Architecture and principles of computer operation. What is computer architecture

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State budget educational institution

Secondary vocational education

Rostov region

"Rostov Construction College"

on the topic: "PC architecture"

Work completed:

Group A-21 student

Pavlova N.V.

Rostov-on-Don 2014

Introduction

1. The concept of a personal computer

2. The concept of personal computer architecture

3. Internal devices of a personal computer

4. External devices of a personal computer

Introduction computer microprocessor logic

Rapid development information technologies and their main technical base - computers, leads to greater saturation with them in almost all spheres of human activity. Under these conditions, the student needs to know the basics of computer hardware, its main specifications and functionality. Such knowledge makes it possible to more consciously make choices, organize maintenance, upgrade personal computers, plan the development of a computer for both personal use and professional use, which is the most relevant.

The computer is a programmable electronic device, capable of processing data and performing calculations, as well as performing other character manipulation tasks.

A computer is a multifunctional electronic device for the accumulation, processing and transmission of information.

The architecture of a personal computer is the arrangement of its main parts, such as the processor, RAM, video subsystem, disk system, peripherals, and input/output devices.

The PC architecture determines the principle of operation, information links and interconnection of the main logical nodes of the computer:

Central processor;

main memory;

external memory;

Peripherals.

1. Computer internals

v The most important element in a computer, its "brain", is the microprocessor. A microprocessor is an electronic circuit that performs all the functions of information processing and control of all computer units. Structurally, it is one crystal 4-6 cm2.

The microprocessor consists of the following blocks:

1. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a device that performs logical and arithmetic operations in the binary system.

2. Microprocessor memory is the memory of registers that store data and their addresses

3. Cache memory - fast memory improves the performance of the microprocessor by buffering frequently used commands

4. Control device (CU) - this device provides a multitasking mode, which contributes to the organization of the computer, in which its memory simultaneously contains programs and data for solving several problems. Multitasking is carried out due to the system of interrupts and memory protection

5. Microprocessor backbone - it is designed to exchange information between microprocessor units.

Microprocessor interface system - implements interfacing and communication with other PC devices; includes an internal MP interface, buffer storage registers and control circuits for input-output ports (I/O) and the system bus.

v The storage device also plays an important role in the computer.

A storage device is a computer unit designed for temporary ( RAM) and long-term (permanent memory) storage of programs, input and output data, as well as intermediate results.

Types of ZPU:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) is a fast-acting storage device of a relatively small volume, which stores the currently executing program and its data.

2. Cache memory is an ultra-fast memory designed to store intermediate results.

3. ROM (read-only memory) - this memory is designed to store system and auxiliary programs (Bios), it is non-volatile, but the data exchange rate in the vast majority of cases is much lower.

v A bus is a system board that provides I/O information. The characteristic of the bus is the exchange rate. The main types of tires (arranged in order of performance improvement): ISA, EISA, VESA, PCI, AGP. Connectors - "slots" of the PCI standard was born about 10 years ago and today is the main standard for slots for connecting additional devices.

The system bus includes:

code data bus (KSHD), containing wires and interface circuits for parallel transmission of all digits of the numerical code (machine word) of the operand;

address code bus (KSA), including wires and interface circuits for parallel transmission of all digits of the address code of the main memory cell or the input-output port of an external device;

instruction code bus (KSI) containing wires and interface circuits for transmitting instructions (control signals, pulses) to all machine blocks;

a power bus having wires and interface circuits for connecting PC units to a power supply system.

The system bus provides three directions for information transfer:

Between microprocessor and main memory;

Between the microprocessor and input-output ports of external devices;

Between main memory and I/O ports of external devices (DMA mode)

v Hard disk (hard drive, HDD) - designed for permanent storage of information used during computer operation: operating system, documents, games, etc. The main characteristics of a hard disk are its capacity, measured in gigabytes (GB), data read speed, average access time, and cache size. Information is stored on one or more round plates with a magnetic layer, over which magnetic recording heads fly. Hard drives are connected to the motherboard using special cables, each of which is designed for two devices.

v A compact disc drive (CD-ROM) is designed to read records on CDs. Advantages of the device - large disk capacity, fast access, reliability, versatility, low cost. The main concept that characterizes the operation of this device is speed. The very first CD-ROMs are 1-speed. Now there are 52-speed CD-ROMs. What does 52 speed drive mean? This means that it reads data 52 times faster than the very first 1 speed (150 Kb/s) CD-ROM. Therefore, we multiply 52 by 150… 7800 kilobytes per second! The main disadvantage of standard CD-ROM drives is the inability to write information.

This requires other devices:

CD-R - a disk drive with the ability to record information once on a special disk, in Russia they are called "blanks". Recording on these discs is carried out due to the presence of a special light-sensitive layer on them, which burns out under the influence of a high-temperature laser beam.

CD-RW - a drive with the ability to repeatedly write information. This device works on a completely different principle and with completely different discs than CD-R.

Recently, DVD-ROM is becoming more and more widespread - a device designed to read DVD format discs.

v BIOS (Basic Input - Output System) - a basic input / output system - a microcircuit installed on the motherboard. This is where the main computer settings are stored. Using the BIOS, you can change the speed of the processor, the operation parameters for other internal and some external devices of the computer. The BIOS is the first and most important of the bridges that connects the hardware and software of a computer. Therefore, for modern BIOSes there are many important features is the ability to update it, work with the Plag & Play standard, the ability to boot a computer from a CD-ROM, network and ZIP drives.

v Power supply. This is a block containing autonomous and mains power supply systems for a PC.

v Timer. This is an in-machine electronic clock that provides, if necessary, automatic removal of the current moment in time (year, month, hours, minutes, seconds and fractions of seconds). The timer is connected to an autonomous power source - the battery and continues to work when the machine is disconnected from the mains.

2. Computer external devices

v A keyboard is a device used to enter information from a user into a computer. The modern keyboard consists of 104 keys reinforced in a single housing.

v Mouse - a manipulator for entering information into a computer. It is necessary for working with graphic packages, drawings, when developing diagrams and when working in new operating systems Oh.

v Joystick - a manipulator in the form of a hinged handle with buttons, used in computer games.

v Monitor (display) - a device designed to display text and graphic information.

v Printer - a device designed to output text and graphics information on paper. There are matrix, inkjet and laser printers (arranged in order of improving quality and print speed). Printers are color (inkjet and laser) and black and white (dot matrix and laser).

v Scanner - a device for entering text and graphic information into a computer. Scanners are hand-held, desktop tablet and even floor.

v Plotter - a device that allows you to display graphic information on paper or other media. Typical tasks for plotters are the execution of various drawings, diagrams, drawings, graphs, maps, etc.

v Modem (modulator-demodulator) - a device that allows a computer to communicate with another computer through telephone lines. In my own way appearance and the place of installation, modems are divided into internal (internal) and external (external). Internal modems are an electronic board that is installed directly into the computer, while external modems are a stand-alone device connected to one of the ports. An external modem is more expensive than an internal modem of the same type due to external attractiveness and easier installation. The main parameter in the operation of the modem is the data transfer rate.

Conclusion

The development of the electronics industry and computer engineering is carried out at such a rapid pace that literally in 1-2 years, today's "miracle of technology" becomes obsolete. However, the principles of computer design have remained unchanged since the famous mathematician John von Neumann in 1945 prepared a report on the design and functioning of universal computing devices, i.e. computers.

1. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki

2. http://imcs.dvfu.ru/lib/eastprog/architecture.html

3. http://rechkate.ru/informatika/arhitektura-pk

4. http://www.lessons-tva.info/edu/e-inf1/e-inf1-2-2.html

5. http://wiki.kem-edu.ru/index.php

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Classical von Neumann architecture

In $1946$ American mathematicians John von Neumann, German Goldstein And Arthur Burks in a joint article, they outlined new principles for the construction and operation of computers. Based on these principles, $1$-th and $2$-th generation of computers were produced. There were some changes in the following generations, but the principles of von Neumann (as they were called) remained.

Von Neumann's basic principles:

Using the binary number system in a PC , in which it is much easier for devices to perform arithmetic-logical operations than in decimal.
PC software control . The operation of the PC is controlled by a program, which consists of a set of commands that are executed sequentially one after another. The creation of a machine with a stored program in memory marked the beginning of programming.
Data and programs are stored in the PC memory . Commands and data are encoded in the same way in binary.
PC memory cells have sequentially numbered addresses. The ability to access any memory location by its address made it possible to use variables in programming.
Possibility of conditional jump during program execution. Commands in the PC are executed sequentially, but if necessary, you can implement a transition to any part of the code.

The underlying principle was that the program had already become permanent part machines, but variable, in contrast to the apparatus, which remains unchanged and very simple.

Von Neumann also proposed the PC structure (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. PC structure

The composition of the von Neumann machine included:

storage device (memory);
arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performed all arithmetic and logical operations;
control device (CU), which coordinates the actions of all machine nodes in accordance with the program;
I/O devices.

Programs and data were entered into the memory from the input device through the ALU. All program commands were written to memory cells sequentially, and data for processing were written to arbitrary cells.

The command consisted of specifying the operation to be performed and the addresses of the memory cells in which the data is stored and on which the necessary operation must be performed, as well as the address of the cell in which the result must be written (for storage in memory).

From the ALU, the results are output to a memory or output device. Fundamentally, these devices differ in that data is stored in the memory in a form convenient for processing by a PC, and on output devices (monitor, printer, etc.) in a form convenient for a person.

Signals with commands are received from the CU to other devices, and from other devices the CU receives information about the result of their execution.

The CU contains a special register (cell) - program counter, in which the address of the first instruction of the program is written. The CU reads the contents of the corresponding memory cell from memory and places it in a special device - instruction register. The CU determines the operation of the command, “marks” in memory the data whose addresses are specified in the command, and controls the execution of the command. The operation is performed by the ALU or computer hardware.

After the command is executed, the program counter is incremented by $1$ and points to the next program command. If it is necessary to execute a command that does not follow the current one in order, a special jump command contains the address of the cell to which control must be transferred.

Modern PC architecture

The architecture of modern PCs is based on trunk-modular principle. A PC consists of separate parts - modules, which are relatively independent PC devices (for example, processor, RAM, controller, display, printer, scanner, etc.).

Modular principle allows the user to independently complete the necessary PC configuration and update it if necessary. The modular organization of the system is based on the main principle of information exchange. For the PC to work as a single mechanism, it is necessary to exchange data between various devices, for which the system (main) bus, which is made in the form of a printed bridge on the motherboard.

The main features of the PC architecture are reduced to the principles of hardware layout, as well as to the selected set of system hardware.

This architecture is characterized by its openness– the ability to include additional devices (system and peripheral) in the PC, as well as the ability to easily embed user programs at any level software PC.

Remark 1

Also, the improvement of PC architecture is associated with maximum acceleration of information exchange with system memory. It is from the system memory in which data is stored that the PC reads all executable commands. Thus, the CPU makes most of the calls to the memory and the acceleration of the exchange with the memory will lead to a significant acceleration of the entire system as a whole.

Because When using a system bus to exchange a processor with memory, you have to take into account the speed limits of the bus itself, then it is impossible to achieve a significant acceleration of data exchange using the bus.

To address this issue, the following approach was proposed. System memory instead of the system backbone is connected to a special high-speed bus, which is remotely located closer to the processor and does not require complex buffers and large distances. In this case, the memory is exchanged at the maximum possible speed for the processor, and the system highway does not slow it down. This decision became especially relevant with the increase in processor speed.

Thus, the structure of a PC from a single-bus, which was used only in the first computers, becomes three-bar.

Figure 2. Three-bus structure of a PC

ALU and CU in modern PCs form a processor. A processor that consists of one or more large integrated circuits is called a microprocessor or microprocessor package.

Multiprocessor PC architecture

The presence of multiple processors in a PC means that many data streams and commands can be organized in parallel, i.e. Several fragments of the same task can be executed at the same time.

Figure 3. Architecture of a multiprocessor PC

Multi-machine computing system

In the architecture of a multimachine computing system, each processor has its own RAM. The use of a multimachine computing system is effective in solving problems that have a very special structure, which should consist of as many PCs as the system is divided into loosely coupled subtasks.

Multiprocessor and multimachine computing systems have an advantage over uniprocessor ones in terms of speed.

Parallel processor architecture

In this architecture, several ALUs operate under the control of one control unit. This means that a lot of data can be processed by one program, i.e. by one command stream. High performance of such an architecture can be obtained only on tasks in which the same computational operations are performed simultaneously on different data sets of the same type.

Figure 4. Architecture with a parallel processor

Modern machines often contain elements various types architectural solutions. There are other architectural solutions that are different from those discussed above.

The basic principle of building a computer is called architecture. von Neumann - American scientist of Hungarian origin John von Neumann, who proposed it.

Modern computer architecture is determined by the following principles:

The principle of program control. Provides automation of the process of computing on a computer. According to this principle, to solve each problem, a program is compiled that determines the sequence of actions of the computer. The efficiency of program control will be higher when the problem is solved by the same program many times (albeit with different initial data).

The principle of a program stored in memory. According to this principle, program commands are given, like data, in the form of numbers and are processed in the same way as numbers, and the program itself is loaded into RAM before execution, which speeds up the process of its execution.

The principle of random access to memory. In accordance with this principle, program and data elements can be written to an arbitrary location in RAM, which allows you to access any given address (a specific memory location) without looking at the previous ones.

Based on these principles, it can be argued that a modern computer is a technical device that, after entering initial data into memory in the form of digital codes and a program for processing them, also expressed in digital codes, is able to automatically carry out the computational process specified by the program and produce ready-made results for solving the problem. in a form suitable for human perception.

A personal computer such as the IBM PC has a rather traditional architecture of a microprocessor system and contains all the usual functional units: processor, permanent and random access memory, input / output devices, system bus, power supply.

The main features of the architecture of personal computers are reduced to the principles of hardware layout, as well as to the selected set of system hardware.

The main components of the computer are as follows:

CPU is a microprocessor with all the necessary auxiliary chips, including an external cache memory and a system bus controller. (Cache memory will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.) In most cases, it is the central processor that carries out the exchange on the system bus.

RAM can occupy almost all of the processor's addressable memory space. However, most often its volume is much less. In modern personal computers, the standard amount of system memory is usually from 64 to 512 MB. Computer RAM runs on dynamic memory chips and therefore requires regeneration.

Persistent memory (ROM BIOS - Base Input / Output System) has a small size (up to 64 KB), contains a startup program, a description of the system configuration, as well as drivers (lower-level programs) for interacting with system devices.

Interrupt controller converts system bus hardware interrupts to processor hardware interrupts and sets interrupt vector addresses. All operating modes of the interrupt controller are set by the software processor before starting work.

Direct Memory Access Controller receives a request for a RAP from the system backbone, passes it to the processor, and after the processor provides the backbone, it transfers data between the memory and the I/O device. All modes of operation of the PDP controller are set by the software processor before starting work. The use of interrupt and DMA controllers built into the computer makes it possible to significantly simplify the equipment of the expansion cards used.

Regeneration controller carries out periodic updating of information in dynamic random access memory by conducting special regeneration cycles on the bus. For the duration of the regeneration cycles, it becomes the master (master) of the bus.

Data byte swapper helps to exchange data between 16-bit and 8-bit devices, send whole words or individual bytes.

Real time clock and timer-counter - these are devices for internal control of time and date, as well as for program exposure of time intervals, program frequency setting, etc.

System I/O devices - these are the devices that are necessary for the computer to work and interact with standard external devices via parallel and serial interfaces. They can be made on the motherboard, or they can be located on expansion cards.

Expansion boards are installed in the slots (connectors) of the system backbone and may contain RAM and input/output devices. They can communicate with other devices on the bus in program mode, interrupt mode, and DMA mode. It is also possible to capture the bus, that is, completely disconnect all system devices from the bus for a while.

An important feature of this architecture is its openness , that is, the ability to include additional devices in the computer, both system devices and various expansion cards. Openness also implies the ability to easily embed user programs at any level of computer software.

The first computer of the family, which received wide distribution, IBM PC XT, was made on the basis of the original PC XT-Bus system backbone. Later (starting with the IBM PC AT) it was finalized to the backbone, which became standard and was called ISA (Industry Standard Architecture). Until recently, ISA remained the backbone of the computer.

However, starting with the advent of the i486 processors (in 1989), it ceased to meet performance requirements, and it began to be duplicated by faster buses: VLB (VESA Local Bus) and PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect bus) or replaced with an ISA-compatible EISA (Enhanced ISA). Gradually, the PCI bus forced out its competitors and became the de facto standard, and starting from 1999, it is recommended to completely abandon the ISA bus in new computers, leaving only PCI. True, in this case, one has to abandon the use of expansion cards developed over the years for connecting to the ISA backbone.

Another direction of improving the architecture of a personal computer is associated with maximum acceleration of information exchange with system memory . It is from system memory that the computer reads all executable commands, and it stores data in system memory. That is, the processor makes most of the calls to memory. Accelerating the exchange with memory leads to a significant acceleration of the entire system as a whole.

But when using the system highway for memory exchange, you have to take into account the speed limits of the highway. The system highway must provide interfacing with a large number of devices, so it must have a fairly long length; it requires the use of input and output buffers to match the backbone lines. Exchange cycles along the system highway are complex and cannot be accelerated. As a result, it is impossible to achieve a significant acceleration of the exchange of the processor with memory along the highway.

The developers proposed the following approach. System memory is connected not to the system backbone, but to a special high-speed bus, located "closer" to the processor, which does not require complex buffers and large distances. In this case, the exchange with memory goes with the maximum possible for given processor speed, and the system highway does not slow it down. This becomes especially relevant with an increase in processor speed (now the clock frequencies of personal computer processors reach 1 - 3 GHz).

Thus, the structure of a personal computer from a single-bus, used only in the first computers, becomes three-bar.

The purpose of the tires is as follows:

the central processor and cache memory (fast buffer memory) are connected to the local bus;

the memory bus connects the computer's RAM and permanent memory, as well as the system bus controller;

all other computer devices are connected to the system bus (backbone).

All three tires are address lines, data lines and control signals. But the composition and purpose of the lines of these tires do not coincide with each other, although they perform the same functions. From the point of view of the processor, there is only one system bus (highway) in the system; it receives data and commands through it and transfers data both to memory and to I / O devices.

The time delays between the system memory and the processor are minimal in this case, since the local bus and the memory bus are connected only by the simplest fast buffers. There is even less latency between the processor and the cache memory, which is connected directly to the processor's local bus and serves to speed up the exchange of the processor with system memory.

If the computer uses two system buses, for example, ISA and PCI, then each of them has its own bus controller, and they work in parallel without affecting each other. Then it turns out already a four-bar, and sometimes a five-bar structure.


	Example of a multi-bus structure

In the most common desktop computers of the Desktop class, the system or motherboard (motherboard) is used as a structural basis, on which all the main system nodes of the computer are located, as well as several connectors (slots) of the system bus for connecting daughter boards - expansion cards (interface modules, controllers , adapters). As a rule, modern motherboards allow the replacement of the processor, the choice of its clock frequency, the replacement and expansion of RAM, the choice of operating modes for other nodes.

A-priory, architecture- this is a description of a complex system, consisting of many elements, as a whole.

The architecture of a modern personal computer is a generalization of the principles of building a computer, proposed by a group of scientists led by John von Neumann. In the classical architecture of a Neumann computer, 5 main blocks can be distinguished, shown in Fig. 2.1. With the help of input devices (IUs), data and programs presented in binary form enter the random access memory (RAM), or memory, of the machine. To implement the commands that form the program, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is used that performs arithmetic operations, comparison operations, logic algebra, etc. The interaction of the RAM and ALU is carried out by the control unit (CU). With its help, the program is transferred from the RAM to the ALU, the necessary data is found, calculations are performed, the memory is written, and the result is organized by means of the output device (UVv).

The real structure of a modern computer is much more complex, due to the desire to improve its performance and functionality.

So, cache memory appeared in the structure of a personal computer, direct access channels to RAM were introduced, used to exchange data with input / output devices, bypassing the microprocessor.

Peripheral devices are connected to computer hardware through special controllers (K) or adapters (A) - control devices, freeing the processor from direct control of this equipment.

In the architecture of the personal computer appeared coprocessor- a device that operates in parallel with the main processor and performs specific operations: for example, a mathematical coprocessor is designed for complex mathematical calculations.

The system unit is the central part of the PC. IN The case of the system unit houses the internal devices of the PC. The system unit includes the following Devices:

System (motherboard) board with a microprocessor;

RAM;

Hard disk drive;

Controllers or adapters for connecting and controlling external PC devices (monitor, speakers, etc.);

Ports for connecting external devices (printer,

mice, etc.);

External storage devices (VZU) for floppy disks and laser disks such as CD-ROM and DVD-ROM.

Motherboard is an integrating (unifying) node of the PC. The motherboard largely determines the PC configuration, since the type of microprocessor used, the maximum amount of RAM, the number and methods of connecting external PC devices, and other characteristics depend on its parameters.

Microprocessor(or CPU) is the main chip in the computer. It runs the program code in memory and controls all the devices in the computer, either directly or through the appropriate controllers.

The basis of any microprocessor is the core, which consists of millions of transistors located on a silicon chip. The microprocessor has special cells called general registers(RON). The processor's job is to select from memory in a certain sequence of instructions and data and execute them. To increase the speed of the PC, the microprocessor is equipped with an internal cache memory.

The Intel processors used in IBM-compatible PCs have more than a thousand instructions and belong to the processors with an extended instruction set - CISC processors (CISC - Complex Instruction Set Computing).

The exchange of data and commands between the internal devices of the PC occurs through the conductors of a multi-core cable - system bus. The main task of the system bus is to transfer data between the processor and other electronic components of the computer. There are three types of tires:

Data bus;

Address bus;

Command bus.

Data bus. This bus transfers data from RAM to the RON of the processor and vice versa. In a PC based on Intel Pentium processors, the data bus is 64-bit, i.e., 8 bytes of data are immediately processed for processing in one clock cycle.

Address bus. On this bus, addresses of RAM cells are transmitted, where the commands that need to be executed by the processor are located. In addition, the data that commands operate on is transmitted over this bus. In modern processors, the address bus is 32-bit, that is, it consists of 32 parallel wires.

Command bus. Instructions executed by the processor come from the RAM on this bus. Commands are represented as bytes. Simple commands take up one byte, while more complex commands take up two, three or more bytes. Most modern processors have a 32-bit command bus, although there are 64-bit processors with a 64-bit command bus.

Consider the main bus interfaces of motherboards, but in more detail we will dwell on the bus USB.

USB(Universal Serial Bus). Universal Serial Bus USB is an indispensable element of a modern PC, it has replaced the outdated parallel and serial ports. Tire USB is a serial data interface for medium and low speed peripherals. It allows you to connect up to 256 different devices with a serial interface. Tire USB supports auto-detection (Plug and play) of new devices, as well as the so-called "hot" connection, that is, connecting to a running computer without restarting it. Data transfer rate USB is 1.5 Mbps. We give without explanation other types of ^in: ISA(Industry Standard Architecture), PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect), FSB(Front Side Bus) AGP(Advanced Graphic Port).

All types of storage devices located on the system board form internal memory PC which includes:

RAM;

Super-rapid memory (cache memory);

Permanent memory.

RAM memory(Random Access Memory) is used to store executables in this moment programs and the necessary data for this. Through the RAM, commands and data are exchanged between the microprocessor, external memory and peripheral devices. High performance determines the name (operational) of this type of memory. The key feature of RAM is its volatility, i.e. data is stored in it only when the computer is turned on.

By physical principle actions differentiate dynamic memory DRAM and static memory SRAM.

dynamic memory for all its simplicity and low cost, it has a significant drawback, which consists in the need for periodic regeneration (updating) of the memory contents.

Dynamic memory chips are used as the main random access memory (RAM), and chips static- for cache memory.

Cache(Cache memory) is used to improve PC performance. The principle of "caching" is to use fast memory to store the most frequently used data or commands, while reducing the number of accesses to slower RAM.

Read Only Memory ROM(Read Only Memory) is designed to store immutable information and is located in a read-only memory (ROM) chip. The ROM chip is capable of retaining information for a long time even when the computer is turned off, so read-only memory is also called non-volatile memory.

A set of programs located in ROM constitutes the basic input / output system BIOS(Basic Input/Output with tem). bios contains programs for managing the keyboard, video card, disks, ports, and other devices. The main purpose of these programs is to check the composition and performance of the system and ensure the interaction of the main components of the PC before loading any operating system. In addition, the BIOS includes a test program that runs when the computer is turned on.

Despite the fact that modern computer models are represented on the market by a wide range of brands, they are assembled within a small number of architectures. What is it connected with? What is the specific architecture of modern PCs? What software and hardware components form it?

Architecture Definition

What is PC architecture? This rather broad term is commonly understood as a set of logical principles for assembling a computer system, as well as the distinctive features of the technological solutions introduced into it. PC architecture can be a tool for standardization. That is, computers within it can be assembled according to established schemes and technological approaches. Combining certain concepts into a single architecture facilitates the promotion of the PC model on the market, allows you to create programs developed by different brands, but guaranteed to be suitable for it. A single PC architecture also allows manufacturers of computer equipment to actively interact to improve certain technological components of a PC.

The term under consideration can be understood as a set of approaches to the assembly of computers or its individual components, adopted at the level of a particular brand. In this sense, the architecture, which is developed by the manufacturer, is its intellectual property and is used only by it, can act as a competitive tool in the market. But even in this case, solutions from different brands can sometimes be classified within the framework of a common concept that combines the key criteria that characterize computers of various models.

The term “PC architecture” as a branch of knowledge can be understood in different ways by computer science. The first version of the interpretation involves the interpretation of the concept under consideration as a standardizing criterion. According to another interpretation, architecture is rather a category that allows one manufacturer brand to become competitive with others.

The most interesting aspect is how the history and architecture of the PC correlate. In particular, this is the emergence of the classical logical design of computers. Let's consider its features.

classical computer architecture

The key principles, in accordance with which it was supposed to design a PC according to a certain logical scheme, were proposed by John von Neumann, an outstanding mathematician. His ideas were implemented by PC manufacturers from the first two generations. The concept developed by John von Neumann is the classic PC architecture. What are its features? It is assumed that the computer should consist of the following main components:

Arithmetic and logical block;

Control devices;

Block of external memory;

RAM block;

Devices for input and output of information.

Within the framework of this scheme, the interaction of technological components should be implemented in a specific sequence. So, first, data from a computer program enters the PC memory, which can be entered using an external device. The control device then reads the information from the computer's memory and then sends it for execution. In this process, if necessary, other components of the PC are involved.

Architecture of modern computers

Consider what are the main features of the architecture of modern PCs. It differs somewhat from the concept that we studied above, but in many ways continues it. PC key feature newest generations- an arithmetic, logical block, as well as the fact that the control devices are combined into a single technological component - the processor. In many ways, this became possible due to the appearance of microcircuits and their further improvement, which made it possible to fit a wide range of functions into a relatively small part of a computer.

The architecture of a modern PC is also characterized by the fact that it contains controllers. They appeared as a result of a revision of the concept, in which the processor had to perform the function of exchanging data with external devices. Thanks to the capabilities of integrated circuits that have appeared, PC manufacturers decided to separate the corresponding functional component from the processor. This is how various exchange channels appeared, as well as peripheral microcircuits, which then began to be called controllers. Appropriate hardware components on modern PCs can, for example, control the operation of disks.

The device and architecture of modern PCs assume the use of a bus. Its main purpose is to provide communications between various hardware elements of a computer. Its structure may imply the presence of specialized modules responsible for a particular function.

IBM architecture

IBM developed the PC architecture, which actually became one of the world standards. Her distinguishing feature— in openness. That is, the computer within it ceases to be a finished product from the brand. IBM is not a market monopolist, although one of its pioneers in terms of developing the appropriate architecture.

The user or company building a PC based on the IBM platform can determine which components will be included in the structure of the computer. It is also possible to replace one or another electronic component with a more advanced one. The rapid development of computer technology has made it possible to implement the principle of open PC architecture.

Software features for IBM architecture computers

An important criterion for classifying a PC as an IBM platform is its compatibility with different operating systems. And this also shows the openness of the type of architecture under consideration. Computers belonging to the IBM platform can be controlled by Windows, Linux in in large numbers modifications, as well as other operating systems that are compatible with the hardware components of the PC of the architecture in question. Apart from software from large brands, on the IBM platform you can install various author's software products, the release and installation of which usually do not require coordination with hardware manufacturers.

Among the software components found in almost every IBM-based computer is the basic input and output system, also called the BIOS. It is designed to ensure the performance of the basic hardware functions of a PC, regardless of what type of operating system is installed on it. And this is another, in fact, a sign of the openness of the architecture in question: BIOS manufacturers are tolerant of OS manufacturers and any other software. Actually, the fact that the BIOS can be produced by different brands is also a criterion of openness. Functionally, BIOS systems from different developers are close.

If the BIOS is not installed on the computer, then its operation is almost impossible. It does not matter whether the operating system is installed on the PC - interaction between the hardware components of the computer must be ensured, and it can only be implemented using the BIOS. Reinstalling the BIOS on a computer requires special software and hardware tools, unlike installing an OS or other type of software running in it. This feature The BIOS is predetermined by the fact that it must be protected from computer viruses.

Using the BIOS, the user can control the hardware components of the PC by setting certain settings. And this is also one of the aspects of the openness of the platform. In some cases, working with the appropriate settings allows for a noticeable acceleration of the PC, more stable functioning of its individual hardware components.

The BIOS system in many PCs is supplemented with a UEFI shell, according to many IT specialists, this is a fairly useful and functional software solution. But the basic purpose of UEFI is not fundamentally different from what is typical for the BIOS. Actually, this is the same system, but the interface in it is somewhat closer to what is typical for the PC operating system.

The most important type of software for computers is the driver. It is necessary for the hardware component installed in the computer to function correctly. Drivers are usually released by computer device manufacturers. At the same time, the corresponding kind of software that is compatible with one operating system, such as Windows, is usually not suitable for other operating systems. Therefore, the user often has to select drivers that are compatible with specific types of computer software. In this sense, the IBM platform is not standardized enough. It may happen that a device that works perfectly under Windows OS will not be able to run under Linux due to the fact that the user cannot find the right driver, or because the manufacturer of the hardware component simply did not have time to release the right kind of software.

It is important that the solution that is supposed to be included in the structure of the computer is compatible not only with the specific architecture, but also with other technological elements of the PC. What components can be changed in modern PCs? Among the key ones: motherboard, processor, RAM, video card, hard drives. Let's consider the specifics of each of the components in more detail, determine what determines their compatibility with other hardware elements, and also find out how the principle of an open PC architecture can be most correctly implemented in practice.

Motherboard

One of the key components of a modern computer is the motherboard, or system board. It contains controllers, buses, bridges and other elements that allow you to combine various hardware components with each other. Thanks to it, the modern PC architecture is actually implemented. The motherboard allows you to effectively distribute the functions of the computer to various devices. This component hosts most of the others, namely the processor, video card, RAM, hard drives, etc. BIOS, the most important software component of a PC, in most cases is written in one of the motherboard chips. It is important that the relevant elements are not damaged.

When replacing a motherboard or choosing the right model during the PC build process, you need to make sure that the new motherboard model will be compatible with other hardware components. So, there are boards that support Intel processors, and there are those on which only AMD chips can be installed. It is very important to make sure that the new board will support the existing memory modules. As for the video card and hard drives, usually there are no problems due to sufficient high level standardization in the respective markets. But it is undesirable that the new motherboard and these components differ too much in terms of the level of manufacturability. Otherwise, a less productive element will slow down the entire system.

CPU

The main chip of a modern computer is the processor. The open architecture of the PC allows, at the discretion of the user, to install a more powerful, productive, technological processor on the computer. However, this possibility may involve a number of limitations. So, replacing an Intel processor with an AMD one without replacing another component - the motherboard - is generally impossible. It is also problematic to install one chip instead of another of the same brand, but which belongs to a different type of technological line.

When installing a more powerful processor on a PC, you need to make sure that the RAM, hard drives and video card are not far behind technologically. Otherwise, as we noted above, replacing the microcircuit may not bring the expected result - the computer will not work faster. The main performance indicators of the processor are the clock speed, the number of cores, the size of the cache memory. The larger they are, the faster the chip works.

RAM

This component also directly affects the performance of the PC. The main functions of the RAM are generally the same as those that were typical for computers of the first generations. In this sense, RAM is a classic hardware component. However, this emphasizes its importance: so far, PC manufacturers have not come up with a worthy alternative to it.

The main criterion for memory performance is its size. The larger it is, the faster the computer runs. Also, PC modules have a clock frequency, like a processor. The higher it is, the more productive the computer. RAM replacement should be done after making sure the new modules are compatible with the motherboard.

video card

The principles of the PC architecture of the first series did not imply the allocation of a video card as a separate component. That is, this hardware solution is also one of the criteria for classifying a computer as a modern generation. The video card is responsible for processing computer graphics - one of the most complex types of data that require high performance chips.

This hardware component should be replaced, correlating its main characteristics with the power and level of manufacturability of the processor, memory and motherboard. The pattern here is the same as we noted above: it is undesirable that the corresponding elements of the PC differ greatly in terms of performance. For a video card, the key criteria are the amount of built-in memory, as well as the clock frequency of its main microcircuit.

It happens that the module responsible for processing computer graphics is built into the processor. And this cannot be considered a sign that the computer is outdated, on the contrary, a similar scheme is observed on many modern PCs. This concept is gaining the greatest popularity among laptop manufacturers. This is quite logical: brands need to ensure that these types of computers are compact. A video card is a rather bulky hardware component; its size is most often noticeably larger than a processor or memory module.

Hard disks

The hard drive is also a classic computer component. Belongs to the category of permanent storage devices. Typical of modern PC architecture. Hard drives often store the bulk of files. It can be noted that this component is among the least demanding on the specifics of the motherboard, processor, RAM and video card. But again, if HDD is characterized by low performance, that is, it is likely that the computer will be slow, even if other hardware components related to the most technologically advanced are installed on it.

The main criterion for disk performance is the speed of rotation. The volume is also important, but the significance of this parameter depends on the needs of the user. If the computer has a small capacity hard drive with very high speeds, then the PC will work faster than with high capacity and low speed of the corresponding elements of the device.

The motherboard, processor, RAM, and graphics card are the internal components of a PC. A hard drive can be either internal or external, in which case it is most often removable. The main analogues of a hard disk are flash drives, memory cards. In some cases, they can completely replace it, but if possible, it is still recommended to equip the PC with at least one hard drive.

The concept of an open PC architecture is, of course, not limited to the ability to replace and select these five components. There are a lot of other devices that are part of the computer. This DVD drives and Blue-ray, sound cards, printers, scanners, modems, network cards, fans. The set of appropriate components may be predetermined by a particular branded PC architecture. The motherboard, processor, RAM, video card and hard drive are elements without which a modern PC cannot work or its operation will be extremely difficult. They mainly determine the speed of work. And therefore, by ensuring the installation of technological and modern components of the appropriate type on the computer, the user will be able to assemble a high-performance and powerful PC.

Apple computers

What other types of PC architectures are there? Among those that directly compete with the IBM architecture, there are very few. For example, these are Macintosh computers from Apple. Of course, in many respects they are similar to the IBM architecture - they also have a processor, memory, video card, motherboard and hard drives.

However, Apple computers are characterized by the fact that their platform is closed. The user is very limited in installing components on the PC at his own discretion. Apple is the only brand that can legally produce computers in the appropriate architecture. Likewise, Apple is the only supplier of functional operating systems released under its own platform. Thus, certain types of PC architecture may differ not so much in the hardware components of the computer, but in the approaches of manufacturers to the release of the corresponding solutions. Depending on its own development strategy, the company can focus on the openness or closeness of the platform.

So, the main features of the architecture of modern PCs on the example of the IBM platform: the absence of a monopoly brand-manufacturer of computers, openness. And both in software and hardware aspects. As for the main competitor of the IBM platform, Apple, the main features of a PC of the corresponding architecture are closedness, as well as the release of computers by a single brand.

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Architecture and principles of computer operation. What is computer architecture

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

2. Computer external devices

Similar Documents

Classical von Neumann architecture

Modern PC architecture

Multiprocessor PC architecture

Multi-machine computing system

Parallel processor architecture

Architecture Definition

classical computer architecture

Architecture of modern computers

IBM architecture

Software features for IBM architecture computers

Motherboard

CPU

RAM

video card

Hard disks

Apple computers

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