time did not have as many rights as the Spartans. They existed throughout the territory of Laconia, except for Sparta, which belonged to the Spartans. Also, interesting fact is that they were not an independent city-state, but were subject to decrees from Sparta.

The helots were farmers and were slaves on those lands that were intended for the Spartans and Perieeks. Some of the representatives of this group lived in cities, but this was rather the exception; most often they lived in rural areas. Their rights included:

• Opportunity to have your own home
• Right to marriage and family
• Right to livestock

The sale of helots, according to scientists, was not feasible, since they were considered to be the property of the entire state, and not of private citizens. However, there are facts confirming the conflicts between the Spartans and helots, in which a note of hatred and contempt was traced.

If you believe the words of Plutarch, then by decree of Lycurgus, every year the young Spartans declared war on the helots and, traveling across the land, destroyed defenseless people. However, it was later established that this event appeared only after the events of the First Messenian War, as a result of which farmers began to be considered a danger to the state.

Myths about the education system and the army

The existence of such a social stratum as the helots contradicts one of the main myths about Sparta - throwing weak children from the mountain. This myth gained popularity thanks to Plutarch, who described the foundations of the Spartan people and described that defective children, unable to become warriors due to poor health, were thrown from a cliff in the Taygetus Mountains, and the fate of the child was decided by a council of elders. At the present time, scientists are of the opinion that such a phenomenon did not exist in Sparta. However, this does not exclude the fact that Sparta did have an extremely strict system of education for males.

Another well-known myth is the invulnerability and absence of defeats of the Spartan army. Definitely, this army was one of the strongest in the world, but it also had its own weak sides and made mistakes. In addition, it was significantly inferior in matters of engineering to other states, for example, its neighbors - the Greeks. The main advantage of the Spartan troops was high level discipline and personal combat skills of soldiers.

Ancient Sparta was the main economic and military rival of Athens. The city-state and its surrounding territory were located on the Peloponnese peninsula, southwest of Athens. Administratively, Sparta (also called Lacedaemon) was the capital of the province of Laconia.

The adjective "Spartan" in modern world came from energetic warriors with an iron heart and steely endurance. The inhabitants of Sparta were famous not for their arts, science or architecture, but for their brave warriors, for whom the concepts of honor, courage and strength were placed above all else. Athens at that time, with its beautiful statues and temples, was a stronghold of poetry, philosophy and politics, and thereby dominated the intellectual life of Greece. However, such dominance had to end someday.

Raising children in Sparta

One of the principles that guided the inhabitants of Sparta was that the life of every person, from birth to death, belongs entirely to the state. The elders of the city were given the right to decide the fate of newborns - healthy and strong were left in the city, and weak or sick children were thrown into the nearest abyss. This is how the Spartans tried to secure physical superiority over their enemies. Children who went through “natural selection” were brought up under conditions of severe discipline. At the age of 7, boys were taken from their parents and raised separately, in small groups. The strongest and bravest young men eventually became captains. The boys slept in common rooms on hard and uncomfortable beds made of reeds. The young Spartans ate simple food - soup made from pork blood, meat and vinegar, lentils and other roughage.

One day, a rich guest who came to Sparta from Sybaris decided to try the “black soup”, after which he said that now he understands why Spartan warriors give up their lives so easily. Boys were often left hungry for several days, thereby inciting them to petty theft in the market. This was not done with the intention of making the young man a skilled thief, but only to develop ingenuity and dexterity - if he was caught stealing, he was severely punished. There are legends about one young Spartan who stole a young fox from the market, and when it was time for lunch, he hid it under his clothes. To prevent the boy from being caught stealing, he endured the pain of the fox gnawing his stomach and died without making a single sound. Over time, discipline only became stricter. All adult men, between the ages of 20 and 60, were required to serve in the Spartan army. They were allowed to marry, but even after that, the Spartans continued to sleep in barracks and eat in common canteens. Warriors were not allowed to own any property, especially gold and silver. Their money looked like iron rods of different sizes. Restraint extended not only to everyday life, food and clothing, but also to the speech of the Spartans. In conversation they were very laconic, limiting themselves to extremely concise and specific answers. This manner of communication in Ancient Greece was called “laconicism” after the area in which Sparta was located.

Life of the Spartans

In general, as in any other culture, issues of everyday life and nutrition shed light on interesting little things in people’s lives. The Spartans, unlike residents of other Greek cities, did not attach much importance to food. In their opinion, food should not be used to satisfy, but only to saturate a warrior before battle. The Spartans dined at a common table, and everyone handed over food for lunch in the same quantity - this is how the equality of all citizens was maintained. The neighbors at the table kept a watchful eye on each other, and if someone did not like the food, he was ridiculed and compared to the spoiled inhabitants of Athens. But when the time came for battle, the Spartans changed radically: they put on their best outfits, and marched towards death with songs and music. From birth, they were taught to perceive each day as their last, not to be afraid and not to retreat. Death in battle was desired and equated to the ideal end to the life of a real man. There were 3 classes of inhabitants in Laconia. The first, most revered, included residents of Sparta who had military training and participating in political life cities. Second class - perieki, or residents of surrounding small towns and villages. They were free, although they did not have any political rights. Engaged in trade and handicrafts, the perieki were a kind of “service personnel” for the Spartan army. Lower class - helots, were serfs, and not much different from slaves. Due to the fact that their marriages were not controlled by the state, the helots were the most numerous category of inhabitants, and were restrained from revolt only by the iron grip of their masters.

Political life of Sparta

One of the peculiarities of Sparta was that the state was headed by two kings at the same time. They ruled together, serving as high priests and military leaders. Each of the kings controlled the activities of the other, which ensured the openness and fairness of government decisions. Subordinate to the kings was a "cabinet of ministers", consisting of five ethers or observers, who exercised general custody of laws and customs. The legislative branch consisted of a council of elders, which was headed by two kings. The most respected people were elected to the council people of Sparta who have overcome the 60-year age barrier. Army of Sparta, despite its relatively modest numbers, was well trained and disciplined. Each warrior was filled with determination to win or die - returning with a loss was unacceptable, and was an indelible shame for the rest of his life. Wives and mothers, sending their husbands and sons to war, solemnly presented them with a shield with the words: “Come back with a shield or on it.” Over time, the militant Spartans captured most of the Peloponnese, significantly expanding the boundaries of their possessions. A clash with Athens was inevitable. The rivalry reached its climax during the Peloponnesian War, and led to the fall of Athens. But the tyranny of the Spartans caused hatred among the inhabitants and mass uprisings, which led to the gradual liberalization of power. The number of specially trained warriors decreased, which allowed the inhabitants of Thebes, after about 30 years of Spartan oppression, to overthrow the power of the invaders.

History of Sparta interesting not only from the point of view of military achievements, but also factors of political and life structure. The courage, dedication and desire for victory of the Spartan warriors were the qualities that made it possible not only to restrain the constant attacks of enemies, but also to expand the boundaries of influence. The warriors of this small state easily defeated armies of thousands and were a clear threat to their enemies. Sparta and its inhabitants, brought up on the principles of restraint and the rule of force, were the antipode of the educated and pampered Athens, which in the end led to a clash between these two civilizations.

Greece – a trip to where “everything is there”

Mythology of Ancient Greece

Ballet in Greece: how it was then and how it is today

More is known about this city of the ancient civilization of the Greeks from the legends of Homer. He mentions this polis in his Illiad. However, archaeological excavations confirm the existence of a once powerful city-state on the territory of Greece. However, some sources refute these claims. It is officially known that Troy (Ilion) was a small settlement on the territory of Asia Minor. It is located on the coast of the Aegean Sea, on the Troas Peninsula. It was just a stone's throw from the Dardanelles Strait. Nowadays it is the Turkish province of Canakkale.

Meteora in Greece. Holy Monastery of Rusanu

In the northeast of the Great Meteor and between the monasteries of Varlaam and the Holy Trinity, the monastery of Rusanu is located. At the foot of this mass, a strong feeling of fear grips the visitor as he looks at the almost vertical cliffs. The Rusanov Monastery in all its grandeur stands on the top of a cliff in an open place that can hardly accommodate it.

In the southeast of the largest Greek peninsula - the Peloponnese - was once located mighty Sparta. This state was located in the region of Laconia, in the picturesque valley of the Eurotas River. His official name, which was most often mentioned in international treaties, - Lacedaemon. It was from this state that such concepts as “Spartan” and “Spartan” came. Everyone has also heard about the cruel custom that has developed in this ancient polis: killing weak newborns in order to maintain the gene pool of their nation.

History of origin

Officially, Sparta, which was called Lacedaemon (from this word also came the name of the nome - Laconia), arose in the eleventh century BC. After some time, the entire area on which this city-state was located was captured by the Dorian tribes. Those, having assimilated with the local Achaeans, became Spartakiates in the sense known today, and the former inhabitants were turned into slaves called helots.

The most Doric of all the states that Ancient Greece once knew, Sparta, was located on the western bank of Eurotas, on the site of the modern city of the same name. Its name can be translated as “scattered.” It consisted of estates and estates that were scattered throughout Laconia. And the center was a low hill, which later became known as the acropolis. Sparta originally had no walls and remained true to this principle until the second century BC.

State system of Sparta

It was based on the principle of the unity of all full-fledged citizens of the polis. For this purpose, the state and law of Sparta strictly regulated the life and life of its subjects, restraining their property stratification. The foundations of such a social system were laid by the treaty of the legendary Lycurgus. According to him, the duties of the Spartans were only sports or the art of war, and crafts, agriculture and trade were the work of the helots and perioecs.

As a result, the system established by Lycurgus transformed the Spartiate military democracy into an oligarchic-slave-owning republic, which still retained some signs of a tribal system. Here, land was not allowed, which was divided into equal plots, considered the property of the community and not subject to sale. Helot slaves also, historians suggest, belonged to the state rather than to wealthy citizens.

Sparta is one of the few states that was simultaneously headed by two kings, who were called archagets. Their power was inherited. The powers that each king of Sparta had were limited not only to military power, but also to the organization of sacrifices, as well as to participation in the council of elders.

The latter was called gerusia and consisted of two archagets and twenty-eight geronts. The elders were elected by the people's assembly for life only from the Spartan nobility who had reached the age of sixty. Gerusia in Sparta performed the functions of a certain government body. She prepared issues that needed to be discussed at public assemblies, and also led foreign policy. In addition, the Council of Elders considered criminal cases, as well as state crimes, including those directed against the archaget.

Court

The legal proceedings and law of ancient Sparta were regulated by the college of ephors. This organ first appeared in the eighth century BC. It consisted of the five most worthy citizens of the state, who were elected by the people's assembly for only one year. At first, the powers of the ephors were limited only to the legal proceedings of property disputes. But already in the sixth century BC their power and powers were growing. Gradually they begin to displace gerusia. The ephors were given the right to convene a national assembly and gerousia, regulate foreign policy, and carry out internal governance of Sparta and its legal proceedings. This body was so important in the social structure of the state that its powers included the control of officials, including the archaget.

People's Assembly

Sparta is an example of an aristocratic state. In order to suppress the forced population, whose representatives were called helots, the development of private property was artificially restrained in order to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves.

The Apella, or popular assembly, in Sparta was characterized by passivity. Only full-fledged male citizens who had reached the age of thirty had the right to participate in this body. At first, the people's assembly was convened by the archaget, but subsequently its leadership also passed to the college of ephors. Apella could not discuss the issues put forward, she only rejected or accepted the solution she proposed. Members of the national assembly voted in a very primitive way: by shouting or dividing participants into different sides, after which the majority was determined by eye.

Population

The inhabitants of the Lacedaemonian state have always been class-unequal. This situation was created by the social system of Sparta, which included three classes: the elite, the perieki - free residents from nearby cities who did not have the right to vote, as well as state slaves - helots.

The Spartans, who were in privileged conditions, were exclusively engaged in war. They were far from trade, crafts and Agriculture, all this was handed over to the perieks as a right. At the same time, the estates of the elite Spartans were cultivated by helots, whom the latter rented from the state. During the heyday of the state, there were five times fewer nobility than perieks, and ten times fewer helots.

All periods of the existence of this one of the most ancient states can be divided into prehistoric, ancient, classical, Roman and Each of them left its mark not only in the formation of the ancient state of Sparta. Greece borrowed a lot from this history in the process of its formation.

Prehistoric era

The Leleges initially lived on the Laconian lands, but after the capture of the Peloponnese by the Dorians, this region, which was always considered the most infertile and generally insignificant, as a result of deception, went to two minor sons of the legendary king Aristodemus - Eurysthenes and Proclus.

Soon Sparta became the main city of Lacedaemon, whose system for a long time did not stand out among the other Doric states. She kept constant external wars with neighboring Argive or Arcadian cities. The most significant rise occurred during the reign of Lycurgus, the ancient Spartan legislator, to whom ancient historians unanimously attribute the political structure that subsequently dominated Sparta for several centuries.

Antique era

After victory in the wars lasting from 743 to 723 and from 685 to 668. BC, Sparta was able to finally defeat and capture Messenia. As a result, its ancient inhabitants were deprived of their lands and turned into helots. Six years later, Sparta, at the cost of incredible efforts, defeated the Arcadians, and in 660 BC. e. forced Tegea to recognize her hegemony. According to the agreement stored on a column placed near Althea, she forced her to enter into a military alliance. It was from this time that Sparta in the eyes of the people began to be considered the first state of Greece.

The history of Sparta at this stage is that its inhabitants began to make attempts to overthrow the tyrants that had been appearing since the seventh millennium BC. e. in almost all Greek states. It was the Spartans who helped expel the Cypselids from Corinth, the Pisistrati from Athens, they contributed to the liberation of Sikyon and Phocis, as well as several islands in the Aegean Sea, thereby acquiring grateful supporters in different states.

History of Sparta in the classical era

Having concluded an alliance with Tegea and Elis, the Spartans began to attract the rest of the cities of Laconia and neighboring regions to their side. As a result, the Peloponnesian League was formed, in which Sparta assumed hegemony. These were wonderful times for her: she provided leadership in wars, was the center of meetings and all meetings of the Union, without encroaching on the independence of individual states that maintained autonomy.

Sparta never tried to extend its own power to the Peloponnese, but the threat of danger prompted all other states, with the exception of Argos, to come under its protection during the Greco-Persian wars. Having eliminated the immediate danger, the Spartans, realizing that they were unable to wage war with the Persians far from their own borders, did not object when Athens took further leadership in the war, limiting itself only to the peninsula.

From that time on, signs of rivalry between these two states began to appear, which subsequently resulted in the First, which ended with the Thirty Years' Peace. The fighting not only broke the power of Athens and established the hegemony of Sparta, but also led to a gradual violation of its foundations - the legislation of Lycurgus.

As a result, in 397 before our chronology, the uprising of Kinadon took place, which, however, was not crowned with success. However, after certain setbacks, especially the defeat at the Battle of Cnidus in 394 BC. e, Sparta ceded Asia Minor, but became a judge and mediator in Greek affairs, thus motivating its policy with the freedom of all states, and was able to secure primacy in an alliance with Persia. And only Thebes did not submit to the conditions set, thereby depriving Sparta of the benefits of such a shameful peace for her.

Hellenistic and Roman era

Starting from these years, the state began to decline quite quickly. Impoverished and burdened with the debts of its citizens, Sparta, whose system was based on the legislation of Lycurgus, turned into an empty form of government. An alliance was concluded with the Phocians. And although the Spartans sent them help, they did not provide real support. In the absence of King Agis, with the help of money received from Darius, an attempt was made to get rid of the Macedonian yoke. But he, having failed in the battles of Megapolis, was killed. The spirit that Sparta was so famous for, which had become a household name, gradually began to disappear.

Rise of an Empire

Sparta is a state that for three centuries was the envy of all of Ancient Greece. Between the eighth and fifth centuries BC, it was a collection of hundreds of cities, often at war with each other. One of key figures Lycurgus became the leader for the establishment of Sparta as a powerful and strong state. Before his appearance, it was not much different from the rest of the ancient Greek city-states. But with the arrival of Lycurgus, the situation changed, and priorities in development were given to the art of war. From that moment on, Lacedaemon began to transform. And it was during this period that it flourished.

Since the eighth century BC. e. Sparta began to wage wars of conquest, conquering one after another its neighbors in the Peloponnese. After a series of successful military operations, Sparta moved on to establishing diplomatic ties with its most powerful opponents. Having concluded several treaties, Lacedaemon stood at the head of the union of the Peloponnesian states, which was considered one of the powerful formations of Ancient Greece. The creation of this alliance by Sparta was supposed to serve to repel the Persian invasion.

The state of Sparta has been a mystery to historians. The Greeks not only admired its citizens, but feared them. One type of bronze shields and scarlet cloaks worn by the warriors of Sparta put their opponents to flight, forcing them to capitulate.

Not only the enemies, but also the Greeks themselves did not really like it when an army, even a small one, was located next to them. Everything was explained very simply: the warriors of Sparta had a reputation of being invincible. The sight of their phalanxes brought even the most seasoned into a state of panic. And although only a small number of fighters took part in the battles in those days, they never lasted long.

The beginning of the decline of the empire

But at the beginning of the fifth century BC. e. a massive invasion from the East marked the beginning of the decline of Sparta's power. The huge Persian empire, which always dreamed of expanding its territories, sent a large army to Greece. Two hundred thousand people stood at the borders of Hellas. But the Greeks, led by the Spartans, accepted the challenge.

Tsar Leonidas

Being the son of Anaxandrides, this king belonged to the Agiad dynasty. After the death of his older brothers, Dorieus and Clemen the First, it was Leonidas who took over the reign. Sparta in 480 years before our chronology was in a state of war with Persia. And the name of Leonidas is associated with the immortal feat of the Spartans, when a battle took place in the Thermopylae Gorge, which remained in history for centuries.

This happened in 480 BC. e., when the hordes of the Persian king Xerxes tried to capture the narrow passage connecting Central Greece with Thessaly. At the head of the troops, including the allied ones, was Tsar Leonid. Sparta at that time occupied a leading position among friendly states. But Xerxes, taking advantage of the betrayal of the dissatisfied, bypassed the Thermopylae Gorge and went behind the rear of the Greeks.

Having learned about this, Leonidas, who fought along with his soldiers, disbanded the allied troops, sending them home. And he himself, with a handful of warriors, whose number was only three hundred people, stood in the way of the twenty-thousand-strong Persian army. The Thermopylae Gorge was strategic for the Greeks. In case of defeat, they would be cut off from Central Greece, and their fate would be sealed.

For four days, the Persians were unable to break the incomparably smaller enemy forces. The heroes of Sparta fought like lions. But the forces were unequal.

The fearless warriors of Sparta died every single one. Their king Leonidas fought with them to the end, who did not want to abandon his comrades.

The name Leonid will forever go down in history. Chroniclers, including Herodotus, wrote: “Many kings have died and have long been forgotten. But everyone knows and respects Leonid. His name will always be remembered in Sparta, Greece. And not because he was a king, but because he fulfilled his duty to his homeland to the end and died as a hero. Films have been made and books have been written about this episode in the life of the heroic Hellenes.

Feat of the Spartans

The Persian king Xerxes, who was haunted by the dream of capturing Hellas, invaded Greece in 480 BC. At this time, the Hellenes held the Olympic Games. The Spartans were preparing to celebrate Carnei.

Both of these holidays obliged the Greeks to observe a sacred truce. This was precisely one of the main reasons why only a small detachment resisted the Persians in the Thermopylae Gorge.

A detachment of three hundred Spartans led by King Leonidas headed towards Xerxes’ army of thousands. Warriors were selected based on whether they had children. On the way, Leonid's militia was joined by a thousand people each from Tegeans, Arcadians and Mantineans, as well as one hundred and twenty from Orkhomenes. Four hundred soldiers were sent from Corinth, three hundred from Phlius and Mycenae.

When this small army approached the Thermopylae Pass and saw the number of Persians, many soldiers became afraid and began to talk about retreat. Some of the allies proposed withdrawing to the peninsula to guard the Isthmus. However, others were outraged by this decision. Leonidas, ordering the army to remain in place, sent messengers to all cities asking for help, since they had too few soldiers to successfully repel the Persian attack.

For four whole days, King Xerxes, hoping that the Greeks would take flight, did not begin hostilities. But seeing that this was not happening, he sent the Cassians and Medes against them with the order to take Leonidas alive and bring him to him. They quickly attacked the Hellenes. Each onslaught of the Medes ended in huge losses, but others took the place of the fallen. It was then that it became clear to both the Spartans and Persians that Xerxes had many people, but few warriors among them. The battle lasted the whole day.

Having received a decisive rebuff, the Medes were forced to retreat. But they were replaced by the Persians, led by Hydarnes. Xerxes called them an “immortal” squad and hoped that they would easily finish off the Spartans. But in hand-to-hand combat, they, like the Medes, failed to achieve great success.

The Persians had to fight in close quarters, and with shorter spears, while the Hellenes had longer spears, which gave a certain advantage in this fight.

At night, the Spartans again attacked the Persian camp. They managed to kill many enemies, but their main goal was the defeat of Xerxes himself in the general turmoil. And only when it was dawn did the Persians see the small number of King Leonidas’s detachment. They pelted the Spartans with spears and finished them off with arrows.

The road to Central Greece was open for the Persians. Xerxes personally inspected the battlefield. Having found the dead Spartan king, he ordered him to cut off his head and put it on a stake.

There is a legend that King Leonidas, going to Thermopylae, clearly understood that he would die, so when his wife asked him during farewell what his orders would be, he ordered to find himself good husband and give birth to sons. This was the life position of the Spartans, who were ready to die for their Motherland on the battlefield in order to receive a crown of glory.

Beginning of the Peloponnesian War

After some time, the Greek city-states at war with each other united and were able to repel Xerxes. But, despite the joint victory over the Persians, the alliance between Sparta and Athens did not last long. In 431 BC. e. The Peloponnesian War broke out. And only several decades later was the Spartan state able to win.

But not everyone in Ancient Greece liked the supremacy of Lacedaemon. Therefore, half a century later, new ones broke out fighting. This time his rivals were Thebes, who and their allies managed to inflict a serious defeat on Sparta. As a result, the power of the state was lost.

Conclusion

This is exactly what ancient Sparta was like. She was one of the main contenders for primacy and supremacy in the ancient Greek picture of the world. Some milestones of Spartan history are sung in the works of the great Homer. The outstanding “Iliad” occupies a special place among them.

And now all that remains of this glorious polis are the ruins of some of its buildings and unfading glory. Legends about the heroism of its warriors, as well as a small town of the same name in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula, reached contemporaries.

Sparta (Lacedemon) was the main city of Laconia - a region in the southern part of the Peloponnese, which covered the fertile valley of the Eurotas River and the surrounding mountainous areas. Dorian tribes apparently came to Laconia in the 11th century BC and settled there, gradually subjugating the local Achaean population. The polis of Sparta was formed around 1000 BC as a result of the unification of four settlements; subsequently, a fifth settlement, Amycles, joined them. The Spartans called the enslaved population helots after the Achaean settlement of Ilos (Gelos) in southern Lakonica. Residents of the less fertile areas of Laconia, who maintained personal freedom, were called perieki ('living nearby') by the Spartans.

// Map of Ancient Greece (powermylearning.org)

By the middle of the 8th century BC, all of Laconia had already been subjugated by the Spartiates (citizens of Sparta), and Sparta waged wars with neighboring Argos for possession of the border region of Kynuria and for leadership of the Peloponnese peninsula. At this time, other Greek policies, largely due to lack of land, began to actively withdraw colonies outside of Balkan Greece. Sparta founded only Tarentum in southern Italy at the end of the 8th century BC; According to legend, the colonists were children from mixed marriages of Spartan women and non-citizens. Due to population growth in Sparta, there was a shortage of fertile land, and social contradictions grew, as throughout Greece. The irritants were the same, but the reaction was different: all the forces of Sparta were directed not at the colonization of overseas lands, but at the conquest of Messenia, a neighboring region in the southwest of the Peloponnese. As a result of the 1st Messenian War (736–720), Messenia was captured by the Spartans and its population turned into helots. A century later, in the second half of the 7th century BC, the Messenians rebelled under the leadership of Aristomenes (2nd Messenian War). But, despite support from the policies of Arcadia and Argos, the Messenians were defeated and were finally enslaved.

Lycurgovian system

The Messenian Wars required the mobilization of all the forces of the collective of Spartan citizens and served as an impetus for the adoption of the laws of Lycurgus, which historians still argue about. Lycurgus is one of the main Spartan myths; historians still argue about him. Even the Greek biographer of Roman times, Plutarch, who lived about 700 years after the events described, wrote: “It is impossible to report anything strictly reliable about the legislator Lycurgus: about his origin, and about his travels, and about his death, as well as about his laws, and about about the structure that he gave to the state, there are the most contradictory stories. But most of all, information differs about what time he lived.” Elsewhere Plutarch mentions Lycurgus as one of the founders Olympic Games(the first games took place in 776 BC). Now it is impossible to find out how real his image is. In any case, the name of Lycurgus was associated with those changes in legislation that made Sparta a unique “hoplite state” in Greece. According to tradition, Lycurgus received a retra (oracle) at Delphi, ordering him to carry out transformations. Reforms were apparently carried out at the end of the 7th century BC.

The civil collective of Sparta was transformed into a community of “equals” (Gomeans). The fertile lands were divided into 9 thousand (according to other sources, 6 or 7 thousand) equal plots (clairs - ‘lots’), each of which was to be cultivated by several families of helots. Half of the harvest was to be given to the Spartan - the owner of the cleir. Male citizens became warriors and only warriors. Any other type of activity became unthinkable for them.

In Sparta, royal power was preserved in a form unusual for Greece: two kings (basilei), who were considered descendants of Hercules, were held in high esteem and led the Spartan army during campaigns, but their functions in Sparta itself were insignificant. Together with 28 geronts (elders), they formed the gerousia (council of elders) - a body that played an important role and actually predetermined the decisions of the national assembly (apella). The appella, to which all the Spartans gathered, was considered the highest authority: it elected officials, approved decisions on the most important issues, for example, on issues of war and peace, etc. But ready-made projects were submitted to the appella for consideration, which were approved or rejected in a very primitive way: the strength of the scream was taken into account. The ephorate was a purely Spartan institution, which appeared somewhat later than the Lycurgus laws. Every year five ephors (observers) were elected to ensure the execution and immutability of Lycurgian laws. Their rights were so great that they could even remove kings from power.

Spartan education and lifestyle

The life of a Spartan was regulated from birth to death. The only occupation of a citizen of Sparta was war, for which he was prepared from birth: small children were not bundled up, they were hardened, they were fed poorly. There is a myth that sick children were killed after examination by elders; only those who were found healthy were allowed to be raised. Modern anthropologists and historians do not consider this custom to be reliable; for example, the famous Spartan commander Lysander was lame.

From the age of seven, boys were taught in one big school according to the civil education system - agoge. The purpose of the training was to make them courageous, indifferent to pain and disciplined, laconic. The Spartans expressed themselves succinctly and concisely - hence the word “laconic”. The drill in these schools was so strict that future soldiers went to war as if it were a holiday, since there were some concessions during the campaigns. In these same schools, children were taught minimal literacy so that they could read military reports. The older boys (irenes) controlled the younger ones. The role of same-sex love in such relationships was recognized as an important custom in the process of raising warriors. This is how collectivism was instilled, without which it is impossible to fight shoulder to shoulder. Thanks to their harsh collective education, the Spartan phalanx was considered invincible.

// Spartan warriors (history.com)

Marriage was permitted upon reaching the age of twenty, but until the age of thirty, a man had to live among his peers, visiting his wife only at night. After thirty years he became a full citizen. Each citizen became a participant in the common table (sissitia) and had to dine with other members, making his contribution in the form of products received from land plot. According to the state structure of Sparta, there were neither needy nor rich in it. No one was allowed to have gold or silver. While coins had already spread throughout Greece, in Sparta they continued to use inconvenient and cumbersome iron money. Enrichment became impossible, and the very desire for it was considered shameful.

Spartiates, Perieci, Helots

The political system that developed in Sparta ensured the rights of the dominant social group of the Spartiates (the Gomeans - “equals”) and an effective system of subordination and oppression of others social groups Spartan society, very significant in number. This is evidenced by the fact that in the battle with the Persians at Plataea in 479 BC, in addition to 5 thousand Spartiates, 5 thousand perieci and 35 thousand helots took part.

The Perieci lived in settlements in the mountainous terrain of Laconia and enjoyed internal self-government. In each Periek settlement there was a garmost - a representative of Sparta who carried out supervision. The Perieki served as hoplites in the Spartan army and, despite the lack of political rights, remained generally a reliable support for the Spartiates. Their main occupations were crafts and trade. After the Spartiates were banned from engaging in any enrichment-related activities, the perieci were beyond competition in these areas and, despite the decline in foreign trade after the reforms of Lycurgus, they provided Sparta with all the necessary goods - simple household items and Laconian weapons were especially valued.

The helots were the largest group of the population of the Spartan state. In fact, they were in the position of state slaves, forced to give half of the harvest to the Spartans. The inhabitants of Messenia, conquered by the Spartans, also became helots, so that their total number was probably ten times greater than the number of Spartiates. Unlike slaves in other Greek states, helots lived in compact families, belonged to the same tribe, and hated the Spartiates (“They were ready to devour them alive,” wrote one ancient author). There was always a danger of a helot uprising, especially during periods of external danger or internal turmoil in the Spartan state. So, in 464 BC, after a terrible earthquake, when many Spartiates died, the helots rebelled and even tried to capture Sparta itself, and then resisted the oppressors for ten years. The constant danger of a helot uprising was the main reason for the militarization of Sparta. In relation to the helots, any cruelty was considered justified, and from time to time the Spartiates organized cryptia (raids on young and strong helots). At the same time, a double goal was pursued: the murder of young and strong helots reduced the danger of an uprising, and the young Spartiates who participated in these actions learned to hate the oppressed and not be afraid of cruelty towards them.

Spartan women

A citizen of a Greek polis is, first of all, a warrior. Women did not have political rights in Ancient Greece because they did not fight. However, it was the women of “militarized” Sparta who enjoyed, in comparison with other Greek city policies, relative freedom, and their life was not subject to such strict regulation; they also enjoyed greater rights in the family. The purpose of educating girls was to educate future mothers.

Most of the time, Spartan men were in the company of fellow male citizens and often went to war. In their absence, wives had to be able to at least to some extent resist the rebel helots, so from childhood they were raised in the same way as boys. Sports - running, wrestling, discus and dart throwing - were mandatory for them, unlike household chores. Until their marriage, Spartan women remained in their parents' house. But, unlike other Greek girls, they did not live as hermits. They were required to participate in festivities and solemn processions, including singing and dancing at them without clothes or in a short tunic in the presence of young people. Throughout Greece, Spartan women were derisively called "thigh-baring" women because they wore short clothes. The Athenians believed that Spartan women pushed around their men. There is a historical anecdote about the wife of the famous Spartan king Leonidas, who was asked how she managed to control her husbands. She answered: “We are the only ones who give birth to husbands.” Childbearing in Sparta was highly encouraged. Every citizen was required to have a son. They treated bachelors poorly, humiliated them in every possible way, forced them to walk naked in the cold, and did not give up their seats.

Young Spartan women challenge young men to fight (Edgar Degas

In order to reduce the risk of death during childbirth, the age of marriage for girls in Lacedaemon, the only polis in Greece, was limited: no younger than 18 years. Athenian girls, unlike Spartan girls, got married at the age of 14–15. At the same time, the Spartans retained archaic customs; same-sex female love and polyandry were possible. Two brothers could have one wife. If the husband is old and the wife is young, he could invite into the house a worthy, in his opinion, stranger young man, while the child from such a relationship remained with the husband.

The woman of Sparta had to raise a real warrior who could conquer new lands and repel the pressure of enemies, so the Spartans had to control their emotions. When a mother saw off her son leaving for war, she said: “Come back with a shield or on a shield.” Losing a shield was considered a dishonor; it played a large role, including a symbolic one, and was even used as a cradle for boys. The unique position of Spartan women is evidenced by an incident that occurred in the 4th century BC: the Spartan Kiniska, the sister of King Agesilaus, became the winner of the Olympic Games, entering four horses into competition.

Sparta after Lycurgus

The "Lycurgus Reforms" changed the nature of Spartan society. Until the first half of the 6th century BC, Sparta did not stand out from other archaic Greek city-states: poetry flourished there, Laconian painted ceramics and bronze casting were considered among the best in Greece. But after the middle of the 6th century, a turning point occurred: from now on and until Roman times, Sparta did not give Greece a single poet, philosopher, or artist, the Laconian craft deteriorated, switching to the production of simple, primitive in artistic and technical things. Even the number of Olympic winners-Spartiates decreased significantly. All the forces of Spartan society were aimed at maintaining a system of equality among citizens and suppressing the oppressed sections of the population.

undergoes some changes and foreign policy Sparta. After the conquest of Messenia, Sparta abandoned its intention to expand its possessions in the Peloponnese: the many years of war with Tegea ended. In the 6th century BC, the formation of the Peloponnesian League began - a rather amorphous federal formation of the Peloponnesian policies, in which Sparta plays a leading role (its official name is “Lacedaemonians and allies”). The allies did not pay tribute and maintained their independence throughout internal affairs, but had to act together against a common enemy.

Not only the agrarian cities of the peninsula joined the Peloponnesian League, but also such rich cities of the Isthmian Isthmus as Corinth and Megara, which needed Sparta’s help in the fight against Athens. The only major city in the Peloponnese that did not join the union was Sparta's longtime enemy Argos. Sparta and the Peloponnesian League played a conservative-stabilizing role in Greece: they contributed to the overthrow of tyrannies (for example, the tyranny of the Pisistratids in Athens) and prevented the spread of democratic reforms. The Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, along with Athens, played a decisive role in repelling the Persian invasion of Greece.

Demographic catastrophe and decline of Sparta

After the defeat of the Persians at Plataea in 479 BC, Sparta gradually retreated from active participation in the Greco-Persian wars, yielding leadership to Athens in the Greek world. The devastating earthquake of 464 and the subsequent uprising of the helots (3rd Messenian War) led to large losses among the Spartiates, the number of citizen-soldiers is gradually decreasing. Despite this, Sparta, together with its allies, became the winner in the destructive Peloponnesian War of 431–404, managing to defeat Athens. The influx of wealth and familiarity with the customs of other Greeks corrupts the “community of equals.” The final blow to Sparta's dominance of the Greek world comes with defeat by the Thebans at Leuctra in 371 BC. Sparta loses Messinia and becomes an ordinary polis, burdened with memories of a great past.

Spartan myth

Many Greek historians and philosophers viewed Sparta as the embodiment of the dream of an ideal "hoplite" state in which there was equality of citizens. This was facilitated by the fact that the aristocrats of the Greek city-states considered the Spartans their natural allies in the fight against democratic changes. Observers were struck by the stability of Spartan society, the absence of periods of tyrannical rule, and the law-abiding nature of the Spartans.

Scientists receive most of their knowledge about Sparta from Athenian sources, but their reliability has been questioned. Sparta was a closed society; foreigners were not allowed to live on its territory, and the Spartans could not travel outside of Sparta unless they were carrying out military-political assignments. Therefore, the degree of mythologization of Spartan history is very high.

Almost all of our knowledge of Sparta comes from Athenian sources, as does the vast majority of all other information about Ancient Greece. Athenian aristocrats were, as a rule, Laconophiles and admired Spartan state structure. It was they who gave birth to the Spartan myth. Plato wrote his works "State" and "Laws" based on Spartan experience. But despite the fact that the Athenian aristocrats admired Sparta, few of them wanted to move there. In this way they are very reminiscent of European left-wing intellectuals - admirers Soviet Union. To be admired is one thing, but to move and live is quite another.

However, both Plato and Aristotle pointed out that perfection was achieved only in the field of military and physical training: the courage, boldness, dexterity and discipline of the Spartans became proverbial. However, intellectual development, the development of literature, arts, and philosophy were sacrificed. Sparta, despite its enormous importance, remained an isolated, unique example in which many character traits policies were brought to their logical conclusion.

Nevertheless, the Spartan myth is tenacious even now: in the Battle of Thermopylae, the Thebans, Tegeans, and citizens of other cities fought together with the Spartans, but we remember the heroic death of the Spartan king Leonidas and three hundred Spartans and say: “This is Sparta!” when we see I have before myself perseverance, courage, discipline and selfless devotion to my native country.

The Spartan kings considered themselves Heraclides - descendants of the hero Hercules. Their bellicosity became a household word, and with good reason: the Spartans’ fighting formation was the direct predecessor of the phalanx of Alexander the Great.

The Spartans were attentive to signs and prophecies and listened very much to the opinion of the Delphic oracle. The cultural heritage of Sparta is not as well known as that of Athens, largely due to the warlike people's wariness towards writing: for example, their laws were transmitted orally, and the names of the dead were forbidden to be written on non-military tombstones.

However, if not for Sparta, the culture of Greece could have been assimilated by foreigners who were constantly invading the territory of Hellas. The fact is that Sparta was in fact the only polis that not only had a combat-ready army, but whose entire life was subject to army order and took place according to a strict schedule designed to discipline the soldiers. The Spartans owed the emergence of such a militarized society to unique historical circumstances.

Beginning of the 10th century BC e. It is considered to be the time of the first large-scale settlement of the territory of Laconia, that is, the future Sparta and the adjacent lands. In the 8th century, the Spartans undertook expansion into the nearby lands of Messenia. During the occupation, they decided not to destroy the local inhabitants, but to make them their slaves, who were known as helots - literally “captives”. But the creation of a colossal slave complex led to inevitable uprisings: in the 7th century, the helots fought against their enslavers for several years, and this became a lesson for Sparta.

The laws established, according to legend, by the Spartan king-legislator named Lycurgus (translated as “working wolf”) back in the 9th century, served to regulate the internal political situation after the conquest of Messenia. The Spartans distributed the lands of the helots among all citizens, and all full-fledged citizens formed the backbone of the army (about 9,000 people in the 7th century - 10 times more than in any other Greek city) and had hoplite weapons. The strengthening of the army, perhaps dictated by the fear that another slave uprising would break out, contributed to an extraordinary increase in the influence of the Spartans in the region and the formation of a special system of life, characteristic only of Sparta.

In order to optimally train the soldiers of Sparta, from the age of seven they were sent to centralized government structures, where they spent time in intensive training until the age of 18. This was a kind of initiation stage: in order to become a full-fledged citizen, it was necessary not only to successfully pass all the tests of 11 years of training, but also, as proof of one’s skills and fearlessness, to kill a helot with a dagger alone. It is not surprising that the helots constantly had a reason for their next performances. The widespread legend about the execution of handicapped Spartan boys or even babies most likely has no real historical basis, since in the polis there was even a certain social stratum of hypomeions - physically or mentally handicapped “citizens”.