Australian flora and fauna. Australia: flora and fauna

CONTENT

Introduction…………………………………………………………………....	3
1 Flora of Australia……………………………………………………. ..	6
1.1 Vegetation and precipitation……………………………………………....	6
1.2 Floristic analysis……………………………………………….	7
1.3 Botanical rarities ............................................................... ..... ......................	8
1.4 Plants: endemic and cosmopolitan	10
2 Characteristics of the fauna .......... ............................. ....... ...................	12
2.1 Animal species found in Australia ..............................................	12
2.2 Poisonous and dangerous invertebrates of Australia ..............................................	15
2.3 Dangerous fauna of Australia .......................................... ..... ................	22
2.4 Endemic fauna of Australia	23
2.5 Australian plant and animal protection and conservation	25
Conclusion.................... ............................. . ............................. ..................	27
Bibliography
Application

Introduction

Australia is the only country in the world that covers the entire continent. James Cook was the first to describe it, he also made the first map and declared these lands the property of Her Royal Majesty. Australia is famous for its extraordinary natural beauty. Amazing landscapes are combined with a unique wildlife. Only in Australia you can see the platypus, echidna, the world's largest rodent - the wombat, not to mention koalas, kangaroos, emu and a huge number of parrots. The fauna of Australia is so amazing that even for their coat of arms, the Australians chose images of emus and kangaroos.
The primitive nature of Australia, its animal world, has changed unrecognizably since the appearance of Europeans there. In the most populated New South Wales, half of the marsupial species characteristic of the mainland have died out or become very rare, 11 species of marsupial animals have disappeared completely. In the past 200 years, hundreds of species of European plants and animals have been brought here. Along with monotremes and marsupials, such as the platypus, echidna or various kangaroos, we now meet here our rats and mice, starlings, thrushes and common sparrows.
Australia is located at a distance of 11 ° from the equator and is divided into almost equal parts by the Tropic of the South. Thus, its territory is located within the tropical zone, and the southernmost points on the island of Tasmania go beyond the 42nd parallel. This latitude determines the tropical and subtropical climate of Australia. Frosts occur in June only in Tasmania (down to -7°C), in the mountains and on mountain plateaus (down to -20°C).
Due to the small indentation of the coasts of the mainland and their elevation, especially in the east, the influence of the surrounding seas weakly penetrates into the interior of Australia. Therefore, the climate in a significant part of it is sharply continental.
The nature of Australia is far from monotonous, which is determined by the climate. The island world and the northern coasts are warm and humid places, and real deserts lie in the center of the mainland. In general, the continent is low, about half of its territory rises above sea level by 200-300 m, but there are also mountains with the highest point, Mount Kosciuszko, rising above the sea at 2230 m.
According to natural conditions, the mainland is divided into three large parts. In the west - peneplain - a plateau located at an altitude of 300-500 m. The space from the northern Gulf of Carpentaria to the southern coast is lowland, and in the east of Australia, mountains rise along the entire coast - the Great Dividing Range.
Australia is surrounded by many islands. Some of them are nothing but the remains of an ancient continent - New Guinea, New Zealand, New Caledonia and even the most remote islands of Fiji. Other islands are of volcanic origin - Hawaiian, Marquesas, Tahiti, etc. These islands are smaller. And finally, the smallest islands are atolls, islands that have arisen due to overgrown corals.
The distribution of birds on the mainland depends primarily on vegetation. As we move from the coast of Australia to its center, humid tropical and subtropical forests give way to dry and light eucalyptus forests with hard foliage of an unusual gray-bluish or greenish-gray color. These forests do not form a continuous forest tent, they are sparse. Then come the savannas, and in the very center of Australia there are deserts and semi-deserts with shrub vegetation. The vast expanses of inland Australia are occupied by the so-called scrub, consisting of thorny, intertwining and, at times, completely impenetrable shrubs. And finally, the sands and rocks of the deserts, in which there are only cushions of yellow grasses.

Characteristics of biophylotic kingdoms and regions

Australian realm
Australia with adjacent islands, the islands of Sulawesi, New Guinea, the Solomons, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides and the Fiji Islands.
The formation of the biofilote of this kingdom dates back to the time of the separation of Gondwana (240–70 million years ago). There was a long connection between Australia and Antarctica, and through it with South America. This relationship persisted until the Eocene, and only 60–50 million years ago, as a result of drift, Australia separated. But this gap was accompanied by such a sharp change in climatic conditions (glaciation of Antarctica), which completely excluded the connection of the Neotropical and Australian biophylotes after the Miocene (30 or less million years ago). quasi-continental contact with Southeast Asia. Island bridges ensured a wide interpenetration of elements of the Oriental and Australian biophylotes (the Wallace line: for reptiles on one island, for birds on others; they distinguish the "Wallace zone" between Kalimantan and New Guinea). There are four regions within the Australian kingdom: the Mainland, New Guinea, Fijian and New Caledonian. The mainland is the largest and most complex. In terms of flora, the New Guinean gravitates towards the Oriental kingdom, and in terms of fauna - to the Australian one. Fijian and New Caledonian, due to their significant isolation, have relatively weakly expressed ties with other areas of the Australian kingdom. The process of internal differentiation of the Mainland region proceeded under the influence of a long separation of the western and eastern parts of the mainland as a result of extensive marine transgression in the Cretaceous period (137–66 million years ago). Flora The Australian realm has a high degree and depth of endemism. For island areas, this is natural. But also for the Mainland region, species endemism is very high (75%; 9000 species out of 12000). In the New Guinea region - 85% (5800 out of 6870). New Caledonian - 80% and Fijian - 50%. At the level of genera (depth of endemism), there are more than 500 endemic genera in the Mainland region, about 100 in New Guinea, more than 100 in New Caledonian and 15 in total in Fijian.
Ferns, flowering (legumes, myrtle), and orchids are very diverse in the Mainland Region. Reptiles demonstrate endemism already at the level of families, and at the level of genera - 80-85%. Endemism in birds is even greater. Mammals of the Australian kingdom are unique (a subclass of oviparous, a family of platypuses and echidnas). The order of marsupials is represented by 7 endemic families. Predatory (dingoes) penetrated along with primitive man.
In the Australian kingdom, there are three distinct floristic regions.
North East Australian Region
The area covers the northern, eastern and southeastern forest and partly savannah regions of Australia, along with coastal islands and about. Tasmania. The flora of the region includes 5 endemic families (Austrobaileyaceae, Tetracarpaeaceae, Petermanniaceae, Idiospermaceae and Akaniaceae) and more than 150 endemic genera. Tasmania has 14 endemic genera, including the conifers Athrotaxis, Diselma and Microcachrys and the flowering Tetracarpaea, Prionotes, Isophysis.
South West Australian Region
The flora of the region includes 3 endemic families (Cephalotaceae, Eremosynaceae and Emblingiaceae) and about 125 endemic genera (including Dryandra, Nuytsia, Stirlingia, etc.). Species endemism is very high (75% or more).
Central Australian, or Eremey, region.
The area covers the northern and eastern savannah regions, the central deserts and southern Australia.
There are no endemic families in the flora of the region, but there are about 40 endemic genera, many of which belong to the families of haze, cruciferous and Compositae.

1 Flora of Australia

Vegetation and rainfall

Obviously, the distribution of individual plant groups depends on the microclimate and soils, but the distribution of large Australian plant zones (at the level of formation types) reveals a close relationship with the average annual precipitation. A striking feature of the Australian climate is the presence of an arid center of the mainland, from which the amount of precipitation consistently increases towards the periphery. Accordingly, the vegetation also changes.
1. The average annual rainfall is less than 125 mm. Developed sandy deserts. Hard-leaved perennial grasses of the genera Triodia and Spinifex dominate.
2. The average annual rainfall is 125–250 mm. These are semi-arid regions with two main types of vegetation. a) Shrub semi-desert - open areas dominated by representatives of the genera Atriplex (quinoa) and Kochia (prutnyak). Native plants are exceptionally drought tolerant. The area is used for sheep pastures. b) Arid scrub on sandy plains or bedrock outcrops on remnant hills. These are dense thickets of low-growing trees and shrubs with a predominance of various types of acacias. The most widely used mulga scrub is made from veinless acacia (Acacia aneura). Both types of vegetation are characterized by the exuberant development of annual plants after infrequent rainfall.
3. The average annual rainfall is 250–500 mm. There are two main types of vegetation here. In the south, where precipitation falls only in the winter months, malli scrub is common. These are dense thickets dominated by various shrubby eucalyptus trees, which form several trunks (coming from one underground root) and bunches of leaves at the ends of branches. In the north and east of Australia, where rain falls mainly in summer, grasslands are common with a predominance of representatives of the genera Astrebla and Iseilema.
4. The average annual rainfall is 500–750 mm. Savannahs are presented here - open park landscapes with eucalyptus trees and a grass-forb lower tier. These areas were intensively used for grazing and growing wheat. Cereal savannahs are sometimes found on more fertile soils and in the zone of sclerophyllous (hard-leaved) forests.
5. The average annual rainfall is 750–1250 mm. Sclerophilic forests are typical for this climatic zone. They are dominated by different types of eucalyptus, forming a dense forest stand, and a dense undergrowth of hard-leaved shrubs is developed, and the grass cover is sparse. On the more arid margin of this zone, forests give way to savanna woodlands, and on the more humid margin, to tropical rainforests. Relatively dry sclerophyllous forests are characterized by the highest concentration of typical Australian species. These forests are an important source of hardwood timber.
6. Average annual rainfall over 1250 mm. Tropical rainforests are confined to areas with big amount sediments and soils, usually developed on basaltic rocks. The species composition of trees is very diverse, without clearly defined dominants. Characterized by an abundance of vines and dense undergrowth. These forests are dominated by species of Indo-Melanesian origin. In the more southerly temperate

1.2 Floristic analysis

In Australia, approx. 15 thousand species of flowering plants, and about 3/4 of them are indigenous local. Even J. Hooker in the Introduction to the Flora of Tasmania (J.D. Hooker, Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania, 1860) pointed out that three main elements played a decisive role in the development of the Australian flora: Antarctic, Indo-Melanesian and local Australian.
Antarctic element. This category includes groups of species common to the southeast of Australia, New Zealand, the subantarctic islands and the southern Andes of South America. Examples of genera with such ranges are Nothofagus, Drimys, Lomatia, Araucaria, Gunnera, and Acaena. Their representatives were also found in fossil remains of the Paleogene age on the now ice-covered island of Simor and on Graham Land (Antarctic Peninsula). Such plants are not found anywhere else. It is believed that they or their ancestors originated at a time when Australia was part of Gondwana. When this supercontinent broke up into parts that moved to their current positions, the ranges of representatives of the Antarctic flora turned out to be very fragmented. However, it is clear that these plants had a wide distribution in Australia in the Paleogene, since Nothofagus and Lomatia were found in the Oligocene deposits of South Australia and Victoria, along with such Australian genera as Eucalyptus, Banksia and Hakea. Currently, this element of flora is best represented in temperate forests. Sometimes the term "antarctic element" refers to larger groups of plants currently found only in the southern hemisphere and which are common to South Africa and Australia, such as the genera Caesia, Bulbine, Helichrysum and Restio. However, Australia's links with South Africa appear to be more distant than links to South America. There is an opinion that closely related plants found in the first two regions descended from common ancestors who migrated there from the south.
Indo-Melanesian element. These are plants common to Australia, the Indo-Malay region and Melanesia. Floristic analysis reveals two distinct groups: one is of Indo-Malay origin, the other is of Melanesian origin. In Australia, this element includes the paleotropical representatives of many families, especially the tropical herbaceous, and is closely related to the flora of the Asian continent, especially India, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago.
The Australian element includes genera and species that are found only in Australia or are most common there; there are few endemic families, and their role is insignificant. Typical Australian flora is concentrated in the southwest and southeast of the mainland. The southwest is rich in characteristic Australian families: about 6/7 of them are best represented in this area, and the rest in the southeast. Whether this element really formed in situ or whether it comes from older paleotropic or Antarctic migrants is difficult to ascertain. In any case, it is clear that some groups of modern plants are found exclusively in Australia.
The importance of native plant species to humans has only recently come to be recognized, although many of them have been eaten by indigenous Australians for thousands of years. For example, macadamia ternifolia (Macadamia ternifolia) has been widely cultivated in Australia since the 1890s for its tasty nuts (in Hawaii it is cultivated to an even greater extent and is known as the "Queensland nut"). Gradually, in Australia, the cultivation of such plants as the local species of ficus (Ficus platypoda), santaluma (Santalum acuminatum, S. 1anceolatum), gray eremocitrus, or desert lime (Eremocitrus glauca), Australian capers (Capparis sp.), various so-called. n. "desert tomatoes" from the genus nightshade (Solanum sp.), small-flowered basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), a local mint species (Prostanthera rotundifolia) and many other cereals, root crops, fruit, berry and herbaceous plants.

1.3 Botanical rarities

Australian eucalyptus - the highest plant in the world is the most common in Australia. In the humid eastern regions of Australia, you can see the regal eucalyptus. These are very tall trees: eucalyptus at the age of 350-400 years reaches a height of 100m. There are cases when trees grew to 150-170m (very rarely). Eucalyptus grows incredibly fast. It is reliably known that in the south of Europe the blue eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) has grown by 20m in 9 years - a huge (by European standards) tree with a trunk diameter of 1m. Moreover, eucalyptus wood is very dense, heavy (it sinks in water), does not rot and is used for the manufacture of telegraph poles, ship plating, and in the construction of bridges. Eucalyptus absorbs and evaporates 320 liters of moisture from the soil per day (for comparison, birch - 40 liters). It is always light in eucalyptus forests, because the leaves of this tree turn in parallel with the falling rays of the sun. This helps the tree retain moisture. Specially planted “pump trees” drain swamps very quickly, which helps the development of new lands. Eucalyptus leaves contain 3-5% aromatic essential oil that kills bacteria. This oil is used for colds, pneumonia. For all the amazing properties of these trees in Australia, the homeland of eucalyptus, the locals call them "wonder trees", "forest diamonds".

In the eucalyptus forests of eastern Australia, various types of doreantes grow - large perennial grasses with thick underground stems. During a drought, the roots of doreantes shrink and pull the plant into the ground.

The bottle tree is often found in Australia. This plant is very well adapted to heat, drought and lack of water. From a distance, it looks like a giant bottle. Moisture accumulates in the trunk, which is consumed in drought.

Casuarina is another of Australia's most common plants. It is an odd-looking tree or shrub with thin drooping shoots and no leaves. In appearance, it resembles a horsetail, in the shape of a crown it looks like a spruce. It is called the "Christmas tree". The thin shoots of casuarinas resemble the hair-like thin feathers of cassowaries, large running birds that live next to cassowaries. Casuarina is also called " iron tree» - because of the very durable wood of bright red color.

The kangaroo paw plant, which is also found nowhere else in the world, has become the emblem of the state of Western Australia. The bizarre shape of the velvety flower really resembles an animal's paw.

There are no leaves at all and caustis - tall, up to more than a meter, grass. Its stems are so tortuous that it seems that a hairdresser worked on these curls for a long time. These curly stems can be seen on the sandy beaches of Australia, in light eucalyptus forests.

Only in the south-west of Australia, where there is enough moisture, does Australian kingia grow. Thick, up to 9 m high, the trunk of kingia is crowned with a rosette of dense leaves up to a meter long. Leaves fall down, the top of the plant like a crown adorns a whole bunch of inflorescences-balls on long legs.

1.4 Plants: endemic and cosmopolitan

The ranges of different plant species can vary significantly: species that are ubiquitous (cosmopolitan plants) on many continents are called cosmopolitans, and those that grow in a small area (endemic plants) (island, mountain) are called enlemics.

Cosmopolitan plants are usually easy to spread. Among them there are both unpretentious ones capable of shooting a variety of territories, and capricious species that are demanding on environmental conditions, but have enough opportunities for settling. Spore plants are widely distributed throughout the world, for example, moss brium silver and liver moss marchania diverse, found in moist, nitrogen-rich places. Among ferns, the “classic” smopolitan is the common bracken, although it is not at all indifferent to habitat conditions and prefers to grow on acidic, well-moistened soils. TOMopolitans include many aquatic plants: common reed, chastukha, plantain duckweed, pondweed, etc.

Those plants that have spread everywhere thanks to man are called anthropogenic cosmopolitans. These include the well-known white gauze, shepherd's purse, stinging and dioecious nettles, medium chickweed (mokria), large plantain, annual bluegrass, bird buckwheat, etc. They can be called eternal wanderers: as faithful companions of man, they traveled almost the entire Earth . True, for this, anthropogenic cosmopolitansthere are all possibilities. So, the shepherd's purse is surprisingly prolific. In temperate latitudes, where it is not always possible to get one full-fledged crop in the fields, it gives three of them, throwing out 70 thousand seeds from one plant.

Any method is suitable for moving the seeds of the shepherd's purse, but best of all - with mud on the hooves of animals, wheels of cars and carts, on boots and boots. Dirt has a double benefit: wet, it sticks with the seeds to the “transport”, and where it has fallen off, the seeds have grains of “their” soil in which they are comfortable to germinate.

Ordinary garden cabbage sometimes also behaves like a weed. In 1773, Captain Fournet sowed cabbage seeds on a small piece of land in New Zealand. When James Cook visited a little later, he saw that the cabbage had spread all along the coast. Local plants could not fight back, and parakeets, collecting pods, spread the seeds to neighboring islands. Quinoa - a nondescript wasteland plant and a malicious weed - has conquered all continents except Antarctica, and so far has not penetrated only into the humid tropics. Her tricks for such an offensive are known: a huge amount of seeds that everyone loves - birds, ants, horses, sheep ... In addition, they can be stored for an incredibly long time. During archaeological excavations in the places of ancient human sites, quinoa seeds are found that have not lost their germination.

Endemics - the exact opposite of cosmopolitans - are found in a small, often isolated area.

The peculiarity of the flora and fauna of Australia is also associated with the early isolation of this continent. Marsupials that have become extinct on other continents are widespread here. In the process of evolution, marsupials occupied most of the ecological niches and developed life forms similar to higher mammals. A marsupial mole, a marsupial wolf live here, and various species of kangaroos have taken the place of ungulates in the communities.

Scientists suggest that each species appeared on the planet only once and in one geographical point - the center of origin. So, most likely the center of origin of marsupial mammals was Antarctica (then not yet covered with an ice shell), and South America was the birthplace of edentulous mammals - armadillos and anteaters. As they reproduced, a species or group of organisms spread from the center of origin to other places suitable for their life, until they encountered any obstacles on their way (mountains, seas, rivers, deserts).
2 Characteristics of the fauna

2.1 Animal species found in Australia

One of the main reasons for the increasing popularity of Australia among foreign tourists is the uniqueness of its fauna and flora. 82% of Australian mammals, 90% of frogs and reptiles (by the way, the most poisonous in the world) and 45% of birds belong to endemic (that is, inherent only to Australia) species. This uniqueness of Australian nature is also reflected in local genographic names. There are islands here: Shark Island, Crocodile Island, Kangaroo Island, Snake Island, Wild Duck Island, Seal Island and Great Palm Island; villages: Penguin (Penguin), Camel Creek (Camel Creek), Kakadu (Coockatoo), Palm Beach (Palm Beach), bays: Swans (Swan Bay), Seals (Seal Bay), Cod (Cod Bay) and Sea Elephants (Sea Elephant Bay); Mount Emu; the Swan River; headlands: Turtle Point and Mosquito Point.
Mammals. There are 230 species of mammals known in Australia. Three of them are monotreme oviparous, about 120 are marsupials, bearing their young in “pockets” on their belly, the rest are placental, in which embryonic development ends in the uterus.
The most primitive order of mammals now in existence is the monotremes (Monotremata), which are not found in other parts of the world. The platypus (Ornithorhynchus), with a duck-like beak, is covered with fur, lays eggs and feeds the hatchlings with milk. Thanks to the efforts of Australian conservationists, this species is relatively abundant. The platypus is armed with a poisonous thorn that it hides on the inside of its hind legs. When pricked, this thorn can cause unbearable pain and local swelling. A splint should be placed on the affected limb for several days.
Its closest relative, the echidna (Tachyglossus), looks like a porcupine but also lays eggs. The platypus is found only in Australia and Tasmania, while the echidna and the closely related prochidna (Zaglossus) are also found in New Guinea.
The kangaroo, the well-known symbol of Australia, is far from being a typical marsupial. The animals of this order of mammals are characterized by the birth of immature cubs, which are placed in a special bag, where they carry on until they can take care of themselves.
The fact that marsupials have long lived in Australia is evidenced by the fossil remains of a giant wombat (Diprotodon) and a carnivorous marsupial "lion" (Thylacoleo). In general, the less adapted groups of mammals were slowly pushed aside. southern continents as more aggressive groups emerge. As soon as the monotremes and marsupials retreated to Australia, the connection of this region with the Asian continent was cut off, and both groups were spared competition from placentals better adapted to the struggle for survival.
Isolated from competitors, marsupials have split into many taxa, differing in animal size, habitat, and adaptation. This differentiation took place largely parallel to the evolution of placentals on the northern continents. Some of the Australian marsupials look like carnivores, others look like insectivores, rodents, herbivores, etc. With the exception of American opossums (Didelphidae) and peculiar South American coenolesidae (Caenolesidae), marsupials are found only in Australasia.
Predatory marsupials (Dasyuridae) and bandicoots (Peramelidae) with 2–3 low incisors on each side of the jaw belong to the group of multi-incisors. The first family includes marsupial martens (Dasyurus), marsupial devils (Sarcophilus) and arboreal brush-tailed marsupial rats (Phascogale), which feed on insects, etc. The latter genus is widely distributed throughout Australasia. A close relative of predatory marsupials is the marsupial wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus), which was widespread in Tasmania at the beginning of the era of European settlement, but is not found anywhere else, although there is evidence of its presence in prehistoric time in Australia and New Guinea. Despite problematic sightings in some areas, most experts consider the species to be extinct because it was extirpated by hunters and the last specimen died in captivity in 1936. from a group that unites predatory marsupials and a marsupial wolf. The bandicoot family (Peramelidae), distributed throughout Australasia, occupies the same ecological niche as insectivores (Insectivora) on the northern continents.
Two-incisor marsupials, distinguished by the presence of only one pair of low incisors, are known more widely than multi-incisor ones. Their distribution is limited to Australasia. Among them are the families of climbing marsupials (Phalangeridae), which includes the body, or brushtails (Trichosurus); dwarf couscous (Burramyidae), including the pygmy flying couscous (Acrobates pygmaeus), which can slip between trees and climb up to 20 m, and marsupial flying squirrels (Petauridae), numbering several species. The beloved koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), which looks like a funny miniature bear cub and was chosen as the emblem of the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, belongs to the family of the same name. The wombat family (Vombatidae) includes two genera - long-haired and short-haired wombats. These are rather large animals that look like beavers and are found only in Australia. Kangaroos and wallabies, belonging to the kangaroo family (Macropodidae), are common throughout Australasia. The large gray, or forest, kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), the most numerous member of this family, lives in light forests, while the gigantic red kangaroo (M. rufus) is distributed on the plains in the interior of Australia. Open habitats are characteristic of rock kangaroos (Petrogale sp.) and pygmy rock kangaroos (Peradorcas sp.). Tree kangaroos (Dendrolagus) are interesting, in which the limbs are adapted for climbing trees and jumping.
The fact that marsupials have long lived in Australia is confirmed by the findings here of the fossil remains of a giant wombat (Diprotodon) and a predatory "marsupial lion" (Thylacoleo).
Before the advent of Europeans, placental mammals were represented in Australia by bats and small rodents, which probably entered there from the north. The former include numerous genera of both fruit bats (Megachiroptera) and bats(Microchiroptera); flying foxes (Pteropus) are especially notable. Rodents, including anisolis (Anisomys), rabbit rats (Conilurus), earless rats (Crossomys), and Australian water rats (Hydromys), probably traveled across the sea on their fins. Man and dingoes (Canis dingo) were the only large placentals, and dingoes were most likely brought to Australia by humans about 40,000 years ago.
etc.................

Australia. The capital is Canberra. Area - 7682 thousand square meters. km. The share of the land area of ​​the globe is 5%. Population - 19.73 million people (2003). The population density is 2.5 people per 1 sq. km. km. The share of the world population is 0.3%. The highest point is Mount Kosciuszko (2228 m above sea level), the lowest is Lake. Air (16 m below sea level). The length of the coastline is 36,700 km (including Tasmania). The northernmost point is Cape York. The southernmost point is Cape Yugo-Vostochny. The easternmost point is Cape Byron. The westernmost point is Steep Point. Administrative division: 6 states and 2 territories. National holiday - Australia Day, 26 January. National Anthem: "Go Australia Beautiful!"

Mainland Australia is separated by Bass Strait 240 km wide from about. Tasmania in the southeast and the Torres Strait 145 km wide from about. New Guinea in the northeast. The shortest distance from Australia to Indonesia via the Timor Sea is 480 km, and to New Zealand via the Tasman Sea 1930 km.

Australia extends 3180 km from north to south and 4000 km from east to west, or from 10°41 to 43°39S. and from 113°9 to 153°39 E This is the smallest continent: its total area, including the island of Tasmania, is 7682.3 thousand square meters. km. Length coastline 36,700 km. In the north, the Gulf of Carpentaria juts deep into the land, and in the south, the Great Australian Gulf.

Although the Australian mainland is one of the oldest in the world, it long time was isolated from other land masses and therefore many unique animals have survived there, including various marsupials (for example, kangaroos and koalas) and egg-laying ones (platypus and echidna).

Probably, the first settlers of Australia migrated from the north 40-60 thousand years ago. Europeans discovered this continent only at the beginning of the 17th century. England declared it its colony in 1770. The first English settlement was founded in 1788.

The descendants of the indigenous people were moved during the colonial period to special areas - reservations, and their number is currently approx. 375 thousand people, or 2% of the total population of the country. Currently, Australia has almost 19 million people, of whom 72% are Anglo-Celts, 17% are other Europeans and 6% are Asians. About 21% of current Australians are not native to this country and another 21% are descendants of second-generation immigrants who have at least one parent who was not a native of this country.

Australia is highly developed Agriculture and mining industry and is one of the main suppliers of coal, gold, wheat and iron ore to the world market. The manufacturing industry is also highly developed, but it is mainly focused on the domestic market. Australia imports a lot of cars, equipment (computers, communications equipment, and other products of the chemical industry).

Australia has a federal system of government. A national government was created in 1901 on the basis of an agreement to form a federation of six states. Among them are New South Wales (area 801.6 thousand sq. km; population 6.3 million people), Victoria (227.6 thousand sq. km and 4.6 million people), Queensland (1727.2 thousand sq. km and 3.4 million people), South Australia (984 thousand sq. km and 1.5 million people), Western Australia (2525.5 thousand sq. km and 1.8 million people ) and Tasmania (67.8 thousand sq. km and 0.5 million people). There are also two territories which, according to the constitution, are under the jurisdiction of the central government, but are acquiring ever greater rights of self-government, approaching the level of the states. These are the Northern Territory (1346.2 thousand sq. km and 0.2 million people) and the Australian Capital Territory (2.4 thousand sq. km and 0.3 million people), where the city of Canberra is located - the capital of the country and seat of government.

Australia owns the Cocos Islands and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, the Norfolk Islands, Lord Howe and the Coral Sea Islands in pacific ocean, Heard and McDonald Islands in Antarctic waters. Australia owned the southeastern part of New Guinea (the territory of Papua) and ruled northeastern part of this island (UN Trust Territory New Guinea) until 1975, when both territories became the independent state of Papua New Guinea. Australia claims land in Antarctica with a total area of ​​6120 thousand square meters. km, which, however, is not recognized by the parties to the 1961 Antarctic Treaty.

Australia is an unusually compact landmass. Since the processes of mountain building during the last few geological periods were not as active there as on many other continents, the mountains that formed during the earlier periods were subjected to strong weathering and erosion. 75% of the territory of the mainland is located in the altitude range from 150 to 460 m above sea level. and only 7% are raised more than 600 m. The general range of heights ranges from 16 m below sea level. at Lake Eyre up to 2228 m a.s.l. on the town of Kosciuszko in the Snowy Mountains in the southeast of New South Wales.

Geological history.

Numerous facts show that for the most part geological history Australia, along with South America, Africa, Antarctica and India, was part of the large "supercontinent" Gondwana. About 160 million years ago, Gondwana split into parts, and its fragments, which became the continents, "moved" to their current positions. Thus, during a long early period, the evolution of the continent proceeded in full accordance with the development of other land masses in the Southern Hemisphere.

The western part of the Australian mainland is made up of one of the six ancient stable shields of the Earth, formed at the end of the Precambrian (more than 570 million years). Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks are represented here, partly overlain by younger sandstones, shales and limestones. At the end of the Precambrian, a long trough, the Adelaide geosyncline, formed on the eastern margin of the shield, into which sediments were discharged during the Early Paleozoic. In the Precambrian, gold, uranium, manganese, iron and other ores were deposited.

At the beginning of the Paleozoic era (570-225 million years), a chain of mountains formed at the site of the Adelaide geosyncline - the core of the Flinders Range, and a much larger Tasmanian geosyncline formed at the site of the mountains of Eastern Australia. Thick strata accumulated in this trough in the Paleozoic various rainfall, although sedimentation was sometimes interrupted by local mountain building accompanied by volcanism. Some parts of the shield were sometimes also subjected to marine transgressions. The Permian period (280–225 Ma) was of particular importance, since then thick coal seams accumulated in the Bowen and Sydney basins and most of the ore deposits of Eastern Australia were formed, containing gold, tin, silver, lead and copper.

During the Mesozoic era (225-65 million years), the mountains of Eastern Australia rose on the site of the Paleozoic marine basins. Between this elevated land in the east and the shield in the west - where the Central Lowlands are now located - there was a wide sea strait in which thick layers of interbedded sandstones and shales were deposited. A slight rise in jurassic(190–135 Ma) led to the creation of a number of such isolated basins as Carpentaria, the Great Artesian, Murray and Gipsland. In the Cretaceous (135–65 Ma), these lowlands and some parts of the shield were flooded by shallow marine basins. The Mesozoic era played an important role, since at that time sandstone strata accumulated, which became the aquifers of the Great Artesian Basin, and in other areas - reservoirs of oil and natural gas; at the same time, layers of bituminous coal were formed in the basins in the east of the mainland.

In Cenozoic time (the last 65 million years), the main contours of the mainland took shape, although the Central Lowlands remained partially flooded by the sea until the end of the Paleogene (about 25 million years). At this time there were eruptions of volcanoes, located in a chain from Bass Strait to northern Queensland, and as a result, huge masses of basaltic lava poured out over a large part of Eastern Australia. Due to a slight uplift at the end of the Paleogene, the development of marine transgressions on the mainland ceased, and the latter acquired a connection with New Guinea and Tasmania. Further changes earth's surface in the Neogene, the current appearance of the mainland was predetermined; in the territory of Victoria and in the east of Queensland, outpourings of basalts occurred; some manifestations of volcanic activity continued in the Quaternary period, which began ca. 1.8 million years ago.

The most important events of this period are associated with fluctuations in the level of the World Ocean, due to changes in the volume of ice sheets in other parts of the world. The ocean level dropped so much that land bridges were established between Australia, New Guinea and Tasmania. He reached current situation approximately 5000-6000 years ago. With the rise in the level of the World Ocean, the valleys of many coastal rivers were flooded, and subsequently the best ports of Australia were created there. The Great Barrier Reef, the largest in the world, was also formed in the Quaternary period, stretching for 2000 km from north to south from Cape York along the east coast of Queensland. The lignite deposits of southeastern Victoria and the thick deposits of bauxite were formed in the Tertiary period.

natural areas.

The appearance of the landscapes of Australia is mainly determined by vast monotonous plains and plateaus, less common undulating hills and dissected table plateaus, as well as marshy river valleys, which often dry up completely. As a result of geological development, Australia was clearly divided into three unequal physiographic regions. More than half of the entire area of ​​​​the mainland is occupied by the Western Plateau with a leveled surface, worked out mainly in ancient granite and metamorphic rocks. The mountains of Eastern Australia, covering one sixth of the area of ​​the mainland, are distinguished by the most diverse and rugged relief. Between these two areas are the Central Lowlands, a wide open corridor of approx. 2.6 million sq. km, stretching from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Gulf of Spencer.

western plateau, sometimes called the Australian Shield, includes all of Western Australia, nearly all of the Northern Territory, and over half of South Australia. Most of the deserts and salt lakes, mysterious rocks and bizarre hills, as well as many mines are located here. This region is sparsely populated. Its most striking feature is the monotonous nature of the relief, the result of prolonged weathering and erosion. Most of the plateau is located at altitudes from 300 to 900 m above sea level, and many peaks are isolated remnants, remnants of denuded strata. The highest point is Mount Zeal (1510 m) in the McDonnell Mountains. The coastal plains are discontinuous and usually narrow. At least half of this vast area receives less than 250 mm of precipitation per year, and only in the northern and southwestern fringes does the amount of precipitation exceed 635 mm. Due to the scarcity of precipitation and the general flattening of the relief in the inner parts of the region, there are very few rivers, and even those that exist do not reach the sea. Numerous lakes shown on maps are usually dry salt marshes or clayey crusts, centers of inland drainage basins. Most rivers, even confined to the outskirts of the mainland, dry up and are characterized by significant seasonal fluctuations in flow.

The inner part of the region is predominantly a flat or slightly undulating surface, occasionally interrupted by rocky ridges and remnants. There are four most deserted areas: the Great Sandy Desert, the Tanami Desert, the Gibson Desert and the Great Victoria Desert. There are thousands of parallel ridges of red sand from 9 to 15 m high and up to 160 km long. The most significant landforms in the interior of the area are the McDonnell Mountains in Alice Springs County and the Musgrave Mountains on the border of the Northern Territory and South Australia. The most famous peaks located to the west and northwest of the Musgrave Mountains are Olga, Ayers Rock and Conner. On most of the Western Plateau, the vegetation cover is sparse and consists mainly of grasses, tree-like acacias and desert shrubs; after a rain, herbaceous vegetation begins to grow for a short time.

The southern margin of the plateau is the Nullarbor Plain, composed of thick strata of almost horizontal marine limestone up to 245 m thick. Steep, often sheer limestone ledges with a relative height of up to 60 m begin near Cape Fowler in South Australia and extend to the west for more than 965 km. This plain extends inland for 240 km, gradually rising to almost 300 m. The flat surface of the Nullarbor Plain can be traced along the transcontinental railway, which is perfectly straightened for 480 km. The area receives only 200 mm of precipitation per year, which easily seeps into the limestone. There are no lakes and surface runoff, but thanks to underground runoff, bizarre labyrinths of caves and underground galleries have formed, furrowing limestone. Due to the lack of water and the scarcity of vegetation, the Nullarbor Plain is one of the most deserted corners of the mainland. Located within the Northern Territory, the Barkley Plateau with an area of ​​129.5 thousand square meters. km - another significant leveled surface, at least in some places underlain by limestone. In fact, it is a wide open gently undulating plain with an average height of 260 m. Approx. 380 mm of precipitation. This is enough for the existence of natural pastures - the basis of an extensive livestock farming.

The most dissected relief within the shield is the Kimberley region in the north of Western Australia, where high ridges, intensely crumpled into folds, receive more than 750 mm of precipitation per year. The peninsula of Arnhem Land (Northern Territory), which is an uplifted block broken by unusually long and straight fissures, is also heavily dissected, although most of it is located at altitudes below 300 m. The vegetation in both areas is eucalyptus forests interspersed with extensive savannahs.

There are two regions on the Western Plateau that have an important economic importance. The southwestern outskirts is the only part of the shield where the climate and soils are favorable for the development of agriculture. They raise sheep and grow wheat, fruits, grapes and vegetables. It supplies agricultural products to Perth, the only major city on the entire plateau. Pilbara, located at a distance from the coastal settlements of Dampier and Port Hedland, is an elevated, highly dissected part of the plateau with an average height of about 750 m. Huge reserves of high-quality iron ore are concentrated here.

Mountains of Eastern Australia.

Along the eastern coast of Australia from Cape York to central Victoria and further to Tasmania, inclusive, there is an elevated strip with a width of 80 to 445 km and an area of ​​1295 thousand square meters. km. The traditional name - the Great Dividing Range - does not correspond to reality, because there is no continuous ridge, only occasionally forms similar to ridges are found, and nowhere are there truly significant heights. Although in fact it is in this region that the main watershed of the mainland, which has a submeridional strike, is located, in many places it is poorly expressed in the relief. With the exception of the Cape York Peninsula, the bedrock of the area originated from sediments deposited in the Tasmanian geosyncline from the Early Paleozoic to the Cretaceous and overlain by thick volcanic sequences.

Within the mountains of Eastern Australia, the heights fluctuate greatly and reach their lowest values ​​​​on the coastal plain, which continuously frames the east and southeast coasts. The width of these plains everywhere, except for the estuarine sections of the rivers, does not exceed 16 km. Low hills often rise above the surface, and between the plain and the steep, seaward slopes that mark the edge of the mountains, there is often a pronounced zone of hills several kilometers wide. The outer mountain slopes are much steeper than the slopes facing inland, and in some places such side spurs rise very close to the Pacific coast, ending in steep headlands. In the north, the highest points are on the eastern edge of the Atherton Plateau, where the top of Bartle Freer reaches 1622 m. However, south of these places, up to Brisbane, there are very few heights above 600 m above sea level, and the average background of the elevations does not exceed 300 m. Then the heights increase again to about 1500 m in the New England range and are about 750 m in the Blue Mountains, and in the Snowy Mountains they reach 2228 m, the highest on the mainland.

The mountains of Eastern Australia have two distinct runoff systems. Most of the rivers flowing to the ocean coast have a constant flow. Many of them start to the west of the axial zone of the mountains, and their drainage basins have a complex configuration. Some rivers have carved deep gorges, and there are favorable opportunities for the construction of reservoirs and power plants. South of Toowoomba on the opposite side of the mountains, the westward flowing rivers form part of the mainland's largest drainage basin, the Murray and Darling. They begin less than 160 km from the eastern coast, and many of them have a constant current only in the upper reaches.

On the Cape York Peninsula, the northernmost part of the Eastern Australian Highlands, the watershed is located 25–30 km from the eastern coast at altitudes of 500–600 m. Vegetation is mainly dense eucalyptus forests interspersed with dense rainforests.

The northernmost leveled surface of the mountainous region, the Atherton plateau with an area of ​​​​31 thousand square meters. km, rises to the west of Cairns. The transition from the surface of the plateau with altitudes of 900–1200 m to the tropical coastal plain is characterized by steep slopes, and moisture-carrying winds blowing from the ocean bring quite a lot of precipitation to this area. On its dissected surface, fertile volcanic soils are developed, on which dense moist forests. Until now, areas of forests made of valuable hardwoods have been preserved here. However, most of them have been cut down, and the surface of the plateau has been cultivated.

South of the Atherton Plateau, the watershed deviates inland, but its average heights are only approx. 600 m up to the Hughenden area, where any resemblance to the highlands is lost. Then, for over 800 km, the watershed is the farthest from the eastern coast of Australia (more than 400 km). The Bowen Basin has a large concentration of coking coal. To the west of Toowoomba, fertile volcanic soils spread within the gently undulating Darling Downs favor crop production. This is the most developed agricultural area of ​​Queensland.

For 525 km between Toowoomba and the Hunter Valley, the band of mountains of Eastern Australia widens and their height rises. Here is the New England Plateau, the largest and most dissected of the plateau-like uplifts in the mountain strip. Its area is approx. 41.4 thousand sq. km. The flattened hilly surface in some places rises to 1600 m above sea level. Within the plateau, the watershed is 70–130 km from the eastern coast, and the distance from the highest points to the sea does not exceed 32 km. The descent to the narrow and often hilly coastal plain is steep, the slopes are covered with moderately humid forest. Most of the primary eucalyptus forests and meadows have been cleared for pasture.

The blue mountains with steep eastern slopes rise above the coastal plain of Cumberland, located to the west of Sydney. Under the influence of erosion of the Shoalhaven and Hawkesbury rivers, picturesque gorges and waterfalls were formed. This area, still largely covered by dense eucalyptus forests, is of great recreational importance. The main part of the mountains is 1200–1350 m above sea level. removed 160 km from the coast and concentrated around the city of Bathurst, which occupies a wide basin. Further south, the lower mountains are concentrated around the town of Goulburn. Canberra is located on the southern edge of a rolling plateau, most of which is used for sheep pasture.

The highest part of the mountains of Eastern Australia forms an arc of 290 km south and southwest of Canberra. Although this area is called the Australian Alps, even its highest peaks, rising above 1850 m, are simply the remnants of ancient structures that rise above the steps of a heavily dissected plateau. However, in some places the surface has a very rugged character. The Snowy Mountains are the only area on the mainland that receives significant snowfall every year. It is home to the Snowy Mountains waterworks system, which supplies water for power generation and irrigation of the Murray and Murrumbidgee valleys. On the slopes of the mountains facing inland, the forests of the lower belt have been cut down, and the vacated land is widely used for sheep pastures, while in the upper belt of mountains and on the steep slopes facing the sea, dense eucalyptus forests still remain. The upper border of the forest here reaches 1850 m above sea level, alpine meadows spread higher. To the south of the main belt of mountains in the state of Victoria is the Gippsland region - a heavily dissected zone of foothills, once covered with dense temperate forest. Most of this territory is now used for arable land and pastures. Nevertheless, the sawmill industry is still developed here. In Victoria, a strip of mountains stretches from east to west almost to the border with the state of South Australia, with heights everywhere of about 900 m. This is a thriving area for livestock and wheat growing.

Tasmania, along with the large islands in Bass Strait, is a continuation of the East Australian mountain range. This is a hilly plateau with average heights from 900 to 1200 m, above which individual peaks rise another 150–395 m. There are several large shallow lakes and many small ones on the plateau, some lakes are used for hydroelectric purposes. The central plateau is surrounded by dissected areas cut by rivers that originate in the hinterland; individual southwestern areas are almost unexplored. Dense temperate forests grow in the west and south, but have been cleared along the north coast and in the low-lying corridor between Launceston and Hobart. Fruit is grown on the island, mainly apples, and sheep are raised.

Central lowlands.

Approximately one third of the entire area of ​​Australia is occupied by the Central Lowlands, which form a wide open corridor between the mountains of Eastern Australia and the Western Plateau. Structurally, this is a system of depressions filled with sedimentary strata that overlap deeply submerged crystalline basement rocks. Along the periphery of the lowlands, and in some places within the lowlands themselves, are the ridges of Mount Lofty, Flinders and the Great Dividing Range. These are the remains of ancient mountain structures, around which younger sediments were deposited. The flatness of the relief and the lack of precipitation are the most striking features of the lowlands. They very rarely rise above 300 m above sea level, and in many places do not reach even 150 m. The highest areas are where the lowlands approach the Flinders Range and the mountains of Eastern Australia. The area of ​​about 10.4 thousand square meters. km around Lake Eyre, including the lake itself, is located below sea level. The surface of the lowland is mostly monotonous and slightly undulating; only flat-topped and steeply sloping erosional remnants rise several tens of meters above it. Most of this region receives less than 380 mm of precipitation annually, and in the driest region of Australia - in the vicinity of Lake Eyre - the average annual precipitation does not exceed 125 mm. Low watersheds divide the lowlands into three main basins. In central Queensland, a vaguely defined watershed ridge stretches from the mountains of Eastern Australia to the Western Plateau, separating the plain off the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria from the basin of Lake Eyre. Further east, an equally low watershed separates the Murray and Darling Basins.

The flat and flat Carpentary Lowland has a clear boundary in the west with the rugged Cloncurry-Mount Isa region, composed of highly mineralized basement rocks, and in the east with the mountains of Eastern Australia. At a distance of about 480 km south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, the southern border of the plain is a low watershed ridge. The Gilbert, Flinders, Leikhardt rivers, having gentle longitudinal profiles, flow into the bay. During floods, large areas of the plain are flooded. The soils of the region are favorable for the growth of eucalyptus woodlands and meadows. This plain receives the most rainfall of any other part of the Central Lowlands. At the same time, on the watershed, the average annual precipitation is 380 mm, and on the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria - 970 mm. The coastal plain is mainly used for pasture for cattle.

South of the watershed, the lowlands cover southern Queensland and northeastern South Australia. Their greatest length from north to south is approximately 1130 km, and from west to east - 1200 km. All this vast territory is characterized by internal runoff and is divided into several drainage basins. The largest of them is the basin of Lake Eyre with an area of ​​1143.7 thousand square meters. km. It includes most of the Simpson Desert and is fed by numerous intermittent rivers. The slopes here are so small that the rivers literally spread out on the surface, and then reappear, sometimes under a different name. In this way, Thomson and Barco, starting in the mountains of Eastern Australia, give rise to Cooper Creek, Diamantina with the main tributaries Hamilton and Georgina turn into Warburton. Rarely, runoff from the Western Plateau can reach Lake Eyre via the Makamba and Niles rivers. Usually these streams are a labyrinth of dry channels, bordered by thickets of eucalyptus. Randomly occurring deep sections of channels form valuable permanent catchment funnels. Runoff in such channels is not every year. But when this happens, there is no doubt a connection with tropical rainfall, sometimes very intense, falling in the higher regions located to the north and east. The resulting floods are widely dispersed throughout the area, and it can take weeks before the water flows downstream. Such floods cause abundant growth of grasses on pastures, but this is only a temporary phenomenon that cannot be counted on. The lowlands, located at the junction of South Australia and Queensland, are used for pasture, and the area around Lake Eyre remains in a de facto natural state. A significant part of this area is part of the Great Artesian Basin, and there pastures are provided with water.

In the southeastern part of the Central Lowlands is the Murray and Darling Basin, which is the mainland's largest drainage system. It is a vast low-lying area, drained by rivers with very irregular flows. Despite the large area of ​​drained land (1072.8 thousand sq. km) and the large length of the main rivers, the volume of runoff in this system is small. The Murray and Darling Rivers, originating in the mountains of Eastern Australia, flow west and southwest through low-lying areas where precipitation is low and evaporation is high. These factors, combined with intensive meandering of the channels, lead to a decrease in discharges in most of the river flow.

The area drained by the Darling River is mainly used for sheep pasture, but in the eastern parts, sheep farming is combined with crop farming. The Riverine area, located between the Lachlan and Murray rivers, along with land along the lower Murray and its tributaries in Victoria, is Australia's most important livestock and grain farming area. The relief and soils there are favorable for large-scale irrigation. The largest areas of irrigated land are concentrated between the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan rivers (the Murrumbidgee irrigation system), in the part of the Murray Basin located in New South Wales (the Riverine irrigation system) and in Victoria (the Goulburn-Campaspe-Loddon system). In addition, there are several small areas of irrigated land on the lower reaches of the Murray. In these areas, cattle are bred and fruits, grapes and vegetables are grown. With the introduction of the Snowy Mountains hydropower system, an additional transfer of runoff to the Murray and Murrumbidgee basin was carried out, and there it was possible to expand the area of ​​irrigated land. However, water is still not enough to irrigate all the lands.

Because much of the mainland receives little rainfall, and the main watershed is shifted closer to the east coast, Australia's drainage systems have an unusual configuration. This continent is distinguished by a very small river runoff. Most of the rivers in Australia dry up. Those that start in the mountains of Eastern Australia, as well as the rivers of Tasmania, have a constant flow all year round, but many rivers flowing to the west dry up during the dry season. Slightly more than half of the entire continent belongs to inland drainage basins, and the flow there is negligible, and the boundaries of the drainage basins are not clearly defined.

Rivers.

The main river artery of Australia, Murray, together with large tributaries Darling, Murrumbidgee and Goulburn, drains an area of ​​1072.8 thousand square meters. km in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia. The headwaters of large tributaries are 200 km from the east coast and merge to form the main rivers, which flow in winding, often meandering channels to the sea. The Murray, originating in the Snowy Mountains, flows into Encounter Bay in South Australia. Its total length is 2575 km, including the lower 970 km accessible to small craft. Sandbanks blocking the mouth of the river serve as an obstacle to the entry of ships. Murrumbidgee (length 1690 km) begins in the Cooma region and flows into the Murray. The flow of the Murray and Murrumbidgee is regulated by the Snowy Mountains hydroelectric system. The tributaries of the Darling drain all of the western slopes of the mountains of Eastern Australia in northern New South Wales and parts of southeast Queensland. The main Darling River, 2740 km long, flows into the Murray at Wentworth. Dams built on this river and several of its major tributaries regulate the flow, except during the most severe droughts.

Slightly more than half of the mainland has a disconnected flow or belongs to the internal drainage basins. On the Western Plateau, the runoff is disjointed, and the streams existing there function rarely and for a short time, and end in temporary lakes or swamps confined to drainless basins. Large territory in Queensland, the Northern Territory and South Australia with an area of ​​1143.7 thousand square meters. km belongs to the Lake Eyre basin, one of the world's largest inland flow basins. major rivers of this basin, Georgina, Diamantina, and Cooper Creek are characterized by very low slopes and are usually labyrinths of dry, intertwining channels, but after rains they can overflow for many kilometers in width. The waters of these rivers very rarely reach Lake Eyre: in 1950 its basin was filled for the first time since the colonization of the mainland by Europeans.

Since the flow of Australian rivers is extremely variable, their use is difficult. Sites suitable for the construction of dams are few, especially in the interior, and large reservoirs are needed to ensure a permanent water supply. Water losses due to evaporation are also significant, especially in the most arid areas. Only in Tasmania is the flow quite constant in all seasons.

Lakes.

Most of the lakes in Australia are waterless basins covered with salt-bearing clays. In those rare cases when they are filled with water, they are silty salty and shallow water bodies. There are many such lakes on the Western Plateau in Western Australia, but the largest of them are in South Australia: Lake Eyre, Torrens, Gairdner and Frome. Numerous lagoons with brackish or salt water are developed along the southeastern coast of Australia, separated from the sea by sandbars and ridges. The largest freshwater lakes are in Tasmania, where some of them, including Great Lake, are used for hydroelectric purposes.

The groundwater.

Groundwater supply is vital to many rural areas in Australia. total area pools with groundwater reserves exceeds 3240 thousand square meters. km. These waters mostly contain dissolved solids that are harmful to plants, but in many cases the water is suitable for watering livestock.

The Great Artesian Basin, the largest in the world, in Queensland, South Australia, New South Wales and the Northern Territory covers an area of ​​1,751.5 thousand square meters. km. Although the groundwater is often very warm and highly mineralized, the area's sheep breeding depends on it. Smaller artesian pools are found in Western Australia and southeast Victoria.

Atmospheric circulation.

As a compact land mass, Australia influences the wind regime, but the winds bring little rainfall. The mainland is mainly subtropical zone high pressure, the axis of which is approximately 30 ° S, and during most of the year dry winds blow from the center of the mainland; this situation is most clearly manifested in winter (from May to September). summer area low pressure developed over the Kimberley region in the northwest, where warm, moist winds called monsoons rush from the Timor and Arafura seas. At the same time, in the northern regions of Australia, winds blow almost all year round, and it is one of the driest coastal regions on Earth. In winter, cyclones pass over the southern outskirts of the mainland and Tasmania. The east coast north of Newcastle is in the path of the southeast trade winds, which bring in moist air; when this air rises on the slopes of the mountains of Eastern Australia, abundant precipitation often occurs. Occasionally, tropical cyclones (hurricanes) from the northeast penetrate here, causing considerable disaster on the east coast between Cooktown and Brisbane. These fast-moving cyclone systems also hit the northwest coast between Derby and Port Hedland, where they are known as 'willy-willies'. In 1974, around Christmas, during the passage of Cyclone Tracy, the city of Darwin was almost completely destroyed.

Precipitation.

Australia deservedly enjoys the reputation of an arid continent. Almost 40% of its area receives less than 250 mm of precipitation per year and about 70% - less than 500 mm; the latter value usually denotes the limit below which crops cannot be grown without irrigation. The driest region is around Lake Eyre in South Australia, where less than 125 mm of precipitation falls annually over several thousand square kilometers. A much larger area in central Australia may not experience significant rainfall for several consecutive years.

Areas that receive a lot of precipitation are small in area and are confined to places where moist air rises above orographic barriers. record breaking a large number of precipitation - 4500 mm per year - falls in a small area near Tully in Queensland, where moist air rises over the eastern slope of the Atherton Plateau. Only coastal areas in the extreme north, east and southeast of the mainland, its southwestern margin and Tasmania are provided with average annual precipitation of more than 500 mm. Snow falls regularly only in two areas: at altitudes above 1350 m in the Australian Alps in Victoria and New South Wales and at altitudes above 1050 m in the mountains of Tasmania. In some years, there are snowfalls on the New England Plateau. Snowfalls in the Australian Alps are of great economic importance, as they contribute to the accumulation of water, which then enters the Snowy Mountains hydropower system, and serve as the basis for the development of tourism. A long-term trend towards a decrease in the thickness and duration of snow cover in the Australian Alps is clearly expressed, which may be due to global climate change.

Much of Australia shows significant seasonal variation in rainfall patterns. Throughout the north of the Tropic of Capricorn, as well as along the entire east coast south to the border of Victoria, most of the precipitation falls in the summer (December - March). In the far north of the mainland, it happens that more than 85% of precipitation occurs in the first three months of the year. In the southern part of Australia and on the west coast north of Exmouth Bay, precipitation is clearly associated with the winter months. For example, in Perth, 85% of precipitation falls between the beginning of May and the end of September. During the dry months, there may indeed be no rain.

A large part of Australia is also characterized by a large variability in precipitation, i.e. V given year deviations from the mean statistical indicator both sides can be significant. Above-normal deviations can be associated with local floods, and below-normal deviations with natural disasters, especially where precipitation is generally low annually. Catastrophic situations arise when the amounts are below the norm for several years in a row. Droughts are widespread in the interior of Australia.

Temperatures.

Australia is usually considered a hot continent, but in fact it is cooler than in many areas of other continents located at the same latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. Seasonal temperature fluctuations are generally small. It is usually cooler on the coast and in the mountains, especially in the southeast, than in the interior. The north, and in particular the northwest coast, is the hottest area.

In summer, from December to March, average daily temperatures in Australia usually exceed 32 ° C and often reach 38 ° C. In the interior, they can sometimes stay above 41 ° C. Strong winds blowing from the interior can bring very warm air to the south and east coasts, and then for several days in a row there is hot weather. The average January temperature in Darwin is 29°C, Melbourne 20°C, Sydney 22°C, Alice Springs (in the center of the mainland) 28°C, Perth 23°C.

Although very low temperatures are not typical in Australia, few places are frost free in winter, and in the southeast frosts affect crops and forage grasses. The main frost free areas are the Northern Territory and Queensland north of the Tropic of Capricorn, and the entire coast north from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Brisbane on the east coast. Most of the mainland averages 300 or more frost-free days. In the mountains of New South Wales and Victoria, the Australian Alps and most of Tasmania, frost occurs at any time of the year. Average July temperatures in the southeast are 9°C in Melbourne and 12°C in Sydney. In the north, this figure is 12 ° C in Darwin, and in the center of the mainland 25 ° C in Alice Springs.

A significant part of the surface deposits of Australia was formed from rocks of the Tertiary age. These deposits are ancient, they lack many of the substances necessary for plant nutrition. The weathering products of these deposits provide the source material for younger soils, which also inherit the deficiency of many nutrients. Climate, along with age, plays an important role in the development of Australian soils. Here, their general concentric distribution from the wetter regions of the east coast to the arid central regions is evident. Much of Australia's soil is not particularly fertile due to intense leaching. There is often a lack of phosphorus and nitrogen, and in many areas, including those with regular rainfall, even the micronutrients needed for plant nutrition are insufficient. Only through the application of fertilizers and the planting of leguminous plants did a significant part of the previously unproductive land acquire fertile soils.

The soils of the humid zone occupy about 9% of the mainland area. They are widely represented in the mountains of Eastern Australia, including Tasmania, up to the border of Queensland in the north, in the coastal strip between Brisbane and Cairns and in most of the Cape York Peninsula. The most common are leached podzolic soils. Although they are often nutrient deficient, they are the most important class of Australian soils, as they form where there is high regular rainfall. They are widely used for high-quality pastures, and when applying nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers - for growing crops. There are very fertile krasnozems (red-colored soils). Despite their patchy distribution, they are widely used in sugarcane, fodder crops, peanuts, vegetables, corn and other grains. The largest range of red soils is located between Tully and Cooktown, where the main crop is sugarcane.

Soils formed under seasonally wet conditions occupy only 5% of the mainland area. They are developed within an arcuate zone ranging from 160 to 640 km from the east coast and extending from east central Victoria to south Queensland. These soils were formed under drier seasonal conditions than the soils of the humid zone. They are not as heavily leached and are usually fertile. The most large group soils - chernozems of the northern part of New South Wales and southern Queensland, characterized by dry winters. They are widely used for growing wheat, sorghum and maize in wetter areas (such as the Darling Downs area) and for grazing in drier areas. Red-brown and brown soils are developed in areas with dry summers - in Victoria and southern New South Wales. These are the most suitable soils in Australia for growing crops, especially wheat, and for quality pasture.

Three groups of soils in the semiarid zone occupy 18% of the mainland area. Heavy gray and brown soils form the largest group and are common in the famous wheat region of Wimmer (western Victoria), in the Riverine region of New South Wales, where due to low infiltration rates the soils are ideal for rice cultivation, in the upper parts of the Darling (New South) watersheds. Wales) and Eyre Lakes (central Queensland), where the soils form the basis for the extensive development of sheep farming, and on the Barkley Plateau, an important area for cattle breeding. Brown soils are found in many large but unproductive wheat areas in southwestern New South Wales, Victoria, South and Western Australia. Brown soils of light composition are common in central New South Wales and the Norman River basin in Queensland, and also fragmentarily in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Shrubs usually grow there. Soils are mainly used for pastures.

The largest soil group in Australia is the soils of the arid zone, occupying 42% of the mainland area. They can only be used for pastures, mainly for cattle. The most productive are desert loamy areas overgrown with twigs and quinoa in South Australia and northwestern New South Wales and arid red soils, widespread in southern central Queensland, northern New South Wales and northern South Australia, where dense forests are associated with them. thickets of acacias with herbs in the ground layer. Of intermediate importance for grazing are the carbonate desert soils developed in a broad belt extending from Lake Frome across the Nullarbor Plain, and the red-brown soils with compacted cemented interbeds in the west-central part of Western Australia. Dense thickets of acacias, shrubs and ephemeral grasses grow on these soils. Such areas serve as pastures for sheep and cattle. Very little or little use is made of the vast areas of rocky deserts, sand flats and sand ridges that form the backbone of central Australia.

Some soil groups in Australia are weakly related or not related at all to modern climatic conditions. Among such soils, lateritic podzols are of the greatest economic importance, since they are common where precipitation occurs fairly regularly. Initially, in these soils there was a lack of phosphorus and nitrogen, therefore, when used for pastures, superphosphate and microelements were introduced, and clover was also sown. The largest of the soil groups considered (little related to climatic conditions) are skeletal soils (young and unweathered), most commonly found in the Pilbara, Kimberley and Arnhem Land regions.

Soil erosion is a major problem in many parts of Australia, mainly due to the rather delicate balance between vegetation cover and erosion. This is especially evident in arid and semi-arid regions, where the natural vegetation cover is very sparse and its restoration is slow. Under these conditions, overgrazing leads to powerful wind erosion and soil salinization. In the wetter southeastern regions, the cultivation of crops and the clearing of forests for grasslands have contributed to significant development of planar and linear erosion. Over the past decades, the federal and state governments have taken steps to prevent erosion, but the positive effect has not been achieved everywhere.

Vegetation and precipitation.

Obviously, the distribution of individual plant groups depends on the microclimate and soils, but the distribution of large Australian plant zones (at the level of formation types) reveals a close relationship with the average annual precipitation. A striking feature of the Australian climate is the presence of an arid center of the mainland, from which the amount of precipitation consistently increases towards the periphery. Accordingly, the vegetation also changes.

1. The average annual rainfall is less than 125 mm. Developed sandy deserts. Hard-leaved perennial grasses of the genera predominate. Triodia And Spinifex.

2. The average annual rainfall is 125–250 mm. These are semi-arid regions with two main types of vegetation. a) Shrub semi-desert - open areas dominated by representatives of genera Atriplex(swan) and Kochia(rod). Native plants are exceptionally drought tolerant. The area is used for sheep pastures. b) Arid scrub on sandy plains or bedrock outcrops on remnant hills. These are dense thickets of low-growing trees and shrubs with a predominance of various kinds acacias. The most widespread mulga-scrub with veinless acacia ( Acacia aneura). Both types of vegetation are characterized by the exuberant development of annual plants after infrequent rainfall.

3. The average annual rainfall is 250–500 mm. There are two main types of vegetation here. In the south, where precipitation falls only in the winter months, malli scrub is common. These are dense thickets dominated by various shrubby eucalyptus trees, which form several trunks (coming from one underground root) and bunches of leaves at the ends of branches. In the north and east of Australia, where rain falls mainly in summer, grasslands are common with a predominance of representatives of the genera Astrebla And Iseilema.

4. The average annual rainfall is 500–750 mm. Savannahs are presented here - open park landscapes with eucalyptus trees and a grass-forb lower tier. These areas were intensively used for grazing and growing wheat. Cereal savannahs are sometimes found on more fertile soils and in the zone of sclerophyllous (hard-leaved) forests.

5. The average annual rainfall is 750–1250 mm. Sclerophilic forests are typical for this climatic zone. They are dominated by different types of eucalyptus, forming a dense forest stand, and a dense undergrowth of hard-leaved shrubs is developed, and the grass cover is sparse. On the more arid margin of this zone, forests give way to savanna woodlands, and on the more humid margin, to tropical rainforests. Relatively dry sclerophyllous forests are characterized by the highest concentration of typical Australian species. These forests are an important source of hardwood timber.

6. Average annual rainfall over 1250 mm. Tropical rainforests are confined to areas with high rainfall and soils usually developed on basaltic rocks. The species composition of trees is very diverse, without clearly defined dominants. Characterized by an abundance of vines and dense undergrowth. These forests are dominated by species of Indo-Melanesian origin. In the more southerly temperate forests, the role of the Antarctic flora element increases ( cm. below).

Floristic analysis.

In Australia, approx. 15 thousand species of flowering plants, and about 3/4 of them are indigenous local. More J. Hooker in An introduction to the flora of Tasmania(J.D. Hooker, Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania, 1860) pointed out that three main elements played a decisive role in the development of the Australian flora: Antarctic, Indo-Melanesian and local Australian.

Antarctic element. This category includes groups of species common to the southeast of Australia, New Zealand, the subantarctic islands and the southern Andes of South America. Examples of genera with such ranges are − Nothofagus, Dreamys, lomatia, Araucaria, gunnera And Acaena. Their representatives were also found in fossil remains of the Paleogene age on the now ice-covered island of Simor and on Graham Land (Antarctic Peninsula). Such plants are not found anywhere else. It is believed that they or their ancestors originated at a time when Australia was part of Gondwana. When this supercontinent broke up into parts that moved to their current positions, the ranges of representatives of the Antarctic flora turned out to be very fragmented. However, it is obvious that these plants were widespread in Australia in the Paleogene, since in the Oligocene deposits of South Australia and Victoria, Nothofagus And lomatia along with such Australian families as Eucalyptus, Banksia And hakea. Currently, this element of flora is best represented in temperate forests. Sometimes the term "antarctic element" refers to larger groups of plants currently found only in the southern hemisphere and which are common to South Africa and Australia, such as the genera Caesia, bulbine, helichrysum And Restio. However, Australia's links with South Africa appear to be more distant than those with South America. There is an opinion that closely related plants found in the first two regions descended from common ancestors who migrated there from the south.

Indo-Melanesian element.

These are plants common to Australia, the Indo-Malay region and Melanesia. Floristic analysis reveals two distinct groups: one is of Indo-Malay origin, the other is of Melanesian origin. In Australia, this element includes the paleotropical representatives of many families, especially the tropical herbaceous, and is closely related to the flora of the Asian continent, especially India, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago.

australian element includes genera and species that are found only in Australia or are most common there; there are few endemic families, and their role is insignificant. Typical Australian flora is concentrated in the southwest and southeast of the mainland. The southwest is rich in characteristic Australian families: about 6/7 of them are best represented in this area, and the rest in the southeast. Whether this element really formed in situ or whether it comes from older paleotropic or Antarctic migrants is difficult to ascertain. In any case, it is clear that some groups of modern plants are found exclusively in Australia.

The importance of native plant species to humans has only recently come to be recognized, although many of them have been eaten by indigenous Australians for thousands of years. For example, macadamia trifoliate ( Macadamia ternifolia) has been widely cultivated in Australia since the 1890s for its tasty nuts (it is cultivated to an even greater extent in the Hawaiian Islands and is known as the "Queensland nut"). Gradually, the cultivation of plants such as the local species of ficus ( Ficus platypoda), santalumas ( Santalum acuminatum, S. 1anceolatum), eremocitrus bluish, or desert lime ( Eremocitrus glauca), Australian capers ( Capparis sp.), various so-called. "desert tomatoes" from the genus Nightshade ( Solanum sp.), small-flowered basil ( Ocimum tenuiflorum), a local mint species ( Prostanthera rotundifolia) and many other cereals, root crops, fruits, berries and herbaceous plants.

Australia forms the main part of the Australasian zoogeographical region, which also includes Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea and the adjacent islands of Melanesia and the Malay Archipelago to the west of the Wallace Line. This imaginary line that limits the spread of a typical Australian fauna, goes north between the islands of Bali and Lombok, then along the Makassar Strait between the islands of Kalimantan and Sulawesi, then turns to the northeast, passing between the Sarangani islands in the Philippine archipelago and about. Miangas. At the same time, it serves as the eastern border of the Indo-Malayan zoogeographic region.

Mammals.

There are 230 species of mammals known in Australia. Three of them are monotreme oviparous, about 120 are marsupials, bearing cubs in “pockets” on their belly, the rest are placental, in which embryonic development ends in the uterus.

The most primitive of the currently existing orders of mammals are monotremes ( Monotremata) that are not found in other parts of the world. platypus ( Ornithorhynchus), with a duck-like beak, is covered with fur, lays eggs and feeds the hatched cubs with milk. Thanks to the efforts of Australian conservationists, this species is relatively abundant. Its closest relative is the echidna ( Tachyglossus) is similar to a porcupine, but also lays eggs. The platypus is found only in Australia and Tasmania, while the echidna and the closely related prochidna ( Zaglossus) are also found in New Guinea.

The kangaroo, the well-known symbol of Australia, is far from being a typical marsupial. The animals of this order of mammals are characterized by the birth of immature cubs, which are placed in a special bag, where they carry on until they can take care of themselves.

The fact that marsupials have long lived in Australia is evidenced by the fossil remains of a giant wombat ( Diprotodon) and carnivorous marsupial "lion" ( Thylacoleo). In general, less adapted groups of mammals were slowly pushed back to the southern continents as more aggressive groups appeared. As soon as the monotremes and marsupials retreated to Australia, the connection of this region with the Asian continent was cut off, and both groups were spared competition from placentals better adapted to the struggle for survival.

Isolated from competitors, marsupials have split into many taxa, differing in animal size, habitat, and adaptation. This differentiation took place largely parallel to the evolution of placentals on the northern continents. Some of the Australian marsupials look like carnivores, others look like insectivores, rodents, herbivores, etc. With the exception of American opossums ( Didelphidae) and peculiar South American coenolests ( Caenolesidae), marsupials are found only in Australasia.

Predatory marsupials ( Dasyuridae) and bandicoot ( Peramelidae) with 2–3 low incisors on each side of the jaw belong to the multi-incisor group. The first family includes marsupial martens ( Dasyurus), marsupial devil ( Sarcophilus) and arboreal brush-tailed pouched rats ( Phascogale), eating insects, etc. The latter genus is widely distributed throughout Australasia. A close relative of predatory marsupials is the marsupial wolf ( Thylacinus cynocephalus), which was widespread in Tasmania at the beginning of the era of European settlement, but is found nowhere else, although there is evidence of its presence in prehistoric times in Australia and New Guinea. Despite problematic sightings in some areas, most experts consider this species to be extinct because it was extirpated by hunters, and the last individual died in captivity in 1936. Marsupial anteater ( Myrmecobius) and marsupial mole ( Notoryctes), living in northern and central Australia, descended from a group of predatory marsupials and a marsupial wolf. Bandicoot family ( Peramelidae), distributed throughout Australasia, occupies the same ecological niche as insectivores ( insectivora) on the northern continents.

Two-incisor marsupials, distinguished by the presence of only one pair of low incisors, are known more widely than multi-incisor ones. Their distribution is limited to Australasia. Among them are the families of climbing marsupials ( Phalangeridae), which includes the body, or brushtails ( Trichosurus); dwarf couscous ( Burramyidae), including the dwarf flying couscous ( Acrobates pygmaeus), which can slip between trees and climb up to 20 m, and marsupial flying squirrels ( petauridae) of several species. Everyone's favorite koala Phascolarctos cinereus), which looks like a funny miniature bear cub and was chosen as the emblem of the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, belongs to the family of the same name. wombat family ( Vombatidae) includes two genera - long-haired and short-haired wombats. These are rather large animals that look like beavers and are found only in Australia. Kangaroos and wallabies belonging to the kangaroo family ( Macropodidae) are distributed throughout Australasia. Large gray, or forest, kangaroo ( Macropus giganteus), the most numerous representative of this family, lives in light forests, while the red gigantic kangaroo ( M. rufus) is common in the plains of the interior of Australia. Open habitats are characteristic of rock kangaroos ( Petrogale sp.) and dwarf rocky kangaroos ( Peradorcas sp.). Interesting tree kangaroos ( Dendrolagus), whose limbs are adapted for both climbing trees and jumping.

The fact that marsupials have long lived in Australia is confirmed by the finds here of the fossil remains of a giant wombat ( Diprotodon) and the predatory "marsupial lion" ( Thylacoleo).

Before the advent of Europeans, placental mammals were represented in Australia by bats and small rodents, which probably entered there from the north. The former include numerous genera like fruit bats ( Megachiroptera) and bats ( Microchiroptera); flying foxes are especially notable ( Pteropus). Rodents, including anisolis ( Anisomys), rabbit rats ( Conilurus), earless rats ( crossomys) and Australian water rats ( Hydromys) were probably ferried across the sea on a fin. Man and dingo ( canis dingo) were the only large placentals, with dingoes most likely brought to Australia by humans about 40,000 years ago.

Australia's ecological balance was greatly disturbed by the introduction of exotic placental mammals after the arrival of Europeans. Rabbits, accidentally introduced in the 1850s, and livestock began to destroy native vegetation in much of Australia, which - albeit on a smaller scale - were also contributed by wild boars, goats, buffaloes, horses and donkeys. Foxes, cats and dogs competed with local animals and often hunted them, which led to their extermination in various parts of the mainland.

Birds.

Australia's avifauna includes many very valuable and interesting species. Of the flightless birds, emus are found here ( Dromiceius novaehollandiae) and the helmeted, or common, cassowary ( casuarius casuarius), confined to northern Queensland. The Australian mainland abounds different types ducks ( Casarca, Biziura and etc.). Found predator birds: wedge-tailed eagle ( Uroaetus audax), Australian kite ( Haliastur sphenurus), peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus) and the Australian hawk ( Astur fasciatus). Very peculiar weed chickens ( Leipoa), constructing mounds - "incubators"; shrub bigfoot ( Alectura); pavilions ( Ailuroedus, Prionodura) and birds of paradise (Paradisaeidae), honeysuckers ( Meliphagidae), lyrebirds ( Menura). The variety of parrots, pigeons and ducks is great, but vultures and woodpeckers are completely absent.

Reptiles.

Australia is home to many reptiles including snakes, crocodiles, lizards and turtles. Only snakes here are almost 170 species. The largest of poisonous snakes– taipan ( Oxyuranus scutellatus), and the Queensland python ( Python amethystinus) reaches a length of about 6 m. Crocodiles are represented by two species - combed ( Crocodilus porosus), which attacks and kills humans, and the Australian narrow-nosed ( C. johnsoni); both of them live in northern Australia and New Guinea. Turtles about 10 species - from the genera Chelodina And Emydura. Among more than 520 species of Australian lizards, legless lizards (Pygopodidae), found in Australia and New Guinea, and large monitor lizards (Varanidae), reaching a length of 2.1 m, deserve attention.

Amphibians.

The fauna of Australia is characterized by the complete absence of tailed amphibians (Urodela) and the diversity of frogs and toads. Among the Australian toads of the subfamily Criniinae, morphologically the most primitive of true toads, the genera Crinia, Mixophyes And Helioporus, and there are 16 of them in the region.

Fish.

In Australia ca. 230 types of local freshwater fish, but there are no carp, carps, salmon and few catfish. Most representatives of the freshwater ichthyofauna descended from marine ancestors - cod-like ( Oligorus), perch-like ( Percalates, Plectoplites, Macquaria), terapone ( Therapon), herring ( Potamalosa), semi-finned ( Hemirhamphus) and gobies ( Gobiomogrhus, carassiops). There are, however, two notable exceptions - the lungfish horntooth ( neoceratodus) and bone tongue Scleropages. Australia and New Zealand are home to a number of galax species ( Galaxias), as well as gadops ( Gadopsis).

Invertebrates.

The invertebrate fauna of Australia includes at least 65,000 species of insects, some of which are very peculiar.

When thinking of Australia, kangaroos, koalas, wombats, platypuses, Ayers Rock and the Great Barrier Reef come to mind. For others, Australia is associated only with kangaroos and aborigines. And only a few know that Australia today is a highly developed state that is among the top ten countries in terms of key development indicators, including living standards. Not surprisingly, Australia is quickly coming to the fore of those thinking about immigration.

Vegetation and rainfall

Obviously, the distribution of individual plant groups depends on the microclimate and soils, but the distribution of large Australian plant zones (at the level of formation types) reveals a close relationship with the average annual precipitation. A striking feature of the Australian climate is the presence of an arid center of the mainland, from which the amount of precipitation consistently increases towards the periphery. Accordingly, the vegetation also changes.

1. The average annual rainfall is less than 125 mm. Developed sandy deserts. Hard-leaved perennial grasses of the genera Triodia and Spinifex dominate.

2. The average annual rainfall is 125–250 mm. These are semi-arid regions with two main types of vegetation. a) Shrub semi-desert - open areas dominated by representatives of the genera Atriplex (quinoa) and Kochia (prutnyak). Native plants are exceptionally drought tolerant. The area is used for sheep pastures. b) Arid scrub on sandy plains or bedrock outcrops on remnant hills. These are dense thickets of low-growing trees and shrubs with a predominance of various types of acacias. The most widely used mulga scrub is made from veinless acacia (Acacia aneura). Both types of vegetation are characterized by the exuberant development of annual plants after infrequent rainfall.

3. The average annual rainfall is 250–500 mm. There are two main types of vegetation here. In the south, where precipitation falls only in the winter months, malli scrub is common. These are dense thickets dominated by various shrubby eucalyptus trees, which form several trunks (coming from one underground root) and bunches of leaves at the ends of branches. In the north and east of Australia, where rain falls mainly in summer, grasslands are common with a predominance of representatives of the genera Astrebla and Iseilema.

4. The average annual rainfall is 500–750 mm. Savannahs are presented here - open park landscapes with eucalyptus trees and a grass-forb lower tier. These areas were intensively used for grazing and growing wheat. Cereal savannahs are sometimes found on more fertile soils and in the zone of sclerophyllous (hard-leaved) forests.

5. The average annual rainfall is 750–1250 mm. Sclerophilic forests are typical for this climatic zone. They are dominated by different types of eucalyptus, forming a dense forest stand, and a dense undergrowth of hard-leaved shrubs is developed, and the grass cover is sparse. On the more arid margin of this zone, forests give way to savanna woodlands, and on the more humid margin, to tropical rainforests. Relatively dry sclerophyllous forests are characterized by the highest concentration of typical Australian species. These forests are an important source of hardwood timber.

6. Average annual rainfall over 1250 mm. Tropical rainforests are confined to areas with high rainfall and soils usually developed on basaltic rocks. The species composition of trees is very diverse, without clearly defined dominants. Characterized by an abundance of vines and dense undergrowth. These forests are dominated by species of Indo-Melanesian origin. In the more southerly temperate forests, the role of the Antarctic element of the flora intensifies (see below).

Floristic analysis

In Australia, approx. 15 thousand species of flowering plants, and about 3/4 of them are indigenous local. Even J. Hooker in the Introduction to the Flora of Tasmania (J.D. Hooker, Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania, 1860) pointed out that three main elements played a decisive role in the development of the Australian flora: Antarctic, Indo-Melanesian and local Australian.

Antarctic element

This category includes groups of species common to the southeast of Australia, New Zealand, the subantarctic islands and the southern Andes of South America. Examples of genera with such ranges are Nothofagus, Drimys, Lomatia, Araucaria, Gunnera, and Acaena. Their representatives were also found in fossil remains of the Paleogene age on the now ice-covered island of Simor and on Graham Land (Antarctic Peninsula). Such plants are not found anywhere else. It is believed that they or their ancestors originated at a time when Australia was part of Gondwana. When this supercontinent broke up into parts that moved to their current positions, the ranges of representatives of the Antarctic flora turned out to be very fragmented. However, it is clear that these plants had a wide distribution in Australia in the Paleogene, since Nothofagus and Lomatia were found in the Oligocene deposits of South Australia and Victoria, along with such Australian genera as Eucalyptus, Banksia and Hakea. Currently, this element of flora is best represented in temperate forests. Sometimes the term "antarctic element" refers to larger groups of plants currently found only in the southern hemisphere and which are common to South Africa and Australia, such as the genera Caesia, Bulbine, Helichrysum and Restio. However, Australia's links with South Africa appear to be more distant than those with South America. There is an opinion that closely related plants found in the first two regions descended from common ancestors who migrated there from the south.

indo-melanesian element

These are plants common to Australia, the Indo-Malay region and Melanesia. Floristic analysis reveals two distinct groups: one is of Indo-Malay origin, the other is of Melanesian origin. In Australia, this element includes the paleotropical representatives of many families, especially the tropical herbaceous, and is closely related to the flora of the Asian continent, especially India, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago.

australian element

It includes genera and species that are found only in Australia or are most common there; there are few endemic families, and their role is insignificant. Typical Australian flora is concentrated in the southwest and southeast of the mainland. The southwest is rich in characteristic Australian families: about 6/7 of them are best represented in this area, and the rest in the southeast. Whether this element really formed in situ or whether it comes from older paleotropic or Antarctic migrants is difficult to ascertain. In any case, it is clear that some groups of modern plants are found exclusively in Australia.

The importance of native plant species to humans has only recently come to be recognized, although many of them have been eaten by indigenous Australians for thousands of years. For example, macadamia ternifolia (Macadamia ternifolia) has been widely cultivated in Australia since the 1890s for its tasty nuts (in Hawaii it is cultivated to an even greater extent and is known as the "Queensland nut"). Gradually, in Australia, the cultivation of such plants as the local species of ficus (Ficus platypoda), santaluma (Santalum acuminatum, S. 1anceolatum), gray eremocitrus, or desert lime (Eremocitrus glauca), Australian capers (Capparis sp.), various so-called. n. "desert tomatoes" from the genus nightshade (Solanum sp.), small-flowered basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), a local mint species (Prostanthera rotundifolia) and many other cereals, root crops, fruit, berry and herbaceous plants.

Australia forms the main part of the Australasian zoogeographical region, which also includes Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea and the adjacent islands of Melanesia and the Malay Archipelago to the west of the Wallace Line. This imaginary line, limiting the distribution of typical Australian fauna, goes north between the islands of Bali and Lombok, then along the Makassar Strait between the islands of Kalimantan and Sulawesi, then turns to the northeast, passing between the islands of Sarangani in the Philippine archipelago and Miangas Island. At the same time, it serves as the eastern border of the Indo-Malayan zoogeographic region.

mammals

There are 230 species of mammals known in Australia. Three of them are monotreme oviparous, about 120 are marsupials, bearing cubs in “pockets” on their belly, the rest are placental, in which embryonic development ends in the uterus.

The most primitive order of mammals now in existence is the monotremes (Monotremata), which are not found in other parts of the world. The platypus (Ornithorhynchus), with a duck-like beak, is covered with fur, lays eggs and feeds the hatchlings with milk. Thanks to the efforts of Australian conservationists, this species is relatively abundant. Its closest relative, the echidna (Tachyglossus), looks like a porcupine but also lays eggs. The platypus is found only in Australia and Tasmania, while the echidna and the closely related prochidna (Zaglossus) are also found in New Guinea.

The kangaroo, the well-known symbol of Australia, is far from being a typical marsupial. The animals of this order of mammals are characterized by the birth of immature cubs, which are placed in a special bag, where they carry on until they can take care of themselves.

The fact that marsupials have long lived in Australia is evidenced by the fossil remains of a giant wombat (Diprotodon) and a carnivorous marsupial "lion" (Thylacoleo). In general, less adapted groups of mammals were slowly pushed back to the southern continents as more aggressive groups appeared. As soon as the monotremes and marsupials retreated to Australia, the connection of this region with the Asian continent was cut off, and both groups were spared competition from placentals better adapted to the struggle for survival.

Isolated from competitors, marsupials have split into many taxa, differing in animal size, habitat, and adaptation. This differentiation took place largely parallel to the evolution of placentals on the northern continents. Some of the Australian marsupials look like carnivores, others look like insectivores, rodents, herbivores, etc. With the exception of American opossums (Didelphidae) and peculiar South American coenolesidae (Caenolesidae), marsupials are found only in Australasia.

Predatory marsupials (Dasyuridae) and bandicoots (Peramelidae) with 2–3 low incisors on each side of the jaw belong to the group of multi-incisors. The first family includes marsupial martens (Dasyurus), marsupial devils (Sarcophilus) and arboreal brush-tailed marsupial rats (Phascogale), which feed on insects, etc. The latter genus is widely distributed throughout Australasia. A close relative of the carnivorous marsupials is the marsupial wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus), which was widespread in Tasmania at the beginning of the era of European settlement, but is not found anywhere else, although there is evidence of its presence in prehistoric times in Australia and New Guinea. Despite problematic sightings in some areas, most experts consider the species to be extinct as it was extirpated by hunters and the last specimen died in captivity in 1936. from a group that unites predatory marsupials and a marsupial wolf. The bandicoot family (Peramelidae), distributed throughout Australasia, occupies the same ecological niche as insectivores (Insectivora) on the northern continents.

Two-incisor marsupials, distinguished by the presence of only one pair of low incisors, are known more widely than multi-incisor ones. Their distribution is limited to Australasia. Among them are the families of climbing marsupials (Phalangeridae), which includes the body, or brushtails (Trichosurus); dwarf couscous (Burramyidae), including the pygmy flying couscous (Acrobates pygmaeus), which can slip between trees and climb up to 20 m, and marsupial flying squirrels (Petauridae), numbering several species. The beloved koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), which looks like a funny miniature bear cub and was chosen as the emblem of the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, belongs to the family of the same name. The wombat family (Vombatidae) includes two genera - long-haired and short-haired wombats. These are rather large animals that look like beavers and are found only in Australia. Kangaroos and wallabies, belonging to the kangaroo family (Macropodidae), are common throughout Australasia. The large gray, or forest, kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), the most numerous member of this family, lives in light forests, while the gigantic red kangaroo (M. rufus) is distributed on the plains in the interior of Australia. Open habitats are characteristic of rock kangaroos (Petrogale sp.) and pygmy rock kangaroos (Peradorcas sp.). Tree kangaroos (Dendrolagus) are interesting, in which the limbs are adapted for climbing trees and jumping.

The fact that marsupials have long lived in Australia is confirmed by the findings here of the fossil remains of a giant wombat (Diprotodon) and a predatory "marsupial lion" (Thylacoleo).

Before the advent of Europeans, placental mammals were represented in Australia by bats and small rodents, which probably entered there from the north. The former include numerous genera of both fruit bats (Megachiroptera) and bats (Microchiroptera); flying foxes (Pteropus) are especially notable. Rodents, including anisolis (Anisomys), rabbit rats (Conilurus), earless rats (Crossomys), and Australian water rats (Hydromys), probably traveled across the sea on their fins. Man and dingoes (Canis dingo) were the only large placentals, and dingoes were most likely brought to Australia by humans about 40,000 years ago.

Australia's ecological balance was greatly disturbed by the introduction of exotic placental mammals after the arrival of Europeans. Rabbits, accidentally introduced in the 1850s, and livestock began to destroy native vegetation in much of Australia, which - albeit on a smaller scale - were also contributed by wild boars, goats, buffaloes, horses and donkeys. Foxes, cats and dogs competed with local animals and often hunted them, which led to their extermination in various parts of the mainland.

Australia's avifauna includes many very valuable and interesting species. Of the flightless birds, the emu (Dromiceius novaehollandiae) and the helmeted or common cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), confined to northern Queensland, are found here. The Australian mainland is replete with different types of ducks (Casarca, Biziura, etc.). Birds of prey are found: wedge-tailed eagle (Uroaetus audax), Australian kite (Haliastur sphenurus), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and Australian hawk (Astur fasciatus). Weed chickens (Leipoa) are very peculiar, constructing mounds-"incubators"; shrub bigfoot (Alectura); gazebos (Ailuroedus, Prionodura) and birds of paradise (Paradisaeidae), honeyeaters (Meliphagidae), lyrebirds (Menura). The variety of parrots, pigeons and ducks is great, but vultures and woodpeckers are completely absent.

reptiles

Australia is home to many reptiles including snakes, crocodiles, lizards and turtles. Only snakes here are almost 170 species. The largest of the poisonous snakes is the taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus), and the Queensland python (Python amethystinus) reaches a length of about 6 m. Crocodiles are represented by two species - combed (Crocodilus porosus), which attacks people and kills them, and the Australian narrow-nosed (C .johnsoni); both of them live in northern Australia and New Guinea. Turtles about 10 species - from the genera Chelodina and Emydura. Among more than 520 species of Australian lizards, legless lizards (Pygopodidae), found in Australia and New Guinea, and large monitor lizards (Varanidae), reaching a length of 2.1 m, deserve attention.

The fauna of Australia is characterized by the complete absence of tailed amphibians (Urodela) and the diversity of frogs and toads. Among the Australian toads of the subfamily Criniinae, morphologically the most primitive of true toads, the genera Crinia, Mixophyes and Helioporus are typical, and there are 16 of them in the region.

In Australia ca. 230 species of local freshwater fish, but no carps, carps, salmon and few catfish. Most representatives of freshwater ichthyofauna descended from marine ancestors - cod-like (Oligorus), perch-like (Percalates, Plectoplites, Macquaria), terapone (Therapon), herring (Potamalosa), half-fish (Hemirhamphus) and goby (Gobiomorphus, Carassiops). There are, however, two notable exceptions, the lung-breathing horntooth (Neoceratodus) and the bone-tonguing Scleropages. In Australia and New Zealand there are a number of species of Galaxias (Galaxias), as well as Gadopsis (Gadopsis).

Invertebrates

The invertebrate fauna of Australia includes at least 65,000 species of insects, some of which are very peculiar.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.krugosvet.ru/ were used.

The differences between the areas of relict and young endemics are illustrated by the diagram: An indispensable condition for the existence and preservation of endemism is isolation. And the longer the isolation persists, the higher the degree of endemism in flora and fauna, the more peculiar the biota. Therefore, the proportion of endemism on the islands and in the high-altitude zones of the mountains is understandable: Caucasus - 25% Mountains Central Asia-30% Japan- 37% Canary Islands -45% ...

The waters are inhabited by a large number of aquatic inhabitants dangerous to humans. One of the most dangerous is, perhaps, the geographic cone1. 13. Australian Sports and Cultural Events Australia's tourist attractions include sports events. Adelaide hosts an annual Formula 1 race at the Australian Grand Prix; Melbourne - Australian Open...

Orogeny, there was a rise of platforms and regression of the sea. In some areas, the climate became drier, but still remained warm and mild, even at high latitudes. The Mesozoic stage in the development of life on Earth and the evolution of the biosphere ended with the Cretaceous period. It was during this period that one of the most extensive transgressions of the Phanerozoic occurred. The maximum development of transgression accounted for approximately...

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Animal world. Climate. Vegetation.

Australia is a state located on the mainland of the same name. This is a continent that is washed by the Pacific and Indian oceans. The climate of Australia differs sharply depending on the region: in the north the climate is tropical, and in the south it is temperate. The flora and fauna of Australia is also diverse. The warmest months on this continent, oddly enough, are the months from November to January with temperatures ranging from twenty to thirty-two degrees Celsius. In the central regions, you can observe the temperature and much higher (from thirty-eight to forty-two degrees Celsius plus). In Australia, as well as in the desert, after sunset it can drop sharply by ten to fifteen degrees. And in June - August, on the contrary, it is very cool (plus fifteen to eighteen degrees Celsius), in the temperate zone it sometimes reaches zero degrees. Rain is not uncommon during these months.

Natural areas of Australia:

1. Natural Area Tropics(forty percent of the continent is located in this territory). Tropical rain forests in Australia are similar to African forests: the same tiered structure and richness of life forms represented. On the northeast coast of mainland Australia is an area called the "Wet Tropics of Queensland" (after the name of the occupied territory of the state of Queensland). The Wet Tropics of Queensland has been the subject of world heritage UNESCO, because many representatives of flora and fauna living in this territory are under the threat of extinction. These tropical forests stretch for four hundred and fifty kilometers and go around the northeast coast of Australia. The climate in this area varies from very humid to humid (the average temperature in summer is thirty degrees Celsius, in winter about twenty-five with a plus sign). The flora and fauna of the Wet Tropics of Queensland is very diverse (about 400 plant species and more than a hundred animal species, many of which, as mentioned above, are on the verge of extinction).

Tropics of Queensland

Wet Tropics of Australia

Daintree Forest is considered the oldest on earth. Its age is more than one hundred and thirty-five million years. It is located in North Queensland on the northeast coast of the Australian mainland.

daintree forest

daintree forest australia

As mentioned above, the fauna of this zone is very rich and diverse. In the tropics, mainly marsupials live (there are more than two hundred and fifty species of them). Some of them: koala, bat, opossum, giant kangaroo. The bats They feed mainly on insects, but there are also representatives of mice that feed on birds, frogs, fish, which live in abundance in the Wet Tropics, along with numerous species of reptiles and butterflies.

Moloch (prickly devil)

The history of the marsupial, the wolf, which until recently lived in the tropics, is very tragic. There is such a theory that with the advent of the Australian European people on the territory, this animal was exterminated mercilessly. And when the number of the marsupial wolf reached a critical state, the matter was aggravated by the sudden attack of dog plague. As a result, the last representative of this wolf species died in 1936 in a private zoo.

One of the most interesting animals living in Australia you can call it a koala. Koalas are very similar to bears, but are separated into a separate family, because. their life is unique. A lot is known about koalas. interesting facts. For example, that these wonderful bears eat only eucalyptus trees and hardly drink water, that the fingerprints of koalas are similar to human fingerprints, that the pregnancy of a female koala lasts no more than 35 days, and after that the baby is carried in the mother's bag. The koala sleeps at least eighteen hours a day, and its height is sixty to eighty centimeters. Recently, the number of koalas has greatly increased, despite the fact that they often suffer from human diseases (sinusitis, conjunctivitis, cestitis).

2. Natural Zone of Deserts and Semi-Deserts. Sixty percent (the entire central part of the mainland) is located in these zones. Subtropical and tropical continental climate dominates here. The Desert and Semi-Desert Natural Zone extends to the south, center and west of Australia. Flora of this natural area represented by eucalyptus, prickly acacia. Eucalyptus trees are the tallest trees in Australia. But in desert zones, they prevail in the form of shrubs two to three meters high. They grow very quickly and gain a height of at least two meters in a year. Eucalyptus trees are evergreens, but in desert areas they shed their leaves during dry periods. Under the leaves of eucalyptus trees in eucalyptus forests, it is cozy and good for acacias. The predominant species of desert acacia is the Kambagi or giji acacia and the Dahlia acacia. There are six hundred and seventy one species of acacia, 12 of which are endemic (unique and have no analogues in the world) and 33 species are disappearing from the face of the earth.

Since the soils of tropical deserts are very saline, drought-resistant grasses also predominate there.

Semi-desert in Australia

Acacia in Australia

Fauna life is most active during the rainy season. Animal world The deserts of Australia are represented by the dingo dog, marsupial mole, large red kangaroos, ground hare, foxes, birds of prey, termites, lizards, and mice. Dingo dog is a wild dog that is common not only in Australia but also on other continents. These dogs are reddish-yellow in color and have longer fangs and a flatter skull than normal dogs. Dingo dog is a predator that preys on livestock, opossums, kangaroos and other animals.

One of the brightest representatives of the fauna of Australia is the kangaroo. Kangaroo is a very mysterious and unusual animal. These animals have excellent hearing, they live in nests, burrows, as well as in pits, caves and rocks. A unique feature of kangaroos is that they can be without water for months. The kangaroo family includes large (wallaroo), medium (wallaby) and small kangaroos (kangaroo rats). In general, there are more than fifty species of them and their size ranges from thirty centimeters to one and a half meters. For example, Wallaroo kangaroos are very pugnacious, people use it, and therefore kangaroo fights are very popular in Australia, where tourists and locals place bets on the sweepstakes.

Australia pleases tourists with unique landscapes and partially untouched nature. Here the flora spread over different climatic zones. There are animals that are not found anywhere else except Australia. So, let's take a closer look at the flora and fauna on the Australian continent.

Flora of Australia

Australia has been separated from the rest of the world by oceans for over 200 million years. This resulted in a wide variety of plants and animals. The fifth continent has very specific vegetation and has about 22,000 plant species. Of these plant species, approximately 90% are found nowhere else.

Fascinating flora in the rainforest. Eucalyptus and acacia trees belong to the Australian vegetation, there are about 600 species, found in many areas, even in hot and dry central Australia. IN flora Australia has three large zones, broken down as follows:

tropical zone

The tropical zone is located along the northern coast to the middle of the eastern. It falls into the monsoon climate and is densely planted mainly deciduous trees. Ferns and palms thrive among the ash, oak, cedar and birch trees.

temperate zone

The temperate zone runs through the southeastern coastal plain and Tasmania and extends north along the east coast into the tropical zone. The temperate zone is famous for its many shrubs and undersized plants.

In the Australian Alps and the mountain landscapes of Tasmania, predominantly alpine vegetation is found. There are stocks of pines along the east coast to Tasmania. The latter are second only to eucalyptus trees in terms of their economic importance.

Eucalyptus species predominate in wooded areas, warm and well-irrigated southeastern and southwestern regions. Tasmania is known for its beech forests.

dry zone

The dry zone is located throughout the middle, arid zone and in the west of the fifth continent. The vegetation here is adapted to the arid climate. These are mainly eucalyptus trees and acacia (500 species in total). IN Western Australia There are two types of eucalyptus, the so-called Jarra and Karri Eucalyptus. They are valued for their hard and durable wood.

There are about 2000 introduced plant species in Australia. Most of them came to the country with the development of agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry. It is believed that before colonization by the first Europeans, a quarter of the country was covered with forest savannah, shrubs and forests. Much of the native flora was destroyed to make room for colonization and agricultural use. This has led to the irretrievable extinction of more than 80 species of native plants. To date, another 840 species are threatened. Therefore, Australia has large nature reserves. About 12% of the territory was declared protected.

fauna of australia

The highlight of any trip to Australia is the special wildlife of the fifth continent. The peculiarity of animals is that they live either only in Australia or in the zoo.

Kangaroo

The national animal of Australia is the kangaroo. This is the most famous marsupial subspecies. It is found in Sydney, Tasmania, New Guinea and other offshore islands in Australia.

parrots

They are found in almost all parts of Australia. They are not only on the coast of New South Wales and Tasmania. Worldwide, only one-sixth of the parrot species found in Australia can be seen. The so-called lorikeets are very trusting. They eat bread right out of their hands. Cockatoos can be seen everywhere.

mammals

Australia is home to six of the ten most venomous snakes in the world. The most dangerous is the taipan. In addition to him, live in Australia: tiger snake, brown snake, deadly viper and copper serpent. Because of the camouflage color, they are barely distinguishable.

crocodiles

The world's largest crocodiles, the so-called marine (salty), are also found in Australia. Salmon crocodiles can grow up to 6 meters in length and are considered very aggressive and cunning. Therefore, you should never swim in rivers or lakes that are not regulated. This can be deadly. Crocodiles live not only in salt water, but also in estuaries. Reptiles have been spotted even as far as 300 km from the coast.

Koala

Australia is also home to koalas. They can be seen not only in zoos, but also in the open air. They mostly sit high in the crowns of eucalyptus trees. Koalas do not just jump from tree to tree, they also live on the ground. To return to their food source, the leaves, they dig their claws into the bark and climb up the tree.

Sea turtle

There are about 20 species of turtles in Australia, six of which are marine. Appearance they have not changed for over 200 years.

Whale shark

Reaches a length of up to 15 m and is not only the largest shark, but also the largest fish in the world. It is harmless to humans, despite its huge size. It feeds mainly on plankton and other microorganisms that it filters out of the water.

Dangerous animals in the water

I wonder how many different dangerous animals live off the coast of Australia? Many of them look quite harmless, and some are deadly.

The reef shark, about 2 m long, is quite harmless to humans. Statistically, more people die each year in Australia from a coconut than from a shark attack. How many sharks will be near the coast depends on the water temperature.

The blue-eared octopus is one of the most poisonous animals in the world. The poison can kill an adult in minutes. So far there is no antidote, the only known treatments are heart massage and artificial respiration until the body has processed the poison.

For swimmers, sea wasps are more dangerous than sharks. The sea wasp is a cube jellyfish, considered the most poisonous marine animal in the world. It has up to 15 tentacles up to three meters long, and the available poison is enough for 200 people. Every year, more people die from the effects of these jellyfish than from shark attacks.

The so-called stone fish, as the name suggests, is more like a stone. She has about 70 spines distributed throughout her body. Of the 70 spines, 18 are poisonous. If not promptly treated after contact with stonefish, the venom can be lethal. It is found mainly in the southern half of Australia. There, the fish lives on coral reefs, mostly near rocks or directly on rocks.