Iron-plated armor. Plate armor: myths, advantages and disadvantages

Most of them are made of iron or copper alloys. Sculptures and paintings of that period also show us iron armor - chain mail, brigandines, cuirasses.

However, metal armor was not worn on the naked body. Moreover, most warriors on the battlefield were not protected by iron at all.

The simplest and most common protection was “quilting” - quilted woven clothing. Craftsmen quilted two or more layers of fabric and filled the space between them with padding material. Or they simply quilted several layers of fabric together.

The “quilt” withstood blows well on its own, and in combination with it, it guaranteed good protection for the warrior. In addition, it acted as a shock-absorbing gasket between the iron of the armor and the human body.

Researchers have no doubt that woven protection was always worn under the armor, but from descriptions and paintings it is not possible to establish what materials it was made from or what style it had. In some cases, it is clear that the chain mail shirt is worn over a shirt resembling a tunic, and not at all over thick protective clothing.

It is worth noting that a separately worn protective jacket, which was usually much thicker than a doublet, was called a “jacket” or “jack”. Such clothing was popular in the 15th century. 16th centuries, it performed the same functions as aketones. But since, unlike aketons, jackets were quilted and not printed, modern enthusiasts distinguish them by different terms.

Experiments have shown

Obviously, special clothing made wearing armor more comfortable, but how effective was it as protection? Well, it’s not for nothing that soldiers wore such protection even without chain mail or armor!

In our time, amateur enthusiasts conducted tests of the aketons they sewed: the quilting significantly reduced the depth of penetration of the blade when cutting with a sword. One of the most complete and complex examinations of the protective qualities of such clothing was carried out by Dr. Alan Williams.

He concluded that 16 layers of quilted fabric provide no worse protection than boiled leather 5 mm thick. To penetrate these materials, energy of ~80-90 Joules is required, while a blow with an ax or sword gives from 60 to 130 Joules.

In other words, 16 layers of canvas will not completely protect against a sword strike, but will significantly reduce the damage. Williams also reports that a thrust from a spear or arrow requires more energy to penetrate a combination of protective clothing and armor than an unlined metal plate.

In addition, cotton and wool used as padding were a good substitute for numerous layers of linen.

Here is a translation of the article
« Spotlight: Quilted Armor Defenses of the High Middle Ages"(author - Alexi Goranov),
which was made especially for the online magazine “Lyudota” by Artem Smirnov.
You can read the original article on the website www.myarmoury.com.
The title photo was added by the editors of Ludota.

Gothic armor, Germany, 15th century

Milanese armor, Italy, 16th century

Armor of the winged hussars, Poland, 16th century

Different types armor as museum exhibits

Armor- armor made of large metal plates, anatomically repeating the male figure. Compared to other types of armor, the manufacture of such armor was the most complex and required a considerable amount of steel, and therefore the art of making armor began to actively develop only from the middle of the 14th century.

Because of these difficulties, plate armor, even in the 15th century, was not cheap and was often made to personal order. Of course, only members of the nobility could afford such luxury, which is why armor became a symbol of chivalry and high birth. So how effective is such armor and was it worth the money? Let's figure it out:

Myth 1: The armor weighed so much that a fallen knight could not get up without help.

This is wrong. The total weight of full battle armor rarely exceeded 30 kg. The figure may seem large to you, but do not forget that the weight was evenly distributed throughout the body, and besides, men-at-arms, as a rule, fought on horses. Taking this into account, we get the approximate weight of modern equipment for an army infantryman. Heavier varieties were classified as tournament armor, deliberately sacrificing mobility in favor of increasing the thickness of the armor, which reduced the risk of injury when hit by a spear or falling from a horse. Modern reenactors have repeatedly proved, that in a replica of full armor you can not only run fast, but even fencing and climbing ladders.

Myth 2: Plate armor could be easily penetrated by conventional weapons

And that's a lie. The main distinguishing feature of plate armor is its excellent resistance to all types of damage. Cutting blows do not cause him any harm, unless a knight at full gallop exposes himself to the blow of a bird. Piercing blows could pierce soft, poorly hardened steel, but later armor also withstood the blow of a sharp end quite well. war hammer. In addition, the armor (contrary to opinion popular culture, who loves to decorate her armor with spikes and ribs) was made as smooth and streamlined as possible in order to evenly distribute the energy from the impact and thereby increase the strength of the entire structure. For real effective means against the armored man there were daggers, which, due to the shortest attack distance, are easiest to hit the joints of the armor, and two-handed swords, specially created as countermeasures against heavy infantry and cavalry. In contrast, video recordings are often provided in which the tester pierces a plate breastplate with a morning star or Lucernehammer. It should be noted here that theoretically this is indeed possible, but it is very difficult to deliver a direct blow with a wide swing at a perfectly right angle during a battle, and otherwise the man-at-arms has every chance of completely or partially avoiding damage.

Myth 3: It’s enough just to get into a weak spot, and the armored man will be defeated

That's a moot point. Yes, there are several weak points in plate armor (belt garters, gaps in joints and joints), hitting which will actually cause significant damage to the enemy. But this was not at all easy to do:

Firstly, under the armor the knights wore at least a gambeson, consisting of several layers of dense linen material. It provided good protection on its own, being surprisingly strong and light, and most knights did not hesitate to wear chain mail over it. Thus, the weapon had to overcome several layers of armor before reaching the body.

Secondly, the gunsmiths, who quickly realized the main weakness of armor in a combat encounter, tried to protect the knight as much as possible from the threat. All belts and garters were hidden deep inside the armor, special “wings” (an extension of the cast armor plate) served as a screen for the joints and joints. All parts of the armor fit together as closely as possible, which in the hustle and bustle of large battles significantly increased the chances of survival.

So what was wrong with plate armor?

The main disadvantage is the requirement for care. Due to the large area of ​​the armor itself, the metal quickly rusted and had to be protected from corrosion. Over time, gunsmiths learned to blue the armor, which made it darker and provided good protection against oxidation. In field conditions, the armor was lubricated with oil, and in Peaceful time stored in isolated conditions, usually wrapped in several layers of material. Otherwise, the armor was much more effective than any analogues - frayed straps can be quickly and easily replaced, and straightening a dent on a solid plate is much easier than repairing chain mail or replacing segments in lamellar armor. However, it was sometimes almost impossible to put on plate armor on your own, and if you were wounded, it was just as difficult to take it off. Many knights managed to bleed to death from a trivial wound, which put them out of action for the entire battle.

The end of the golden age of lats came with the beginning of the era firearms. When firearms appeared in the arsenal of regular armies, armor began to gradually disappear from use. A lead bullet penetrated such armor without special problems, although in the early stages, when the power of firearms was small, they could still serve as very effective protection.

In the vast majority of books devoted to medieval armor, you can read that armor was made of steel. However, this seems highly doubtful. The fact is that in order to make something from steel, it must be available.

However, let us recall that in a cheese furnace, malleable iron, poor in carbon, was produced, and in order to obtain steel from it, it was necessary to carbonize it using the cementation process.

Set of forged, embossed and cemented
medieval armor
Milan, approx. 1450 Burrell Collection

Industrial cementation of iron appeared only in the 18th century, largely thanks to the work of René de Reaumur. Of course, this process was known long before Reaumur, but finished products were subjected to cementation, not the original blanks. This was due to the fact that the long process of cementation, due to the lack of theoretical foundations technology, was difficult to control and the slightest mistake could lead to “over-carbonization” of the metal, as a result of which it became completely unsuitable for further use - it could not be forged.

They didn’t know how to melt iron, steel and cast iron back then - this technology appeared only with the advent of flashy (freshening, refining) forges for remelting cast iron, i.e. after the appearance of the blast furnace.

The armor was made of malleable iron, and after receiving the finished product (or its parts), it could be cemented. In this case, overcarbonization was no longer so scary - it only increased the strength of the finished product (Fig. 13), although it could lead to an increase in its fragility.

So, the armor could be either iron or “remained” on the surface - this is evidenced by the results of studies of English armor, which showed that their outer part is much harder than the inner. Also, steel obtained by the “Brussels method”, i.e., was apparently used for the production of armor. by alloying malleable iron with cast iron, in which the carbon content was averaged out, and steel was obtained. However, this method still dates back to a later period, when they had already learned how to produce liquid cast iron.

In addition, those for whom the armor was intended played an important role: eminent armorers served royalty and noble people, ordinary armor was made by less skilled craftsmen, whose professional and financial capabilities (as well as the financial capabilities of their customers) were much more modest. Knights and captains wore very expensive and high-quality armor. In general, armor was produced in different price categories, and there were surprisingly cheap used sets that had undergone repairs. However, no major alterations were made to the armor, since the life of the owner directly depended on how well the plates fit together.

Dravin Igor:other works. Iron of medieval Europe

Armor.

White armor is armor produced in Europe from the late 14th to early 15th centuries. After the revival of the art of making cuirass, plate armor was replaced. Later it evolved into Milanese and casten-brut. It was called white to distinguish it from Coracina. Later they began to call armor that was not coated with paint and not blued. It had less flexibility and degree of freedom, but greater reliability than a large-plate brigantine. Used with a Grand Bascinet helmet and gauntlets. Characteristic feature It was a plate skirt without hip pads. Not to be confused with legguards. Note author. Kasten-brust is an armor produced in northern Europe from the beginning to the middle of the 15th century. Predecessor of Gothic armor. Used with a Grand Bascinet helmet and plate gloves. Characteristic features were an angular silhouette and a very long skirt. Milanese armor is armor produced in central and southern Europe from the beginning of the 15th to the middle of the 16th century. The concept of the armor was based on simplicity, reliability and protection. It was often used in conjunction with an armet-type helmet, additional protection in the form of a rondel, bouvier, shoulders, forehead protector, and so on. Plate gauntlets and sabatons were a mandatory element of armor. The characteristic features of the armor were smooth, rounded shapes, the presence large quantity belts fastening the armor and an enlarged left elbow pad. Gothic armor is armor produced in northern Europe from the mid-15th to the beginning of the 16th century. It was distinguished by great flexibility and freedom of movement provided to the owner of the armor. These properties of the armor were achieved by reducing the level of reliability and protection. As a rule, it had strong corrugation and corrugation, which increased the strength and reduced the weight of the armor. Often used in conjunction with a salad helmet, bouvier, steel gloves and half gloves. The characteristic features of the armor were angles and sharp lines, and minimal additional protection. Often additional reservations were not used at all. The armor set also included chain mail to protect the joints and body. Maximilian armor is armor produced in northern Europe since the beginning of the 16th century. Developed by German gunsmiths inspired by the work of Italian craftsmen. Combines Italian rounded with German angular style. The mixture of styles made it possible to create armor that has an external resemblance to Milanese armor but has not lost characteristic features Gothic. The armor was more durable than Milanese but had a lesser degree of freedom and flexibility than Gothic. Distinctive feature Maximilian armor, in addition to corrugation and corrugation, had stiffening ribs created by bending the edges of steel plates outward and wrapping them into the narrowest possible tube. Used with helmets of the Armet and Bourguignot type, and plate gauntlets with separate thumb protection. A characteristic feature of the armor was the enlarged elements of standard protection, which made it possible for those who wished to refuse additional armor. For example, changing the size of the shoulder pad, towards increasing the chest plate, made it possible to abandon the rondel. Brigantine is an armor made of steel plates made on a leather or fabric base with the plates overlapping the edges of each other, produced in Europe from the 13th to the 17th centuries. When using a brigantine with plate protection for the limbs, the result was plate-brigant armor. There was also chain mail-brigantine, splint-brigantine and full brigantine armor. There were three main types of brigantines. The classic brigantine was used mainly from the 13th to the mid-14th centuries. Afterwards it began to be used mainly by militias and mercenaries. It was made from small plates. Often produced in a dimensionless (baggy) version. The edges of the brigantine were connected by straps on the back and shoulders. The back was protected by side wings. Could have had a chainmail skirt. The large-plate brigantine (coracina) was used by knights from the beginning of the 14th to the beginning of the 15th century. Made exactly to fit. Coracina had a detachable breastplate and separate plates protecting the back. Fastened with straps on the chest and shoulders. It also had a skirt of laminar design. Sometimes the back segments of the skirt were missing for greater walking comfort. Later specimens of Coracina consisted of two chest plates, two plates protecting the abdomen, four lateral plates and two dorsal plates. With the advent of the cuirass, the coracina disappeared due to its high cost. The brigantine with plastron was used from the middle of the 14th century. It was made by riveting a forged breastplate (plastron) to a classic brigantine. Fastened with straps on the back. TOmail-brigantinearmor Bakhterets is a ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Subsequently, its production spread throughout the East, Central Asia And Eastern Europe. It is made of overlapping vertical rows of horizontally arranged steel plates on a chain mail base. The overlap of the plates was at least double. May be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides very good protection and complete freedom of movement. Consists of several hundred (up to one and a half thousand) small plates. Kolontar is a ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 13th to the 17th centuries. It is made of steel plates woven together without overlapping. It does not have sleeves covered with plates. The columnar is made on a chainmail basis. May be a vest or jacket with chain mail sleeves and hem. Fastened with straps on the sides. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Yushman is a ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 14th to the 17th centuries. It differs from bakhterets in having larger plates and less overlap between them. May be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides less protection than a bakhterets and less freedom of movement. Consists of about a hundred large plates. Lamellar armor is a group of armor produced from the 11th to the 14th centuries in eastern Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel plates woven together with wire or leather cord. First, horizontal stripes are assembled, and then they are fastened together with partial overlap. The armor can be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Was supplanted by laminar armor. Lamellar armor is often confused with ring-plate armor. Note author. Laminar armor- a group of armor, the first examples of which were made in the Roman Empire. Subsequently, they were produced from the 12th to the 15th centuries in eastern Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel strips woven together with wire or leather cord. The production technology is the same as lamellar armor. First, strips of the required length were forged, and then they were fastened together. Subsequently, the plates began to be attached with rivets to leather straps running inside the armor. The armor is a vest to which additional elements are attached. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Due to greater rigidity, reliability of plate fastening and lower manufacturing costs, laminar armor replaced lamellar armor, but individual moving elements (shoulder pads, elbow pads, etc.) of lamellar construction continued to be found. Laminar armor was replaced by ring-plate armor. Ringed armor is a group of armor produced from the 5th century BC to the 19th century in Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel rings woven together. The weaving of rings can be divided into “4in1” - single, “6in1” - one and a half, “8in1” - double. The armor can be a vest, jacket, overalls or robe. A ring net can be a stand-alone means of protection used in combination with others. For example, aventail. The armor can be fastened with straps on the sides, chest or back. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Must be used only with underarmor. Scales are one of the oldest types of armor, created in imitation of animal scales. Sewn scales are scales sewn onto a base (leather or cloth). This is the most famous and popular type of scale. Lamellar scales- scales woven without a base, as in a lamellar, only not from bottom to top, but from top to bottom. There are two opposing versions of what came first - lamellar scales or lamellar, since the principle of armor is the same for them. The difference is that when an infantryman pokes from below at a horseman dressed in scales, the tip of the weapon will slip between the scales and hit him, but if the rider is dressed in lamellar, then the tip will simply slide off the armor; exactly the opposite is the case with an infantryman when thrusting from above from a horse: the tip of the weapon will pass between the scales of the lamellar, but will slide off the scales. Star-shaped scales and mountain-shaped scales - Is it a Chinese version of lamellar scales, evolved beyond recognition, in which individual plates are shaped like three-pointed stars, or in the form of a hieroglyph? “shan” (mountain) with plates of three-pointed stars with two parallel processes located so that the plate resembles “Sh”.
. in star-shaped scales - the rays have holes at the ends for the cord and are woven so that the cord connecting the ends of the three stars turns out to be the closed center of the fourth star and is protected from cutting. At the same time, the armor looks like it consists of small stars, and the cords connecting them are not visible.
. in scales in the shape of mountains - the upper ray has a hole through which it is sewn to the base, and the other two rays have processes at the ends parallel to the upper ray (so it looks like an inverted “M”). The plates are arranged in the same way as in the star-shaped scales, but the processes are hooked onto the center of the fourth star. Riveted-sewn scales - armor made of plates assembled on a fabric or leather base. The armor plates were sewn to the base through 5-6 holes in the upper edge and secured in the center with one or two rivets. This type of armor was widely used in the Russian protective complex of the 13th-14th centuries. Riveted scales (caracena) - made of scales, often with stiffening ribs that are not sewn, but riveted to the leather base with two or three rivets (small scales - with only one rivet), the name is Polish. Karacena comes from lat. coriacea skurzana(not to be confused with Coracina from Italian. Corazzina). Underarmor is the simplest armor-clothing (quilted jacket, vest, robe, etc.) with internal padding made of cotton wool, hemp, horsehair or flax. The type of armor under which it was worn determined the size and thickness of the underarmor.

Helmets

Round helmet - an open helmet has been produced since ancient Greece. It was made of leather and metal, or entirely of metal. Could have a nosepiece, a mask, ears, butt plate, aventail in various combinations. In Europe it evolved into the capelina, bascinet and pot helmet. The chainmail hood is a head protection produced in Europe since the 5th century. Could be used either independently or in conjunction with a helmet. The pot helmet is a closed helmet produced in Europe since the beginning of the 13th century. Cylindrical or pot-shaped in shape. The later modification had a pointed top and was called a sugar loaf. Tournament modification - toad head. The helmet had two slits on the front. Holes for ventilation could be drilled below. The helmet was worn over a chainmail hood and a thick hat (skullcap). It rested on the shoulders of the wearer, which, together with the hat, protected against concussion when hit on the head. It had poor visibility and could not be firmly fixed relative to the head. After a spear blow he was often removed from the head. Since the end of the 14th century, it was used only in tournaments. Capelin (chapel) is a group of helmets produced in Europe from the beginning of the 13th to the 17th centuries. It had a cylindrical or spheroconic shape. Replaced the round helmet as head protection for infantrymen and cavalrymen. It was distinguished by wide brims that partially covered the shoulders. There was no face protection. Could have had aventail. The capelina was attached to the head with a chin strap. Later modifications were similar to lettuce. The bascinet is an open helmet produced in Europe from the beginning of the 13th to the 16th centuries. Could be used independently and as a head protection for knights instead of a chain mail hood worn under a pot helmet. Face protection was limited to a nasal guard and aventail. The bascinet was attached to the head with a chin strap. Later modifications had a very wide detachable nosepiece. In the 14th century, the snout evolves into an elongated cone-shaped visor of a dog's muzzle. The visor was attached in two ways. In the first method, the visor was attached to the frontal part of the bascinet on one hinge and with a belt behind the back of the helmet. This method allowed the visor to be folded down or unfastened. In the second case, it could be completely removed and not interfere with putting on the potty helmet. The second method was traditional. The visor was attached to the temple parts of the helmet. The helmet later evolved into the grand bascinet. The Grand Bascinet is a closed helmet produced in Europe since the mid-14th century. Unlike the bascinet, it had a nape plate covering the lower part of the neck and a permanent visor. The appeared bouviger (chin guard) formed a single set of protection with the helmet, covered the chin, throat, collarbones and was attached with pins to the helmet and cuirass. The grand bascinet rested on his shoulders and made it impossible to turn his head. It was attached to the back and, through the bouvier, to the chest part of the cuirass. In terms of protective properties, the grand bascinet was slightly inferior to the pot helmet, but thanks to its versatility, it ousted it from the battlefield and supplanted it in tournaments. Evolved into armet. Armet is a closed helmet produced in central and southern Europe from the beginning of the 15th to the end of the 16th century. Unlike the grand bascinet, the bouviger was integral with the rest of the helmet. The bouviger consisted of two opening face halves. In the closed position they were fixed with a pin on the chin. Later, the bouviger became a single piece and was attached to the temples of the helmet, which made it possible to fold it back like a visor. In this version, the lower part of the bouvier was attached with a belt with a rondel to the back of the helmet. Almost always the armet rested on the shoulders and did not allow one to turn the head. The helmet could have an aventail and not be attached to the cuirass. Salad is a group of helmets produced in northern Europe from the end of the 14th to the middle of the 16th century. They originate from the bascinet and are helmets of various shapes, united by the presence of a long backplate located at an acute angle to the neck and, not always, however, a longitudinal stiffener rib. Most salads do not have lower face protection. The upper part is protected by a fixed plate with a narrow slot for the eyes or a short visor. In this case, it is necessary to use a bouvier. Armor set consisting of Gothic armor, salad without protection lower jaw and bouvigera were extremely popular in the German states. The salad allows you to turn and tilt your head in any direction, and the backplate and buviger form good protection for the neck and lower part of the face. The salad did not obstruct the flow of air at all. The combat helmet, as it was called in Germany, was not used in tournaments. In battle, after a spear strike, the salad moved to the back of the head and completely opened the eyes. In the middle of the 15th century, the development of blacksmithing made it possible to equip the salad with two visors. The upper one covered the face from the eyebrows to the tip of the nose, the lower one from the nose to the throat. In the 16th century, the salad evolved into bourguignot. The German World War II helmet and the modern cyclist's helmet are direct descendants of the Salad. I like German gunsmiths, and if you remember what was happening in this region then, you understand that they could not make ceremonial and tournament armor. Note author. Barbut - (Venetian salad) open helmet, produced in southern Europe from the 15th to the mid-16th century. It was a creatively redesigned version of a helmet popular in ancient times. The combat helmet covered the entire head to the shoulders except for the Y-shaped or T-shaped cutout in the front part. Did not interfere with vision, breathing or head movement. Could be equipped with aventail. Burguignot is a closed helmet produced in Europe since the mid-16th century. It was a mixture of salad and barbute with elements of armet. It was characterized by a round body, tightly fitting the skull, adjacent to the back of the head and trapezius muscles of the back. Provided good visibility, head mobility and normal air flow. Barbute made it possible to completely abandon the bouvier. Over the course of half a century, in connection with the development of military art, the burgignot became an open helmet. The visor evolved into a visor, the stiffening rib became a ridge, and the side parts of the helmet (cheek pads and ears) began to be attached to hinges.

Armor elements

Cuirass is an element of torso protection. It is a bib and a backrest, connected into a single structure using belts attached to the shoulder, side or back parts of the product. The most famous cuirasses consist of front and back steel plates. With the development of blacksmithing, the cuirass was divided into two more segments: the breastplate and the navel. They were connected using belts and rivets located on the inside of the cuirass. The napuznik, depending on the type of armor, was located on top of the breastplate or under it. This division increased the flexibility of the cuirass and allowed the owner of the armor to bend. Often armor with two segments visually looked solid. A skirt made of steel plates could be part of a cuirass. The cuirass provides better torso protection than all other types of protection. Buviger (chin guard) - an element of protection for the throat, lower face and upper chest. Used with armor and helmets that do not have full face and throat protection. Also used as an additional reservation for the same areas. It has a triangular, cone-shaped shape. Often the top of the bouvier is made into a half-bowl shape to improve head mobility. The chinrest is attached in three ways. Hard to the cuirass, hard to the cuirass and helmet, to the hinged helmet. Provides good protection. Aventail, necklace - an element of protection for the throat, neck, upper chest and back. It is a chain mail mesh or lamellar necklace attached to staples to the bottom of the helmet. Sometimes aventail was used to protect the face. Provides acceptable protection. Gorget is an element of protection for the throat, neck, upper chest and back. Gorgets come in two types. Leather gorgets covered with steel plates served only for protection. Steel gorgets to which elements of armor (shoulder pads, etc.) were fastened. Gorgets were worn on or under a cuirass. Subsequently they degenerated into a decorative element of clothing. Rondel is a steel disc covering the armpit in front. Also called the disc that protects the leather belt holding the protection element from being cut and the disc that protects the hand on some types of weapons. It was used both as a necessary element of protection and as additional armor. The shoulder pad is originally an element of protection for the shoulder joint and shoulder girdle. Then he began to protect the shoulder and partially the armpit and chest. Also used as an additional reservation for the same areas. Made from steel plate or plates. Depending on the design of the armor, it can be attached to the cuirass, gorget, shoulder, or two elements at the same time. Can be used either independently or in combination with bracers and elbow pads. The level of protection and mobility depends on the design of the shoulder pad. Spaulders, shoulder pads, are an element of protection before the appearance of shoulder pads. Made from steel plate. Afterwards it began to be used as additional armor and a decorative element. The shoulders evolved into the well-known shoulder straps. The browband is an element of head protection before the appearance of the bascinet. Made from steel plate. Afterwards it began to be used as an additional reservation. The elbow pad is originally an element of protection for the elbow joint. Then he began to partially protect the shoulder and forearm. Made from steel plate or plates. Depending on the design, it can be attached to the arm or to the arm and bracer. Can be used either independently or in combination with bracers, pauldrons or pauldrons and plate hand protection. The level of protection and mobility depends on the design of the elbow pad. The bracer is an element of forearm protection. The outer side is always made of steel. Inner made of steel or leather. Used independently, complete with elbow pad and plate hand protection. Attached to the forearm. Provide maximum forearm mobility with good protection. Plate gloves are an element of protection for the hand and partly the forearm. WITH outside the arms are made of steel plates. With an interior made of leather or chain mail. The cuffs are made entirely of steel. Each finger has independent armor. Provide maximum hand mobility with acceptable protection. Plate gloves are an element of protection for the hand and partly the forearm. On the outside, the arms are made of steel plates; on the inside, they are made of leather or chain mail. The cuff is made entirely of steel. Four fingers to the first phalanx from the palm have a common armor. Next is independent. The thumb has independent armor. Provide good hand mobility with normal protection. Plate gauntlets are an element of protection for the hand and partly the forearm. The outer side of the arms is made of steel plates. With an interior made of leather or chain mail. The cuff is made entirely of steel. The four fingers have a common armor. The thumb has independent armor. Provide hand mobility with good protection. Mittens may have a latch that is released when the fist is clenched. It becomes impossible to knock the weapon out of your hand. Plate half-mittens are an element of protection for the hand and partly the forearm. The outer side of the brushes is made of steel. With an interior made of leather or chain mail. The cuff is made entirely of steel. The finger armor is divided into three independent segments. Thumb, index and middle, ring and little fingers. Provide good hand mobility with normal protection. Thigh pads are an element of protection for the hips and groin. They are made of steel and often serve as additional armor. Cuirass is attached to the skirt. Provide maximum leg mobility with normal protection. Gaiters are an element of thigh protection. The front side is always made of steel. Inner and back made of steel or leather. Used in conjunction with knee pads and greaves. Attached to the thigh, or to the thigh and to the cuirass, or to the thigh and underarmor. Ensure normal leg mobility with good protection. A skirt is an element of protection for the hips and lower abdomen. In the absence of thigh guards and leg guards, this is the main armor for the legs. Used in conjunction with leggings. Made from chainmail mesh or steel plates. Attached to the cuirass or is a component of it. Provides maximum leg mobility with good protection if the length of the skirt reaches the greaves. Knee pads are an element of protection. Made from steel plate or plates. Used in conjunction with legguards and greaves. Attached to greaves and legguards. Ensure normal leg mobility with good protection. Leggings and greaves are an element of shin protection. The front side is always made of steel. Back made of steel or leather. Can be used independently, complete with knee pads, leg guards, and a skirt. Attached to the shin. Provides maximum leg mobility with good protection. Sabatons are an element of foot protection. The outside is always made of steel. Leather or steel sole. Used in conjunction with greaves, knee pads and leg guards. Attached to the foot and greaves.

Full metal weapon.

The dagger is a double-edged melee weapon for one hand. The shape of the blade can be straight, curved, flame-shaped. The length reaches half a meter. Intended for delivering cutting and piercing blows. Misericord - one-handed with a triangular blade, a descendant of the dagger. Intended for delivering powerful piercing blows. The blade had a length of up to fifty centimeters. Produced in Europe from the 13th to the 17th centuries. Stiletto - one-handed, with triangular, quadrangular or round blade, descendant of misericord. Intended for stabbing. The blade had a length of up to forty centimeters. Mostly designed for concealed carry. Produced in Europe from the 14th century to this day. Cinqueda is a one-handed sword with a wedge-shaped, double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for chopping, cutting and piercing blows. The blade was about sixty centimeters long. Produced in Europe in the 14th - 16th centuries. Landsknecht is a one-handed sword with a straight, wide, single-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by cutting the blade towards the butt. Intended for chopping and cutting blows. The blade was about sixty centimeters long. Produced in Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries. Scimitar is a one-handed weapon with a double curved blade. From the handle there was a reverse bend, which in the middle of the blade was replaced by a straight bend. One side of the blade is sharpened completely, the other usually has the upper half sharpened. The tip of the blade was directed parallel to the handle or was in line with the handle and was formed by a smooth bend of the blades towards the center of the blade. Intended for chopping, cutting and piercing blows. The blade was about sixty centimeters long. Produced in Western Asia, the Middle East and South-Eastern Europe in the 16th - 19th centuries. Falchion is a one-handed sword with a single-edged blade that flares towards the tip. It could have either a straight or curved butt. The tip of the blade could be formed by a smooth bend of the blade towards the butt, or by cutting the butt towards the bend of the blade. Intended for delivering chopping and cutting blows. Later variants of the falchion appearance look like sabers. The blade was about eighty centimeters long. Produced in Europe in the 14th - 16th centuries. Gross Messer is a one-handed sword with a slightly curved, single-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by cutting the butt towards the smooth bend of the blade. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade was about eighty centimeters long. Produced in northern Europe in the 14th - 16th centuries. Katsbalger (koshkoder) - a one-handed sword with a straight, double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade was about eighty centimeters long. Produced in northern Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. Broadsword - a one-handed sword with a straight blade. One side of the blade was completely sharpened. The second, most often, did not have sharpening. The tip of the blade was formed both by cutting the blade to the butt and by smoothly bending the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade was about eighty centimeters long. Produced in Europe in the 16th - 19th centuries, Espadron is a one-handed sword with a straight, double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade was about eighty centimeters long. Produced in Europe in the 16th - 18th centuries. Evolved into a sword. Ritterschwert is a one-handed sword with a straight, double-edged blade. Often the blade had a cone shape. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade had a length of eighty to ninety centimeters. Produced in Europe in the 13th - 15th centuries. Evolved into a bastard sword. Bastard - a one-and-a-half sword with a straight, double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade had a length of ninety to one hundred and ten centimeters. Produced in Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. Craig-messer is a one-and-a-half sword with a slightly curved, single-edged blade. The tip of the sword was formed by a smooth bend of the blade and butt towards the center of the blade. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade had a length from ninety to one hundred and ten centimeters. Produced in northern Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. Estok is a one-and-a-half sword with a triangular or quadrangular blade section (faceted). Intended for stabbing. The blade had a length of ninety to one hundred and twenty centimeters. Produced in Europe in the 14th - 16th centuries. Claymore is a two-handed sword with a straight, double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade was about one hundred and ten centimeters long. Produced in Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. Zweihander is a two-handed sword with a straight, double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade had a length of one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty centimeters. Produced in northern Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. The slasher is a heavy (up to twelve kilograms) version of the zweihander with a rounded blade tip. To a greater extent than a regular two-handed weapon, it was suitable for breaking through infantry formations with powerful slashing blows. The blade had a length of one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty centimeters. Produced in northern Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. Flamberge - a two-handed, less often one and a half, sword with a flame-shaped double-edged blade. The tip of the blade was formed by a smooth bend of the blades. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The blade had a length of one hundred to one hundred and sixty centimeters. Produced in Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries. Alshpis is a two-handed sword with a faceted blade. Intended for stabbing. The blade had a length from one hundred twenty to one hundred and forty centimeters. Produced in Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. Short-shafted (handle up to 120 cm) weapon. A combat flail is a weapon consisting of two, very rarely three, sticks connected to each other by a chain or leather belt. Warhead(beat) was made of wood and metal or simply metal. Intended for delivering crushing blows. Infantry weapons. Produced in various versions until the 17th century. A mace is a weapon consisting of a handle and a spherical beater rigidly attached to it. The handle was made of wood or metal, the beater was made of metal. Intended for delivering crushing blows. Produced in Europe from the 10th to the 14th centuries. Evolved into pernach and morningstern. Morgenstern - a mace with steel spikes screwed into the beat. Intended for delivering crushing and piercing blows. Produced in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. A club is a weapon consisting of a handle with an iron-bound end. Often there were thorns on the binding. Intended for delivering crushing blows. Produced in Europe from the 10th to the 14th centuries. Pernach is a mace with steel plates (feathers) welded to the beat. Intended for delivering crushing and piercing blows. Produced in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Shestoper is a type of pernach. Six feathers are welded to the beater. Intended for delivering crushing and piercing blows. Produced in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. A combat flail is a weapon consisting of a handle and a spherical beater, connected to each other by a chain or leather belt. The handle was made of wood, the beater was made of metal. Intended for delivering crushing blows. Used for combat outside the formation. Produced in Europe from the 10th to the 17th centuries. The chain morning star is a type of combat flail. Steel spikes are screwed into the beater. Intended for delivering crushing and piercing blows. Produced in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. A battle ax is a weapon with the lower edge of the wedge curved towards the axe. It differed from the working version in its lighter weight and longer wedge. Intended for application for both chopping and chopping-cutting blows, depending on the shape of the wedge. The butt could have a protrusion of various shapes. Most often a thorn. Could be used with one or two hands, depending on the length of the ax (shaft). The ax itself could have a metal frame; in very rare cases, it was entirely made of metal. The length of the ax was from eighty to one hundred and twenty centimeters. Produced in various versions from the 10th to the 18th centuries. Ax - a variety battle ax with a crescent-shaped wedge. Intended for plastering chopping and cutting blows. As a means of piercing heavy armor, it was inferior to the ax. The ax could be double-sided. Produced in various versions from the 10th to the 17th centuries. Chekan (battle hammer) is a type of battle ax with a beak-shaped wedge and a hammer-shaped butt. Most often the wedge had a quadrangular shape. Intended for delivering piercing, piercing and crushing blows. Produced in various versions from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Klevets (combat pick) is a type of hammer with a narrow wedge and a hammer-shaped butt. Most often the wedge had a triangular or round shape. Intended for delivering piercing, piercing and crushing blows. Produced in various versions from the 14th to the 17th centuries.

Medium and long-shafted (hilt from 120 to 600 cm) weapons.

Berdysh is a type of battle ax with a wide, up to eighty centimeters, crescent-shaped wedge. The lower part of the blade was attached through an eye to the shaft. The lower part of the shaft had a narrow and short tip (heel). Intended for delivering chopping and cutting blows. The length of the shaft was from one hundred and forty to one hundred and seventy centimeters. Produced in various versions from the 14th to the 18th centuries. A halberd is a type of battle axe, consisting of an ax with a spear-shaped tip (feather) and a long shaft. The feather had a three or tetrahedral shape. The ax could have a regular shape, the shape of an axe, a hammer, or a claw. The ax had a long spike on the butt, or a hook for pulling the enemy from the saddle. Intended for delivering chopping, cutting, beating and stabbing blows. The length of the shaft was from one hundred and fifty to two meters. The lower part of the shaft had a heel. Produced in various versions from the 14th to the 18th centuries. Guizarma (battle hook) is a type of halberd with a long narrow, slightly curved tip and a flat hook located in the middle of the tip. It was intended for delivering piercing blows with the tip and pulling the rider from the saddle with a hook. The horse's legs were also clipped with this hook. Produced in various versions from the 14th to the 18th centuries. A spear is a weapon consisting of a tip and a shaft. Ancient weapons of all peoples. The tip could have a narrow triangular or quadrangular shape, well suited for stabbing. It could also have a diamond- or leaf-shaped shape, intended primarily for slashing and, to a lesser extent, piercing blows. The length of the shaft was from one hundred twenty to two hundred centimeters. At the lower end of the spear, intended for chopping blows, there was a counterweight, round or oval, or a heel. In combat outside the formation, both ends of the spear were used. A spear intended for piercing blows could also have a heel. It was stuck into the ground to give the weapon greater rigidity when repelling a cavalry attack. Rogatina is a type of spear, consisting of a thick shaft, about two meters long, and a leaf-shaped tip. The hunting variety had a rozhon (crossbar) located below the tip. The combat variety had a shank on the shaft below the tip, preventing it from being cut. Intended for delivering chopping, slashing and piercing blows. The combat variety was produced in Europe from the 10th to the 14th centuries. A pike is a type of spear with a long shaft, up to six meters, and a faceted tip. Intended for stabbing. Used by both cavalry and infantry. Long pikes are the main means of protecting infantry from cavalry. At the lower end of the infantry pike there was a heel. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 12th to the 18th centuries. A glaive is a type of spear consisting of a shaft about two meters long and a falchion-shaped tip. There was a spike on the butt of the tip. Intended for delivering slashing blows with the tip and piercing blows with the spike. At the lower end of the shaft there was a heel or counterweight. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 14th to the 18th centuries. Guza is a type of glaive. The tip had no additional elements. Intended for delivering slashing blows. At the lower end of the shaft there was a heel, a counterweight or a second tip. The variant with two tips was used only for combat outside the formation. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Protazan is a type of spear, consisting of a shaft up to two and a half meters long and a long, wide tip. Below the tip there were ears that acted as a crossbar. Intended for stabbing. At the lower end of the shaft there was a heel. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 16th to the 17th centuries. Sovna is a mixture of a spear and a halberd. It was a weapon consisting of a shaft up to two meters long and a slightly curved long single-edged tip. The tip of which was formed by a smooth bend of the blade and a cut of the butt. Intended for delivering cutting, slashing and piercing blows. At the lower end of the shaft there was a heel or counterweight. Produced in various versions in Eastern Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Lance is a type of spear intended only for cavalry. It was a weapon consisting of a hollow shaft, three and a half to four and a half meters long, a conical shield to protect the hand, a massive pommel (counterweight) on one side of the shaft and a faceted tip on the other. Intended for applying one I prick another blow. After this, the lance broke, leaving a primitive club in the rider’s hand. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries.

Throwing weapons.

Dart is a type of spear designed for throwing. It was a weapon consisting of a shaft, approximately one and a half meters long, and a faceted tip with a weighting agent. Produced in various versions in Europe from ancient times to the 17th century. Throwing ax (francisca) is a type of battle axe. It had a short handle, up to fifty centimeters. The wedge could have a regular shape, a flaring shape towards the blade, and a claw shape. Most often it had a thorn on the butt. Could have had a feather. Produced in various versions in Europe until the 16th century. Crossbow (crossbow) - mechanical bow. It consisted of a stock with a groove for bolts and a trigger mechanism, metal shoulders and a tensioning device. The latter came in three types. The first was a goat's leg worn on a belt. The second is a rack and pinion mechanism. The third is a block tensioning device. From the first to the third, the tension power of the crossbow increased. Spenner is a type of crossbow that fires lead bullets.
Throwing knife - a knife adapted for throwing. The blade has a thin, narrow, double-edged shape with a sharp tip. The handle was usually absent or small size. The knife's tang usually had feathers to stabilize flight. Shields. The round shield is the oldest means of protection. Made from wood and leather. In later times, it began to have a frame around the edge to increase strength and a umbon, a metal disk or hemisphere, to protect the hand. It had a diameter of up to a meter. Evolved in Europe into the Norman shield and rondache. Fist shield (baxter) - round weapon - shield. It was made of wood and iron or only iron. Used only by infantrymen. Most often it had a long spike instead of a umbon. They could attack with a dagger, a short sword or a club. It was held in place by a belt or handle on the inside of the shield. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 12th to the 17th centuries. Rondash is a round shield. It was made of wood and leather, and later of iron. Universal, used by both infantrymen and cavalrymen. It had up to sixty centimeters in diameter. The circumference of the shield could be made in the form of teeth to capture or break the enemy's weapon. Restrained by straps for the arm and an additional strap for the back. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 10th to the 17th centuries. Norman shield (Frankish shield) is a drop-shaped shield, wide, semicircular at the top and pointed, narrow at the bottom. Used by both horsemen and infantry. Depending on the purpose it had different sizes. It was made of wood and covered with leather. It could have a binding and a umbon around the edges. Restrained by a pair of arm straps and an additional back strap. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 10th to the 13th centuries. Evolved into tarch and paveza. Tarch is a triangular shield with convex edges. Used by horsemen. Covered the left shoulder, chest and thigh of a cavalryman. Could have a cutout for a spear. It was made of wood and leather, or wood with iron coating. Gradually appear various shapes Tarcha. Rectangular with straight edges, square, pentagonal, triangular, oval. Shields became smaller and smaller and began to be made entirely of iron. These types of tarch were included in the heraldry of Europe. Restrained by a pair of arm straps and an additional back strap. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 13th to the 16th centuries. Evolved into a chest tarch. The chest tarch is a shield, most often quadrangular in shape, screwed or fastened with straps to the breastplate of a cavalryman's cuirass. Made of iron. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 16th to the 17th centuries. Paveza (infantry shield) - a shield of a quadrangular shape, slightly tapering towards the bottom. The corners are rounded. A vertical groove could run in the center from bottom to top, made to increase the rigidity of the shield. Made from wood covered with leather. Restrained by a pair of arm straps and an additional back strap. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 13th to the 17th centuries. Large paveza (large shield, standing shield) - a quadrangular shield. In the center, from bottom to top, there was a vertical groove, which ended at the upper end with a protrusion protruding upward. This protrusion, when the shield was lowered to the ground, protected the infantryman’s face and did not interfere with visibility. Made from wood covered with leather. Restrained by straps for the arms and additional straps for the back. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Assault shield (tower shield) is a quadrangular shield. A type of large shield. It was made of wood and leather with iron plates. The height of the shield could exceed the height of an infantryman. The shield had a viewing slot and iron spikes on the lower edge that stuck into the ground. The shield was used mainly during the siege of fortresses and castles. Restrained by straps for the arms and additional straps for the back. Produced in various versions in Europe from the 14th to the 17th centuries. P.S. This review presents, in a very brief form, only the main directions of development of defense and means of attack in Europe. A separate book is needed to describe transitional, mixed types and all kinds of exclusive options. Note author. Metals and means of production. Bulat is a high-carbon crucible steel (about 1.3-2%) without impurities. It is formed during the natural crystallization of steel obtained by combining iron with carbon. The main difficulty in production is the selection of the starting material and the cooling method, which should provide the necessary metal structure. The process takes a long time and is not suitable for industrial production. Metal consumption reached eighty percent. Anosov P.P. in the 19th century he managed to obtain cast damask steel, but also noted the low-tech nature of this process. If the resulting ingot is processed incorrectly, or the specified temperature regime and the forging mode required for each individual product, damask steel can become high-carbon steel, to which it is close in its chemical composition. Bulat differs from steel with the same composition only in its crystal lattice. Damask steel combined such properties as malleability, flexibility, elasticity, hardness, strength, the ability to sharpen as sharply as possible and the ability to hold it for a long time. In Europe, damask steel was known as Damascus steel. Damascus steel is a multi-layer welded steel. It was produced by forging a bundle of iron wire with different carbon content into one piece. In Japan, a similar effect was achieved by repeatedly forging bent steel strips. As a result, the steel acquired properties such as hardness and ductility at the same time, but in general it was inferior to damask steel. In Damascus, blacksmiths produced damask weapons from ingots (wuz), which were delivered from India. Damascus steel can be called Damascus steel, but it is incorrect to call Damascus steel Damascus steel. The most accurate name for the best examples of Damascus steel is welded (artificial) damask steel. Kritsa is a lump of substance consisting of slag with an admixture of reduced iron. Produced by heat treatment iron ore mixed with charcoal in the oven. During forging, iron was knocked out of the kritsa, which was later used for its intended purpose. Steel was obtained by carburizing iron. Alloying (alloy steel) - the introduction of additional elements into the melt or charge to improve the physical, chemical, strength and technological properties of steel. This type of steel is called alloy steel. Conversion steel is steel produced in Europe since the 16th century. Iron at the stage of obtaining from ore due to high temperature and intensive carburization it became cast iron, the melt of which was annealed in a forge, getting rid of excess carbon. As a result, steel came out of the forge. Revolutionary technology for its time. Welding is a method of joining soft and flexible iron with hard and brittle steel. Separately, neither steel nor iron were suitable for the role of weapons. The iron could be sharpened to any sharpness, but it quickly became dull. The steel did not sharpen well and broke. The connection of several layers of steel and iron by plastic deformation (there was no other method in the Middle Ages) was called welded. The only way to achieve a combination of good sharpness, long-term retention and hardness of a simple welded product (an iron plate and two steel plates) was to harden it after sharpening. Sharpening was possible only once. After the blade became dull or jagged, the product had to be reforged. A crucible is a heat-resistant container for melting, firing, and so on, metals. Usually has a cylindrical (pot-shaped) shape. Kharalug - in Rus', a steel manufacturing technology was known, intermediate between the technologies for producing Damascus steel and damask steel. Iron was reduced in a crucible to which alloying elements were added. When ordinary iron and steel were welded from a crucible, clear stripes formed by different layers of metal were visible on the butt and cutting edge of the product. Weapons made from kharalug were comparable in their characteristics to weapons made from damask steel. Cold forging is metal processing without preheating. When using this technology, the strength of the metal increases and its ductility decreases. Steel carburization is the process of saturating low-carbon steel with carbon. Cementite is a compound of iron and carbon (iron carbide) released when a workpiece is cooled or heated. During the production of damask steel, the layers of cementite were not dissolved in the total volume, but were enveloped in soft iron. Therefore, with a high content of carbon, which gives hardness, damask steel retained high viscosity, flexibility and elasticity, which ordinary steel lacks. P.S. Explanation at a glance for a general understanding of the terms. We ask specialists not to swear. Note Author.