Ecological dictionary of basic concepts of ecology. Dictionary of environmental terms and concepts

Ecology(from the Greek “oikos” - dwelling, “logos” - science) - the science of the patterns of relationships between organisms, species, communities and their habitat.
External environment - all conditions of living and inanimate nature under which an organism exists and which directly or indirectly affect the condition, development and reproduction of both individual organisms and populations.
Environmental factors(from Latin “factor” - cause, condition) - individual elements of the environment that interact with the body.
Abiotic factors(from the Greek “a” - negation, “bios” - life) - elements of inanimate nature: climatic (temperature, humidity, light), soil, orographic (relief).
Biotic factors - living organisms interacting and influencing each other.
Anthropogenic factor(from the Greek "anthropos" - man) - the direct impact of a person on organisms or the impact through a change in their environment.
The optimal factor is the most favorable intensity of the environmental factor for the body (light, temperature, air, humidity, soil, etc.).
Limiting factor - environmental factor that goes beyond the limits of the body’s endurance (beyond the permissible maximum or minimum): moisture, light, temperature, food, etc.
Endurance limit - a boundary beyond which the existence of an organism is impossible (ice desert, hot spring, upper layers of the atmosphere). For all organisms and for each species there are boundaries for each environmental factor separately.
Ecological plasticity- the degree of endurance of organisms or their communities (biocenoses) to the influence of environmental factors.
Climatic factors - abiotic environmental factors associated with the supply of solar energy, wind direction, humidity and temperature ratio.
Photoperiodism(from the Greek “photos” - light) - the need of organisms for a periodic change of a certain length of day and night.
Seasonal rhythm - the reaction of organisms to changing seasons, regulated by photoperiodism (with the onset of a short autumn day, leaves fall from the trees, animals prepare for overwintering; with the onset of a long spring day, plant regeneration begins and the vital activity of animals is restored).
The biological clock - the reaction of organisms to alternating periods of light and darkness of a certain duration during the day (rest and activity in animals, daily rhythms of movement of flowers and leaves in plants, rhythmicity of cell division, the process of photosynthesis, etc.).
Hibernation - adaptation of animals to endure the winter season (winter sleep).
Anabiosis(from the Greek “anabiosis” - revival) is a temporary state of the body in which life processes are slowed down to a minimum and all visible signs of life are absent (observed in cold-blooded animals in winter and during the hot period of summer).
Winter peace - an adaptive property of a perennial plant, which is characterized by the cessation of visible growth and vital activity, the death of above-ground shoots in herbaceous life forms and the fall of leaves in woody and shrubby forms.
Frost resistance - the ability of organisms to withstand low negative temperatures.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Ecological system - a community of living organisms and their habitats, constituting a single whole based on food connections and methods of obtaining energy.
Biogeocenosis(from the Greek "bios" - life, "geo" - earth, "ce-nos" - general) - a stable self-regulating ecological system in which organic components are inextricably linked with inorganic ones.
Biocenosis - a community of plants and animals inhabiting the same territory, mutually connected in the food chain and influencing each other.
Population(from the French "population" - population) - a collection of individuals of the same species, occupying a certain area, freely interbreeding with each other, having a common origin, genetic basis and, to one degree or another, isolated from other populations of a given species.
Agrocenosis(from the Greek “agros” - field, “cenosis” - general) - a biocenosis artificially created by man. It is not able to exist for a long time without human intervention, does not have self-regulation and at the same time is characterized by high productivity (yield) of one or several species (varieties) of plants or animal breeds.
Producers(from Latin "producentis" - producing) - green plants, producers organic matter.
Consumers(from the Latin “consumo” - consume, consume) - herbivores and carnivores, consumers of organic matter.
Decomposers(from Latin “reducere” - reduction, simplification of structure) - microorganisms, fungi that destroy organic residues
Power circuits- chains of interconnected species that successively extract organic matter and energy from the original food substance; each previous link is food for the next.
Nutritional level - one link in the food chain, represented by producers, consumers or decomposers.
Power supply - complex relationships in an ecological system in which different components consume different objects and themselves serve as food for different members of the ecosystem.
Ecological pyramid rule - a pattern according to which the amount of plant matter that serves as the basis of the food chain is approximately 10 times greater than the mass of herbivorous animals, and each subsequent food level also has a mass 10 times less.
Self-regulation in biogeocenosis- the ability to restore internal balance after any natural or anthropogenic influence.
Population fluctuations - successive increase or decrease in the number of individuals in the population, which occurs due to changes in the season, fluctuations in climatic conditions, food harvest, natural disasters. Due to regular repetition, population fluctuations are also called life waves or population waves.
Population regulation - organization of measures to regulate the number of individuals through their extermination or breeding.
Endangered population - a population in which the number of species has decreased to an accepted minimum.
Commercial population - population, the extraction of individuals of which is economically justified and does not lead to the erosion of its resources.
Population overpopulation - a temporary state of a population in which the number of individuals exceeds the value corresponding to the conditions of normal existence. Most often associated with a change in biogeocenosis.
Life density - the number of individuals per unit area or volume of a tone or other environment.
Self-regulation of numbers - limiting the effect of an ecological system, reducing the number of individuals to the average norm.
Change of biogeocenoses - the successive natural development of an ecological system, in which some biocenoses are replaced by others under the influence of natural environmental factors: swamps are formed in place of forests, and meadows are formed in place of swamps. A change in biogeocenoses can also be caused by natural disasters (fire, flood, windfall, mass reproduction of pests) or human influence (deforestation, drainage or irrigation of land, earthworks).
Restoration of biocenosis - It is more natural to develop a sustainable ecological system capable of self-healing, which takes place in several stages over decades (after cutting down or a fire, a spruce forest is restored in more than 100 years) -
Artificial restoration of biocenosis - a set of measures to ensure the resumption of the previous biocenosis by sowing seeds, planting tree seedlings, and returning disappeared animals.
Phytocenosis(from the Greek “phyton” - plant, “cenosis” - general) plant community, historically formed as a result of a combination of interacting plants in a homogeneous area of ​​territory. It is characterized by a certain species composition, life forms, layering (aboveground and underground), abundance (frequency of occurrence of species), placement, aspect (appearance), vitality, seasonal changes, development (change of communities).

Dictionary environmental terms

Abiotic factors– all components of inanimate nature (light, temperature, humidity, etc.), as well as the composition of the water, air and soil environments.

Anthropogenic factor– human activity leading to changes in the habitat of living organisms.

Atmosphere – gaseous shell of the Earth.

Biology - a science that studies the living world of the Earth and examines the patterns of structure and functioning of living things.

Bionics – a scientific direction in biology and cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms with the aim of using established patterns in the construction of technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biological factors– interactions between different individuals in populations, between populations in natural communities.

Biosphere – the largest (global) ecosystem of the Earth, a geological shell inhabited by living organisms. It covers the Earth's surface, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere - the troposphere.

Vegetative – relating to plants or organs concerned with nutrition and growth.

Volcano - fire-breathing mountains. As a result of the eruption of underwater volcanoes, new islands can form and tsunami waves can occur.

Volcanologists - scientists who study volcanoes and predict their awakening.

Hydrosphere - the shell of the Earth formed by oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers.

Rocks (or stones)– consist of two or more minerals. Can be igneous (granite, tuff, basalt), sedimentary (limestone, coal) etc.

Caterpillar - a worm-like larva of lepidoptera that develops from an egg.

Trees - tall plants with one hard, woody, bark-covered trunk, branches growing at a considerable distance from the ground.

Spruce forest – coniferous forest, in which it is dark, cool, damp; the vegetation is represented by spruce trees, low-growing shrubs, and shade-tolerant grasses. Animals adapted to the changing seasons - squirrels, chipmunks, deer, hares, wild boars, moose.

Live birth - a method of reproduction of offspring in which the embryo develops from an egg, receiving nutrition from the mother’s body, and is born in a more or less formed form (as a baby free from egg membranes).

Animals – a group of living beings, usually capable of active movement; not forming, but consuming finished organic matter.

Law of Ecological Correlation– in an ecosystem, all species included in it are functionally consistent with each other, and the destruction of one species or their group always ultimately leads to the disappearance of interconnected other species of living things. When a species is completely exterminated or becomes extinct, it never disappears alone, but always together with interconnected forms.

Reserve - a space specially protected by law or custom, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve natural complexes intact and protect living species.

Human health– an objective state and a subjective feeling of complete physical, mental and social comfort.

Earth - one of the planets revolving in orbit around the Sun. These planets form the solar system. The earth is a huge ball. It consists of three parts: crust, mantle and core.

Zoocenosis - a set of interconnected and interdependent species of animals that have developed in any space.

Variability – the existence of organisms in various forms and variants within a species; the ability of organisms to respond to environmental factors with morphophysiological changes; characterization of the degree of change in organisms of any group during evolution.

Caviar - a collection of eggs laid into the water by fish, amphibians and other animals.

Ecological disaster– a complete and irreversible disruption in nature.

Environmental quality - correspondence natural conditions needs of living organisms. An indicator of environmental quality can include both natural factors (temperature, amount of light, etc.) and anthropogenic ones (pollution, disturbance factor, etc.)

Climate – an annually repeating weather pattern characteristic of a given area.

Cocoon - a protective formation that protects eggs or embryos (in earthworms, spiders, etc.), or pupae of many insects.

Root - a plant organ that holds the plant in the soil, absorbing water and minerals dissolved in it.

Red Book – list and description of rare and endangered animals, plants and fungi.

Ecological crisis– a temporary tense state of relationship between man and nature.

Doll – the phase of insect development following the larva.

Bushes – perennial plants that do not have a main trunk; Several stems covered with bark grow from the root, the branches are located close to the ground.

Landscape – a natural system homogeneous in terms of development conditions.

Forest – natural complex, which is dominated by trees of one or many species, growing close to each other and forming a more or less closed stand. Usually there are several tiers in the forest. Depending on their composition, forests are classified as coniferous, deciduous, tropical, etc.

Deciduous forest – a natural complex represented foliage plants, located in four tiers: 1 – large trees – oak, linden, ash; 2 – low-growing trees – rowan, aspen, alder; 3 – shrubs – hazel, euonymus, rosehip, honeysuckle; 4 – herbs – sorrel, fern, strawberry. Animals adapted to seasonal changes environment- wild boars, moose, hares, birds, insects.

tropical forest – a natural complex, which is characterized by: a lot of heat (26° C) and moisture, a variety of plant species that grow, bloom and bear fruit all year round; variety of animals active throughout the year.

Forests temperate zone – natural complexes characterized by seasonal fluctuations in temperature and precipitation. Represented by broad-leaved and mixed forests.

Forest park - an extensive natural forest, usually not far from or within a large populated area, adapted for public recreation.

Forest-steppe – natural area temperate and subtropical zones with alternating steppe and forest areas.

Forest-tundra – natural area northern hemisphere, transitional between forest and tundra - a complex complex of woodlands, tundras, swamps and meadows.

Sheet – a plant organ whose function is photosynthesis, respiration, and evaporation of moisture.

Lithosphere - the outer hard shell of the earth, covering its firmament to depths of 50 - 200 km and consisting of two layers: the upper - sedimentary rocks and the lower - basalt.

Larva – the actively feeding phase of development of some invertebrates, amphibians, and fish that follows the egg.

Minerals – homogeneous compounds found in nature in pure form. They differ in color, hardness, shine, transparency, composition, and structure.

Model – a system of objects or signs that reproduces some essential properties of the original system. The model is used as a proxy for the system being studied. The model simplifies the structure of the original and distracts from the unimportant. It serves as a generalized reflection of the phenomenon. Models can represent material objects or be mathematical, informational (visual-figurative, logical-symbolic).

Metabolism – sequential consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the process of life.

Adaptive coloring- a group of adaptations to environmental conditions, expressed in the appearance in animals, in the course of natural selection, of shape and color, making them either invisible or especially noticeable against the background of the environment.

Organ – a part of an organism that performs a specific function or group of functions.

Organism - a living being, a carrier of life, characterized by all its properties: metabolism, the ability to move, grow, reproduce, and adapt to changes in the external environment.

food chain – a sequence of groups of organisms, each of which (food link) serves as food for the next one; link food chain constitutes the level of the ecological pyramid.

Planet - a huge ball of hard rocks or gases orbiting a star.

Weather – the state of the lower layer of the atmosphere in a certain area and at a certain time.

Minerals– rocks and minerals used by humans in the national economy.

Need - the need for something necessary to maintain the vital functions of the body, this is an internal stimulator of activity.

The soil - the top fertile layer of the earth. Soil composition: clay, sand, humus (humus).

Signs of living organisms– movement, nutrition, excretion, respiration, growth, development, reproduction, death.

Nature – 1) in in a broad sense– everything that exists, the whole world in the diversity of its forms; 2) in a narrow sense – the object of study of the science of natural science.

Desert – territory in which there is no continuous vegetation; a lot of heat (35 O C), little moisture, individual species plants. Animals store water in the form of fat, many are nocturnal, and some hibernate for a long time.

Plants – autotrophic living organisms (capable of producing organic matter from inorganic).

Symbiosis – joint mutually beneficial, often obligatory coexistence of two or more species.

System - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and form a certain integrity, unity. The concept of a system is organically connected with the concept of integrity, subsystem, connection, structure.

Mixed forest – a natural complex represented by deciduous and coniferous trees.

solar system– The Sun and all other space objects, for example, the planets that revolve around it: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.

Sun - a giant star that emits light and heat. Its diameter is 140,000 km, the temperature in the center is 16,000,000 O C, surface temperature – 5500 O C, the time it takes for sunlight to reach the Earth is 8 minutes 20 seconds.

Pinery – a coniferous forest, in which it is dry and there is a lot of light, the vegetation is mainly pine trees, single bushes, grasses, mosses. Animals adapted to the changing seasons - squirrels, chipmunks, deer, hares, wild boars, moose.

Hibernation - a period of sharp decrease in metabolic rate, allowing an animal or plant to survive unfavourable conditions existence.

Habitat – all bodies and phenomena (natural and anthropogenic) with which the organism is in direct or indirect relationships. The environment includes all environmental factors.

Stage (stage) of development- a certain stage, period, stage in the development of something that has clearly distinguishable qualitative features.

Stem - vegetative organ of a plant. Its functions are mechanical, conductive, and sometimes storage.

Steppe – a treeless type of vegetation, which is characterized by: little precipitation, mainly in spring and summer, frequent droughts, sharp changes in temperature between seasons, cold winters; various herbs. Diversity of herbivores.

Succulents – perennial plants with succulent leaves or stems, easily tolerated high temperatures air, but cannot withstand dehydration.

Taiga – type of vegetation with a predominance of coniferous forests; there is little precipitation, mainly falling in summer; a big difference winter and summer temperatures; evergreen forests represented by coniferous trees, various mosses and lichens. Animals are adapted to harsh conditions.

Tornado - a huge whirlwind of destructive force.

Herbs – a life form of plants that has soft, juicy, herbaceous stems.

Tundra - a type of vegetation characterized by treelessness, a strong development of mosses and lichens, in places perennial grasses, low bushes and shrubs; little precipitation, Cold winter, short summer; the lower layers of the earth are permafrost; low-growing dwarf plants, mosses, lichens, mushrooms. Poor animal world, many migratory birds, many stinging insects in summer.

Turgor – elasticity of tissues and organs due to the pressure of cell contents on their elastic walls.

Hurricanes - storms during which the winds blow along a giant circle. In its center there is a windless area - the “eye” of the hurricane.

Environmental (habitat) conditions– a set of environmental factors: from cosmic – the impact of the Universe on solar system– to the direct influence of the environment on an individual (community).

Ecosystem sustainability– its ability to maintain its structure and functional characteristics when exposed to external factors.

Fauna – the existing set of all species of animals living in a given territory or water area.

Phytocenosis - a more or less stable natural grouping (community) of plant species in a relatively homogeneous area.

Flora – an established set of plant species living in a certain territory or as part of a specific plant community.

Function - specific activity of the body and its organs.

Coniferous forest – the natural complex, represented by coniferous plants, does not have a second tier – low-growing trees.

Chitin - exoskeleton of arthropods.

Predator - an animal or plant that catches and eats other animals that serve as food.

Development cycle – the totality of all phases individual development organism, as a result of which it becomes capable of giving rise to a new generation.

Feasibility– compliance of a process, phenomenon, structure of an organ or organism with the prevailing environmental conditions for better adaptation to them.

Integrity of nature– the internal unity of an object (organism, community, biosphere) as a system, which determines its essence and the possibility of normal functioning.

Human - an intelligent natural being, distinguished from other living organisms by the strong development of the brain, the ability to think, use speech as a means of communication, the vertical position of the body and movement on two legs, and the structure of the hand as an organ of labor.

Cuttings – separation from a plant of a part of its stem, root or leaf and the engraftment of this fragment with the subsequent restoration of the missing organs of the entire plant.

Cutting – a fragment of a plant, most often a part of a stem, used for cuttings.

Flower – a plant organ whose function is reproduction.

Ecological niche– the totality of all factors in the environment within which the existence of a species in nature (community, ecosystem) is possible.

Environmental monitoring– an information system whose main tasks are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful and dangerous to human health and the well-being of other living beings.

Environmental factor– any environmental condition that affects the state and properties of an organism, population, or natural community.

Ecology - a science that studies the relationships of organisms with the environment and with each other.

Human ecology- the science that studies general laws the relationship between the biosphere and human society, the influence of the natural environment on humans.

Ecological trail– a specially equipped and carefully studied path in places where the surrounding Live nature allows guides to convey knowledge about natural phenomena and objects, create prerequisites for the development of environmental thinking and environmentally appropriate behavior in nature.

Ecosystem - a single natural or natural-anthropogenic complex formed by living organisms and their habitat, in which all components are connected by metabolism. Important properties of an ecosystem are its stability and ability to self-regulate.

Oviparity - a method of reproduction by animals of offspring, in which the embryo develops in an egg under the protection of egg membranes outside the mother’s body.

Ecology is the science of the relationships of living beings among themselves and with the nature around them, of the structure and functioning of supraorganismal systems.
The term “ecology” was introduced in 1866 by the German evolutionist Ernst Haeckel. E. Haeckel believed that ecology should study various shapes struggle for existence. In its primary meaning, ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms to the environment (from the Greek “oikos” - home, residence, shelter).
Ecology, like any science, is characterized by the presence of its own object, subject, tasks and methods (an object is a part of the surrounding world that is studied by a given science; the subject of a science is the most important essential aspects of its object).
The object of ecology is biological systems at the supraorganism level: populations, communities, ecosystems (Yu. Odum, 1986).
The subject of ecology is the relationship of organisms and superorganismal systems with the surrounding organic and inorganic environment (E. Haeckel, 1870; R. Whittaker, 1980; T. Fenchil, 1987).
All organisms on Earth exist under certain conditions. That part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts is called the habitat. Individual properties or elements of the environment that affect the body are called environmental factors. Factors that are necessary for the existence of a certain species are called resource factors. Factors that lead to a decrease in the number of a species (to its elimination) are called eliminating factors.
There are three main groups of environmental factors: abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors

general characteristics effects of environmental factors

Any organism must be adapted in a certain way to the effects of specific environmental factors. Various adaptations of organisms are called adaptations. Due to the diversity of adaptations, it is possible to distribute the survival rate of organisms depending on the intensity of the environmental factor.
The values ​​of the environmental factor that are most favorable for a given species are called optimal, or simply ecological optimum. The same factor values ​​that are unfavorable for a given species are called pessimal, or simply environmental pessimum. There is a law of ecological optimum, according to which the survival rate of organisms reaches a maximum when the values ​​of a given environmental factor are close to its average value.
In the simplest case, the dependence of survival on the action of one factor is described by normal distribution equations, which correspond to bell-shaped normal distribution curves. These curves are also called tolerance curves or Shelford curves.
As an example, consider the dependence of the density (survival) of a certain plant population on soil acidity.
It can be seen that populations of this plant species reach maximum density at pH values ​​close to 6.5 (slightly acidic soils). pH values ​​of approximately 5.5 to 7.5 form the ecological optimum zone, or zone of normal life activity, for this species. As the pH decreases or increases, the population density gradually decreases. pH values ​​less than 5.5 and more than 7.5 form two zones of ecological pessimum, or zones of depression. pH values ​​less than 3.5 and more than 9.5 form death zones in which organisms of a given species cannot exist.
Ecological niche

An ecological niche is the totality of all connections between a species and its habitat that ensure the existence and reproduction of individuals of a given species in nature.
The term ecological niche was proposed in 1917 by J. Grinnell to characterize the spatial distribution of intraspecific ecological groups.
Initially, the concept of an ecological niche was close to the concept of habitat. But in 1927, C. Elton defined an ecological niche as the position of a species in a community, emphasizing the special importance of trophic relationships. The domestic ecologist G.F. Gause expanded this definition: an ecological niche is the place of a species in an ecosystem.
In 1984, S. Spurr and B. Barnes identified three components of a niche: spatial (where), temporal (when) and functional (how). This niche concept emphasizes the importance of both the spatial and temporal components of the niche, including its seasonal and diurnal changes, taking into account circan and circadian biorhythms.

Used frequently figurative definition ecological niche: habitat is the address of a species, and ecological niche is its profession (Yu. Odum).

In 1957-1965 J. Hutchinson defined an ecological niche as a part of the ecological hyperspace in which the existence and reproduction of a species is possible. In ordinary physical space, the position of a point is described by its projection onto three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes. When adding a time coordinate axis, a four-dimensional space-time is formed, which can no longer be represented graphically. Ecological hyperspace is an n-dimensional space in which the coordinates of points are determined by projections on the gradation axes of many environmental factors: abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic. Ecological hyperspace differs from the ecological spectrum in that it takes into account the interaction of environmental factors with each other in space and time.
An ecosystem is any unity that includes all organisms and the entire complex of physical and chemical factors and interacts with external environment. Ecosystems are the basic natural units on the Earth's surface.
The doctrine of ecosystems was created by the English botanist Arthur Tansley (1935).
Ecosystems are characterized by various types of metabolism not only between organisms, but also between their living and nonliving components. When studying ecosystems, special attention is paid to functional connections between organisms, energy flows and the circulation of substances.
The spatiotemporal boundaries of ecosystems can be defined quite arbitrarily. An ecosystem can be long-term (for example, the Earth's biosphere), and short-term (for example, ecosystems of temporary reservoirs). Ecosystems can be natural or artificial. From the point of view of thermodynamics, natural ecosystems are always open systems (they exchange matter and energy with the external environment); artificial ecosystems can be isolated (exchanging only energy with the external environment).
Biogeocenoses. In parallel with the doctrine of ecosystems, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, created by Vladimir Nikolaevich Sukachev (1942), also developed.
Biogeocenosis is a collection over a certain extent earth's surface homogeneous natural phenomena(atmosphere, vegetation, fauna and microorganisms, soil, rock and hydrological conditions), which has its own specific interactions of constituent components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy between each other and other natural phenomena and represents an internally contradictory unity located in constant movement, development.
Biogeocenoses are characterized by the following features:
- biogeocenosis is associated with a certain area of ​​the earth’s surface; unlike an ecosystem, the spatial boundaries of biogeocenoses cannot be drawn arbitrarily;
- biogeocenoses exist long time;
- biogeocenosis is a bioinert system, representing the unity of living and inanimate nature;
- biogeocenosis is an elementary biochorological cell of the biosphere (that is, a biological-spatial unit of the biosphere);
- biogeocenosis is an arena of primary evolutionary transformations (that is, the evolution of populations occurs in specific natural historical conditions, in specific biogeocenoses).
Thus, like an ecosystem, biogeocenosis represents the unity of a biocenosis and its inanimate habitat; in this case, the basis of biogeocenosis is biocenosis. The concepts of ecosystem and biogeocenosis are superficially similar, but in reality they are different. In other words, any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis.

Productivity of trophic levels
The amount of energy passing through a trophic level per unit area per unit time is called the productivity of the trophic level. Productivity is measured in kcal/ha·year or other units (in tons of dry matter per 1 hectare per year; in milligrams of carbon per 1 square meter or per 1 cubic meter per day, etc.).
The energy received at the trophic level is called gross primary productivity (for producers) or ration (for consumers). Part of this energy is spent on maintaining vital processes (metabolic costs, or respiration costs), part on the formation of waste (plant litter, excrement, molt skins and other waste in animals), part on biomass growth. Part of the energy spent on biomass growth can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level.
The energy balance of a trophic level can be written as the following equations:
(1) gross primary productivity = respiration + litter + biomass growth
(2) diet = respiration + waste + biomass growth
The first equation applies to producers, the second - to consumers and decomposers.
The difference between gross primary productivity (diet) and respiration costs is called net primary productivity of the trophic level. The energy that can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level is called the secondary productivity of the trophic level in question.
When energy moves from one level to another, part of it is irretrievably lost: in the form of thermal radiation (breathing costs), in the form of waste products. Therefore, the amount of highly organized energy constantly decreases during the transition from one trophic level to the next. On average, it arrives at this trophic level. 10% of the energy received at the previous trophic level; This pattern is called the “ten percent” rule, or the rule of the ecological pyramid. Therefore, the number of trophic levels is always limited (4-5 links), for example, already at the fourth level only 1/1000 of the energy received at the first level arrives.

Ecosystem dynamics
In emerging ecosystems, only part of the increase in biomass is spent on the formation of secondary products; organic matter accumulates in the ecosystem. Such ecosystems are naturally replaced by other types of ecosystems. The natural change of ecosystems in a certain territory is called succession. Example of succession: lake > overgrowing lake > swamp > peat bog > forest.
The following forms of succession are distinguished:
- primary - arise in previously uninhabited territories (for example, on unturfed sands, rocks); biocenoses that initially form under such conditions are called pioneer communities;
- secondary - occur in disturbed habitats (for example, after fires, in clearings);
- reversible - a return to a pre-existing ecosystem is possible (for example, birch forest > burnt forest > birch forest > spruce forest);
- irreversible - a return to a previously existing ecosystem is impossible (for example, the destruction of relict ecosystems; a relict ecosystem is an ecosystem preserved from past geological periods);
- anthropogenic - arising under the influence of human activity.
The accumulation of organic matter and energy at trophic levels leads to increased ecosystem stability. During succession, in certain soil and climatic conditions, final climax communities are formed. In climax communities, the entire increase in biomass at the trophic level is spent on the formation of secondary products. Such ecosystems can exist indefinitely.
In degrading (dependent) ecosystems energy balance negative - the energy supplied to lower trophic levels is not enough for the functioning of higher trophic levels. Such ecosystems are unstable and can only exist with additional energy expenditure (for example, ecosystems of populated areas and anthropogenic landscapes). As a rule, in degrading ecosystems, the number of trophic levels is reduced to a minimum, which further increases their instability.

Ideas about the biosphere as a “region of life” and the outer shell of the Earth go back to J. B. Lamarck. The term “biosphere” was introduced by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1875), who understood the biosphere as a thin film of life on the earth’s surface, which largely determines the “face of the Earth.” However, a holistic doctrine of the biosphere was developed by the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1926).
Currently, there are many approaches to defining the concept of “biosphere”.
The biosphere is the geological shell of the Earth, formed during historical development organic world.
The biosphere is the active shell of the Earth, in which the total activity of living organisms manifests itself as a geochemical factor on a planetary scale.
The biosphere is the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the total life activity of living organisms; it is the largest known ecosystem.

Structure of the biosphere
The biosphere includes both the vitasphere (the totality of living organisms) and the total results of the activities of pre-existing organisms: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere.
The area in which living organisms regularly occur is called the eubiosphere (biosphere proper). Total thickness of the eubiosphere. 12-17 km.
In relation to the eubiosphere, the following layers of the biosphere are distinguished:
- apobiosphere - lies above the parabiosphere - living organisms are not found;
- parabiosphere - lies above the eubiosphere - organisms enter by chance;
- eubiosphere - the biosphere itself, where organisms are found regularly;
- metabiosphere - lies under the eubiosphere - organisms enter by chance;
- abiosphere - lies under the metabiosphere - living organisms are not found.
Aerobiosphere - includes the lower part of the atmosphere. The aerobiosphere includes:
a) tropobiosphere - up to a height of 6...7 km;
b) altobiosphere - to the lower boundary of the ozone screen (20...25 km).
The ozone layer is a layer of the atmosphere with a high ozone content. The ozone screen absorbs hard ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which has a detrimental effect on all living organisms. In recent decades, “ozone holes”—areas with low ozone content—have been observed in the polar regions.
Hydrobiosphere - includes the entire hydrosphere. The lower boundary of the hydrobiosphere. 6...7 km, in some cases - up to 11 km. The hydrobiosphere includes:
a) aquabiosphere - rivers, lakes and others fresh waters;
b) marinobiosphere - seas and oceans.
Terrabiosphere - land surface. The terrabiosphere includes:
a) phytosphere - habitat zone of terrestrial plants;
b) pedosphere - a thin layer of soil.
Lithobiosphere. The lower boundary of the lithobiosphere. 2...3 km (less often - up to 5...6 km) on land, etc. 1...2 km below the ocean floor. Living organisms are rare in the lithobiosphere, but sedimentary rocks in the biosphere arose under the influence of the vital activity of organisms.
IN AND. Vernadsky identified 7 types of substances in the biosphere: living matter, biogenic matter (fossil fuels, limestones), inert matter (igneous rocks), bioinert matter (soil), radioactive matter, scattered atoms and matter of cosmic origin.
The functions of living matter in the biosphere are diverse:
- Energy - accumulation of solar energy during photosynthesis; All life phenomena on Earth occur due to solar energy.
- Gas - the composition of the modern atmosphere (in particular, the content of oxygen and carbon dioxide) has developed, to a large extent, under the influence of the vital activity of organisms.
- Concentration - as a result of the vital activity of organisms, all types of fossil fuels, many ores, soil organic matter, etc. were formed.
- Redox - during the life of living organisms, redox reactions constantly occur, ensuring the circulation and constant transformations of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron and other elements.
- Destructive - as a result of the destruction of dead organisms and the products of their vital activity, living matter is transformed into inert, biogenic and bioinert.
- Environment-forming - organisms transform physical and chemical environmental factors in various ways.
- Transport - transfer of matter against gravity and in the horizontal direction.

Relationship between the components of the biosphere
Plants are producers of organic matter, so it is with them that grazing chains, or grazing chains, always begin in ecosystems. Reducing microorganisms transfer elements from organic to extraorganic forms. Chemosynthetic organisms change the oxidation states of elements, converting them from insoluble to soluble form, and vice versa.
Thus, with the help of plants and microorganisms, the cycle of carbon, oxygen and mineral nutrition is carried out.
The total mass of living matter in the biosphere is 2,500,000,000,000 tons (or 2.5 trillion tons). The annual production of the Earth's plants exceeds 120 billion tons (in terms of dry matter). In this case, approximately 170 billion tons of carbon dioxide are absorbed, 130 billion tons of water are split, 120 billion tons of oxygen are released and 400·1015 kilocalories of solar energy are stored. About 2 billion tons of nitrogen and about 6 billion tons of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron and other elements are annually involved in the processes of synthesis and decay. Over 2 thousand years, all the oxygen in the atmosphere passes through plants.
The movement of elements along food chains (networks) is called biogenic migration of atoms. Mobile animals (birds, fish, large mammals) facilitate the movement of elements over considerable distances.

The basic laws of ecology were popularly formulated by the American ecologist B. Commoner.
First law: “Everything is connected to everything.” A small shift in one place is environmentally
ical network can cause significant and long-lasting consequences in completely different ways.
Second Law: “Everything has to go somewhere.” In essence, this is a reformulation of the well-known law of conservation of matter. B. Commoner writes: “One of the main reasons for the current environmental crisis is that huge quantities of different substances have been extracted from the earth, where they were bound, and transformed into new, often very active and far from natural compounds” (“Closing circle", 1974).
Third Law: “Nature knows best.” Sustainable natural ecological systems are the most complex formations, and their organization occurred as a result of evolutionary development, selection from many options. Therefore, it is logical to assume that natural - the best option and each new option will be worse. But this does not mean that nature cannot be changed, improved, adapted to human interests; it just needs to be done competently, based on strict scientific knowledge about nature and taking into account all possible negative consequences.
The fourth law: “Nothing is given for free” or “You have to pay for everything.” The meaning of this law is that the world ecosystem is a single whole and, changing it to some insignificant extent in one
place, we must scientifically anticipate what changes may occur in other places. What man has taken from nature or damaged, he must correct and return. Otherwise, shifts will begin that are difficult not only to correct, but even to anticipate. Changes may develop that will threaten the existence of human civilization.