How to make lamellar armor with your own hands. A

History of Armor laminar armor Laminar armor (from Latin Laminae - layer) is an armor consisting of strips of protective material (running horizontally relative to the body). The best-known examples of these types of armor are the segmentata lorica, and inexpensive variants of samurai armor (expensive variants have always been lamellar, or a combination of lamellar armor and cuirass). Less well-known examples of laminar armor existed in Asia from Iran to Mongolia, including Central Asia, but in the 16th century laminar and lamellar armor were supplanted by ring-plate armor in the Middle East and Central Asia, remaining mainly only in Mongolia. Lornca Segmentata Pre-samurai armor Tanko It is the oldest Japanese iron armor, in shape it was a laminar robe with a tight-fitting cuirass of iron stripes, reproducing the shape of an earlier leather armor, with a plate necklace, with flexible elbow-length shoulder pads, and a long bell-shaped skirt, unlike the skirts of later armor, it was only suitable for foot combat. Armor was worn with tubular bracers with lamellar half-mittens, partially covering the hand, and a helmet with a small crest protruding forward like a beak, and a laminar buttplate of a characteristic Japanese semicircle shape. Leggings were missing. It is worth noting that, except for the unsuitability for equestrian combat, the armor was very perfect and, except for the lack of leggings, due to the rigidity of the structure, it provided much better protection in foot hand-to-hand combat than later kozan-do. After the advent of the Japanese cavalry, initially protected by lamellar armor imported from China, and the tanko was completely replaced by the Japanese lamellar armor known as keiko (later evolving into O-yoroi armor). Classic samurai armor - kozan-do Keiko Lamellar armor in the shape of a tanko, with a shorter skirt with slits, created after the introduction of horses in Japan and equestrian combat from the continent. Tanko turned out to be completely unsuitable for equestrian combat, and imported lamellars from Korea and China were not enough for all riders. Since the "keiko, in contrast to the perfectly fitted tanko, was dimensionless, then the bracers were often made dimensionless - tire construction. The crest-beak on the helmet disappeared and gave way to a visor. With the growing popularity of equestrian combat, laminar tanko were completely replaced by lamellar keiko , since the main customers of tanko switched to horse fighting and now wore keiko, and those who fought on foot could not afford to order tanko. Oh .. oh-heroes I Literally "big armor" - the most classic armor, worn in later times as a sign of prestige, which had a lamellar design. It was considered the highest glamor to wear genuine family armor, preserved from the genpei era and participating in some famous battle of this era, such legendary armor in working order was fabulously expensive. A characteristic feature of this armor was the huge o-sode shoulder pads, which in later eras turned into an analogue of general epaulettes and were worn with armor of other designs as a symbol of the high status of their wearer. This armor was intended primarily for equestrian combat as an equestrian archer, when shooting from the bow, the shoulder pads slid back, not interfering with shooting, and when lowering the arms, they slid back, covering the arms, in addition, the chest of the armor was covered with a lacquered leather plate, designed so that the bowstring did not cling to the weaving. characteristic feature This lamellar had an extremely rigid weaving of the plates - so rigid that if non-Japanese lamellars were characterized by flexibility, then the o-yoroi was characterized by a lack of flexibility, and therefore the protection of the body was clearly divided into four inflexible parts - a bib, a back and two side parts , one of which (on the right side) was separate. The helmets were characterized by the presence of special lapels on the back of the head (which went in a semicircle and covered not only the back of the head), designed to protect the face from arrows from the side. An integral attribute of the o-yoroi was a special cape - horo, attached to the helmet and on the lower back, designed to reduce the momentum of arrows fired at the back. The cape fluttered like a sail, and the arrows, hitting it, reached the main armor weakened. Literally "around the body" - lamellar armor, which, unlike tkya. And from o-yoroi, it is intended for foot combat and self-dressing (without the help of servants), since it was originally worn by servants who accompanied mounted bushi to battle on foot. But after the advent of foot bushi, he began to wear them too. The distinguishing features of the do-maru included less rigid weaving, fastening on the right side (without an additional separate part on the right side), minimal shoulder pads - gyoyo, simpler lammellar weaving and a skirt that was comfortable for running with more sections. At the same time, bushi wearing do-maru, wanting to emphasize their status, put on large shoulder pads - o-sode (from the o-yoroi armor), and minimal shoulder pads - gyyo were shifted so that they covered the armpits in front. A hybrid of o-yoroi and do-maru, with large shoulder pads, lacquered leather chest plate and other o-yoroi paraphernalia, but more practical for foot combat. Haramaki Maru-do-yoroi Literally "winding around the stomach" - an improved do-maru designed for samurai, the main constructive difference of which from do-maru was that it was fastened on the back, and the fastening site was protected from above by an additional lamellar section called coward's plate - se-ita. In addition to large shoulder pads - o-sode, improved shoulder pads designed for foot combat - tsubo-sode and hiro-sode, were also worn from the haramaki, not as pompous as o-sode, but more practical and did not slip down and back, opening the shoulder when raising your hand up. Transitional armor - Mogami-do A laminar analogue of do-maru or haramaki (respectively mogami-do-maru and mogami-haramaki), in the early versions consisting of richly perforated strips through which abundant lacing passed, diligently imitating real small plates, for a more convincing imitation of the plate had teeth and a relief imitating small plates superimposed on each other. Despite the greater rigidity of the design compared to lamellas, Mogami-do armor was nevertheless considered by contemporaries only as a cheap fake. With the advent of more advanced maru-do, mogami-do ceased to imitate lamellar (hide its laminar nature), and continued to be made until the advent of okegawa-do, but already as a clear laminar armor. Samurai armor of the Sengoku era - tosei-gusoku Maru-do A laminar analog of the do-maru of an improved design, with a more optimal distribution of the weight of the armor, which now did not put pressure on the shoulders, but lay partially on the hips, the protection of the upper chest and armpits was also improved and the number of laminar rows has been increased. A brigantine collar also appeared, the expanded edges of which served as small additional (internal) shoulder pads. As a rule, maru-do were richly perforated and, like mogami-do, imitated lamellar, from which they had the full name kirutsuke-kozane-maru-do - literally maru-do from fake small plates. Hon-kozane-maru-do Literally, maru-do made from real small plates - a lamellar analogue of maru-do made from real pretentious small plates (differing from the original do-maru in an improved design, like maru-do), created for those who contemptuously treated laminar armor as cheap, considering it lower dignity wear them. Two opposite points of view on the existence of hon-kozane-maru-do: - real small plates were better sewn than laminar, since a similar composite structure of composite plates (metal pasted over with leather and varnished) located with multiple overlaps and abundantly stitched with silk the cord was very viscous and was the best protection against arrows - extreme conservatism and pretentious aesthetics served as the reason for the existence of such an anachronism designed for those who wanted real lamellar but couldn't afford real hon-kozane-maru-do. Okegawa-do Literally "barrel cuirass" - armor with a cuirass of riveted bands, sometimes with decorative rivets (which could have been in the form of a coat of arms - mine). The stripes could be either horizontal - yokohagi-okegawa-do, or vertical - tatehagi-okegawa-do. Yukinoshita-do By the name of the creator - Yukinoshita Denshichiro Hisaie (or sendai-do - at the place of production), in fact, the Japanese version of the mirror armor, consisting of five parts: front, back and three side (on the right side, two plates were located with an overlap). Such a five-piece design - gomai-do, was not unique, but it was the version of the master Yukinoshita (with external hinges and solid plates) that turned out to be the most successful and durable. Uname-toji-do (Munemenui-do) A variation of okegawa-do with horizontal stripes perforated along the edges, in order to decorate with a cord braided with horizontal stitching. Dangae-do Armor in a mixed style, such as hishi nui-do chest and maru-do belly (in the kiritsuke-kozane-maru-do style imitating lamellar). Literally, “Buddha’s chest” is an armor with a one-piece cuirass, the cuirass could be either really solid or actually consisting of strips (okegawa-do), the joints of which are carefully polished. Uchidashi-do After the end of the internecine wars of Sengoku, a variety called uchidashi-do became widespread and differed from the usual smooth hotoke-d by abundant decorations from chasing and engraving (during the Sengoku wars, such decorations were considered too dangerous for the owner, since the decorations could catch on the point of a weapon, which in the case of smooth armor would simply slip off it). Nio-do Katahada-nugi-do Literally "Nio's chest" - armor with a cuirass in the form of a naked torso of Buddhist guards - nio, unlike the muscular cuirasses of Greece and Rome, muscularity was optional: the torso was often depicted on the verge of exhaustion, and sometimes, on the contrary, covered layers of fat. Katahada-nugi-do Literally "bare-shoulder cuirass" - a kind of nio-do with a cuirass in the form of a naked torso with a cassock thrown over one shoulder. Yukinoshita-do (Sendai-do) By the name of the creator - Yukinoshita Denshichiro Hisaie (or sendai-do - at the place of production), in fact, the Japanese version of the mirror armor, consisting of five parts: front, back and three side (two plates were located on the right side with overlap). Such a five-piece design - gomai-do, was not unique, but it was the version of the master Yukinoshita (with external hinges and solid plates) that turned out to be the most successful and durable. Tatami-do Literally "folding armor" - cheap folding armor (sometimes with a folding helmet) made of Japanese brigantine, like a Middle Eastern calantar, but for the poor. The cheapest variants of tatami-do were made from Japanese chain mail. Ninja also wore mail under their outer clothing when they did not need stealth.

white armor- armor produced in Europe from the end of the XIV to the beginning of the XV century. After the revival of the art of making cuirasses, they were replaced by plate-brigantine armor. Later evolved into Milanese and Castaing Brutus. It was called white to distinguish it from coracine. Later, armor that was not covered with paint and not blued began to be called this. It had less flexibility and degree of freedom, but greater reliability than the large-plate brigantine. Used with the Grand Bascinet helmet and plate gauntlets. A characteristic feature was a plate skirt without thigh guards. Not to be confused with legguards. Note. author.

Castaing brut- armor produced in the north of Europe from the beginning to the middle of the 15th century. The forerunner of Gothic armor. Used with Grand Bascinet helmet and plate gloves. Characteristic features were an angular silhouette and a very long skirt.

Milanese armor- armor produced in central and southern Europe from the beginning of the 15th to the middle of the 16th. The concept of the armor was based on simplicity, reliability and protection. It was often used together with an armet type helmet, additional protection in the form of a rondel, bouvier, shoulder pads, browband, and so on. Plate gauntlets and sabatons were an obligatory element of the armor. The characteristic features of the armor were smooth, rounded shapes, the presence a large number belts fastening the armor and an enlarged left elbow pad.

Gothic armor- armor produced in the north of Europe from the middle of the 15th to the beginning of the 16th century. It was distinguished by great flexibility and freedom of movement provided to the owner of the armor. These properties of the armor were achieved by reducing the level of reliability and protection. As a rule, it had strong corrugation and corrugation, which made it possible to increase strength and reduce the weight of armor. Often used in conjunction with a sallet-type helmet, bouvier, steel gloves and semi-gloves. Characteristic features of the armor were angles and sharp lines, minimal additional protection. Often no additional booking was used at all. The armor set also included chain mail to protect the joints and exposed areas of the body.

Maximilian armor- armor produced in the north of Europe since the beginning of the 16th century. Designed by German gunsmiths inspired by the work of Italian craftsmen. Combines Italian rounded with German angular style. A mixture of styles made it possible to create an armor that has an external resemblance to the Milanese armor, but has not lost characteristic features gothic. The armor was more durable than the Milanese, but had a lesser degree of freedom and flexibility than the Gothic. A distinctive feature of the Maximilian armor, in addition to corrugation and corrugation, were stiffening ribs created by bending the edges of steel plates outward and wrapping them into the narrowest possible tube. It was used with helmets such as armet and burgignot, gauntlets with separate thumb protection. A characteristic feature of the armor was the increased elements of standard protection, which allowed those who wished to refuse additional armor. For example, changing the size of the shoulder pad, in the direction of increasing the chest plate, made it possible to abandon the rondel.

Brigantine- armor made of steel plates made on a leather or fabric basis with plates overlapping each other's edges, produced in Europe from the 13th to the 17th centuries. When using a brigantine with plate protection of the limbs, plate-brigantine armor was obtained. There was also chain mail brigantine, tire brigantine and full brigantine armor. There were three main types of brigantines. Classic brigantine It was used mainly from the 13th to the middle of the 14th century. After it began to be used mainly by militias and mercenaries. Made from small plates. Often produced in a dimensionless (baggy) version. The edges of the brigantine were connected by straps on the back and shoulders. The back was protected by side wings. Could have had a chain skirt. Large plate brigantine(koratsina) was used by knights from the beginning of the XIV to the beginning of the XV century. Made exactly to fit. Coracina had a detachable breastplate and separate plates protecting the back. Fastened with straps on the chest and shoulders. She also had a laminar skirt design. Sometimes the back segments of the skirt were missing for greater seating comfort. Later copies of the coracina consisted of two chest plates, two plates protecting the stomach, four side and two dorsal plates. With the advent of the cuirass, the coracine disappeared due to its high cost. Brigantine with plastron been used since the middle of the 14th century. It was made by riveting a forged breastplate (plastron) to the classic brigantine. Fastened with straps at the back.

Bakhterets- ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Subsequently, its production spread throughout the East, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. It is made of vertically overlapped chain mail, horizontally arranged steel plates. The overlap of the plates was at least double. It can be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or on the chest. Provides very good protection and complete freedom of movement. It consists of several hundred (up to one and a half thousand) small plates.

Yushman- ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Differs from Bakhterets in larger plates and less overlap between them. It can be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or on the chest. Provides less protection than bakhterets and less freedom of movement. Consists of about a hundred large plates.

Kolontar- ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 13th to the 17th centuries. It is made of steel plates woven together without overlap. Sleeves covered with plates does not have. The column is made on a chain mail basis. It can be a vest or jacket with chain mail sleeves and a hem. Fastened with straps on the sides. Provides good protection and freedom of movement.

Lamellar armor- a group of armor produced from the 11th to the 14th centuries in the east of Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel plates woven together with wire or a leather cord. First, horizontal stripes are typed, and then they are fastened together with partial overlap. Armor can be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or on the chest. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Was superseded by laminar armor. Lamellar armor is often confused with ring-plate armor. Note. author.

laminar armor- a group of armor, the first samples of which were made in the Roman Empire. Later they were produced from the 12th to the 15th centuries in the east of Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel strips woven together with wire or leather cord. The production technology is the same with lamellar armor. First, strips of the required length were forged, and then they were fastened together. Subsequently, the plates began to be riveted to leather straps running inside the armor. The armor is a vest to which additional elements are attached. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or on the chest. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Due to greater rigidity, reliability of plate fastening and lower manufacturing cost, lamellar armor replaced lamellar armor, but individual moving elements (shoulder pads, elbow pads, etc.) of a lamellar design continued to be encountered. Laminar armor was supplanted by ring-plate armor.

Ringed armor- a group of armor produced from the 5th century BC to the 19th century in Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from interwoven steel rings. Weaving rings can be divided into "4in1" - single, "6in1" - one and a half, "8in1" - double. Armor can be a vest, jacket, overalls or robe. The ring net can be a separate means of protection used in combination with others. For example, barmitsa. The armor can be fastened with straps on the sides, chest or back. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Mandatory use only with underarmor.

underarmor- the simplest armor-clothes (quilted jacket, vest, dressing gown, etc.) having an internal padding of cotton, hemp or linen. The type of armor under which it was worn determined the size and thickness of the underarmor.

Helmets

Round helmet- an open helmet has been produced since ancient greece. It was made of leather and metal, or entirely of metal. He could have a nosepiece, mask, earmuffs, butt pad, aventail in various combinations. In Europe it evolved into a chapel, a bascinet and a pot helmet.

Mail Hood- head protection produced in Europe since the 5th century. Can be used on its own or with a helmet.

Pot helmet- a closed helmet produced in Europe since the beginning of the 13th century. Cylindrical or pot-shaped in shape. A later modification had a pointed top and was called a sugar head. Tournament modification - toad head. The helmet had two slits on the front. Ventilation holes could be drilled below. The helmet was worn over a chain mail hood and a thick hat (scull cap). It rested on the shoulders of the wearer, which, together with the hat, protected from concussion when hit on the head. He had poor visibility and could not be rigidly fixed relative to his head. After a spear strike, it was often removed from the head. From the end of the 14th century, it was used only in tournaments.

Capelina (chapel)- a group of helmets produced in Europe from the beginning of the XIII to the XVII century. It had a cylindrical or spheroconical shape. He replaced the round helmet as a head protection for infantrymen and cavalrymen. It was distinguished by wide brim, partially covering the shoulders. There was no face protection. Could have had a barmitsa. The chapel was attached to the head with a chin strap. Later modifications looked like a salad.

Bascinet- an open helmet produced in Europe from the beginning of the 13th to the 16th century. Could be used on its own and as head protection for knights instead of the mail hood worn under the pot helmet. Face protection was limited to a nasal and aventail. The bascinet was attached to the head with a chin strap. Later modifications had a very wide detachable nosepiece. In the 14th century, the nose guard evolved into a cone-shaped dog muzzle extended forward. The visor was attached in two ways. In the first method, the visor was attached to the frontal part of the bascinet with one hinge and a belt behind the back of the helmet. This method allowed to recline or unfasten the visor. In this case, it could be completely removed and not interfere with putting on a pot helmet. The second way was traditional. The visor was attached to the temporal parts of the helmet. The helmet later evolved into the grand bascinet.

Grand Bascinet- a closed helmet produced in Europe since the middle of the XIV century. Unlike the bascinet, it had an occipital plate covering the lower part of the neck and a non-removable visor. The bouvigère that appeared (on the chin) made up a single set of protection with the helmet, covered the chin, throat, collarbones and was attached to the helmet and cuirass on pins. The grand bascinet leaned on his shoulders and made it impossible to turn his head. It was attached to the dorsal and, through the bouvier, to the chest part of the cuirass. In protective properties, the grand bascinet was slightly inferior to the pot helmet, but due to its versatility, it forced it out of the battlefield and pressed it out in tournaments. Evolved into armet.

Armet- a closed helmet produced in central and southern Europe from the beginning of the 15th to the end of the 16th century. Unlike the grand bascinet, it had a bouvier that was integral with the rest of the helmet. The bouvigère consisted of two opening front halves. In the closed position, they were fixed with a pin on the chin. Later, the bouvigère became one and joined the temporal places of the helmet, which allowed it to be thrown back like a visor. In this version, the lower part of the bouvier was fastened with a belt with a rondel to the back of the helmet. Almost always, the armet leaned on the shoulders and did not allow turning the head. The helmet could have an aventail and not be attached to the cuirass.

Salad- a group of helmets produced in the north of Europe from the end of the 14th to the middle of the 16th century. They are descended from the bascinet and are helmets various shapes, united by the presence of a long, located at an acute angle to the neck, nape and, not always, however, a longitudinal stiffener. Most salads do not have lower face protection. The upper part is protected by a fixed plate with a narrow eye slit or a short visor. This requires the use of a bouvier. A set of armor, consisting of Gothic armor, sallet without lower jaw protection and bouvier, were very popular in the German states. The sallet allows you to turn and tilt your head in any direction, and the butt pad and bouvier form a good protection for the neck and lower face. Salad did not interfere with the flow of air at all. The combat helmet, as it was called in Germany, was not used in tournaments. In battle, after a spear strike, the sallet moved to the back of the head and completely opened its eyes. In the middle of the 15th century, the development of blacksmithing made it possible to equip the sallet with two visors. The upper one covered the face from the eyebrows to the tip of the nose, the lower one from the nose to the throat. In the 16th century, lettuce evolved into bourguignot. The German World War II helmet and the modern cyclist's helmet are direct descendants of the Salad. I like German gunsmiths, and if you remember what happened then in this region, you understand that they could not make ceremonial and tournament armor. Note. author.

barbute- (Venetian sallet) open helmet, produced in the south of Europe from the 15th to the middle of the 16th century. It was a creatively redesigned version of the helmet popular in ancient times. The combat helmet covered the entire head to the shoulders, except for the Y-shaped or T-shaped cutout in the front. Did not interfere with vision, breathing and head movement. Could be equipped with a aventail.

Bourguignot- a closed helmet produced in Europe since the middle of the 16th century. It was a mixture of lettuce and barbut with elements of armet. It was characterized by a round body, tightly fitting the skull, adjacent to the back of the head and trapezius muscles of the back by the back of the head. Provided good visibility, head mobility and normal air flow. Barbut allowed the bouvier to be completely abandoned. Within half a century, in connection with the development of military art, the bourguignot became an open helmet. The visor evolved into a visor, the stiffening rib became a crest, the side parts of the helmet (cheek pads and earpieces) began to be hinged.

In which individual scales of protection are connected together, forming a single element of armor. The best-known examples of these types of armor are the , and inexpensive versions of samurai armor (expensive options have always been lamellar, or a combination of lamellar armor and). Less well-known examples of laminar armor existed in Asia from Iran to Mongolia, including Central Asia, but in the 16th century laminar and lamellar armor were supplanted by ring-plate armor in the Middle East and Central Asia, remaining mainly only in Mongolia.

Medieval laminar armor

Dosamurai armor

The earliest Japanese armor, known as tanko, was laminar in design, and was intended only for foot combat (because it had tonnels not intended for riding). Another distinguishing feature was the use of a tanko with a hand-held shield. After the appearance of the Japanese cavalry, originally protected by lamellar armor imported from China, the tanko was completely replaced by the Japanese lamellar armor known as keiko (later evolving into o-yoroi armor).

Samurai armor

At the beginning of the Sengoku Period, Japanese armor usually had two options - expensive and cheaper. Both versions were of the same construction, the difference being that the expensive versions were made from "true lamellar plates" (known as hon-ko-zane for narrow plates, and hon-iyo-zane for wider plates), while the cheaper version was made from "fake lamellar plates" (known as kiritsuke-ko-zane or kiritsuke-iyo-zane, briefly kiritsuke-zane). "Fake" lamellar plates were made from long, inseparable, perforated and laced protective plates, imitating "real" lamellar plates, assembled on a cord of small protective plates (since a typical lamellar consisted of horizontal rows of small plates assembled into strips). Thus, the strips of "fake lamellar plates" were very hard, while the stripes of "real lamellar plates" consisted of two or three words of smaller plates. "Fake lamellar plates" provided better protection against crushing blows, while "true lamellar plates" provided better protection against arrows and slashing blows, with swords and bows in Japan being much more common than maces.

In order to better imitate "fake lamellar plates" were often heavily perforated, but usually stiffeners were made on them to imitate the corners of "real lamellar plates". As for other design details, the armor from "real lamellar plates" and from "fake lamellar plates" had the same structure (in fact, they were laminar and lamellar armor).

As the civil war became more destructive, "fake lamellar armor" became less and less popular, while "real lamellar armor" became even more expensive, making imitation of lamellar armor laminar optional, causing laminar strips instead connecting with a cord using the “full tying” technique ( kebiki-odoshi) were often connected by technique sugake-odoshi.

After almost a hundred years of continuous civil war the laminar cuirass evolved into the okigawa-wu cuirass, consisting of horizontal protective stripes connected not by cords, but by rivets (often with kamon) or staples imitating cords. Rivets and staples soon became optional, as metal strips of armor could simply be forged together by forge welding. Such cuirasses (which were no longer truly laminar) were often worn with oversized cuirasses, known as o-sodes, to make the armor look like the very prestigious o-yoroi armor (the old-fashioned o-yoroi was valued not for its defensive qualities, but for -for the fact that such armor served as proof of the noble origin of the wearer, thus, even a newly made o-yoroi was highly valued as dress armor).

Middle Eastern and Central Asian lamellar armor

According to Leonid Bobrov, until the end of the 15th century, the most popular armor for this region, including Central Asia and Iran, were lamellar armor, and laminar armor. However, in Iran, since the 15th century, lamellar and laminar armor was used mainly only in the south, while at the same time plate and ring armor was common in the north.

Initially (as, for example, in Japan) for centuries, lamellar armor was simply cheaper than lamellar armor, but (unlike Japan) they did not try to visually imitate lamellar armor in the production of laminar. Laminar armor was made from horizontal strips of protective material, fastened in a way similar to lamellar armor, but without additional weaving and without imitation of individual plates of lamellar armor. And like lamellar armor, these cords could be cut during the battle, and simply wear out and tear from time to time, with insufficient armor maintenance.

Later, at the beginning of the 15th century, the design of laminar armor changed significantly, and instead of fastening individual plates with cords on new laminar armor, individual plates were riveted to wide belts (like segmentata lorica). As a result, laminar armor became more reliable than lamellar armor - hidden belts could not be cut without breaking through the armor, it did not require constant repair, and was much more durable and reliable than lamellar laced. Thus, laminar armor became more popular than lamellar armor, and they were almost completely replaced by the end of the 15th century. True lamellar armor became very rare, however various combinations of laminar and lamellar armor were very popular. The reason for this is that lamellar armor was much more reliable than lamellar armor, but laminar armor was not flexible enough, while lamellar armor was very flexible. Laminar cuirasses could be worn with lamellar pauldrons and tassets (with separate bracers and helmets). Less common was the opposite combination of lamellar cuirass with laminar pauldrons and tassets. Both combinations could be supplemented with a lamellar or laminar codpiece and, or reinforced with mirror plates.

At the end of the 15th century, when laminar armor became more popular than lamellar armor, both of these types of armor began to be replaced by ringed plate armor. Initially, only the gaiters were ring-plate, but by the beginning of the 16th century, the ring-mail gaiters and pauldrons completely replaced the laminar and lamellar ones, because. they provided better body coverage. Thus, the typical laminar armor of this period was a laminar cuirass that could be worn over a sleeved brigandine, with the addition of ring-plate cuisses (helmet, bracers and greaves are not mentioned in this case, as they were common for this region). The sleeves of such a brigand worked as shoulder pads, and if the brigand was long enough, then its floors served as tassets. Another option was to wear such a laminar cuirass without a brigandine, but with ring-plate pauldrons and cuisses. Both variations of laminar armor could be reinforced with a mirror (even if laminar armor was sufficient to protect against melee weapons, a metal mirror was worn as protection from the evil eye). Finally, by the end of the 16th century, laminar and lamellar armor had practically disappeared in the regions of the Middle East and Central Asia.

Theory of Leonid Bobrov

According to Bobrov's theory, ring-plate armor completely replaced laminar and lamellar armor as a result of the fact that Mongol invasion to Islamic countries changed their perception by society, which was reflected in the perception of Islamic armor. Laminar and lamellar armor complemented the image of the "pagans" and "Mongols", especially when they were made in the Mongol style, while ringed and plate armor was associated with the "orthodox" image. In Islamic miniatures of that period, it was typical to depict enemies (whether they were pagans or Muslims) in lamellar and laminar armor, while “own” warriors were depicted in chain mail.

Laminar armor of the natives of Alaska and Siberia

The armor of the Chukchi and the Eskimos had a very similar design, the difference was that the Chukchi armor had only one huge shoulder pad, expanding to the waist, used as a shield, and more like a wing than a Japanese o-sode, while the Eskimo the armor had two such pauldrons-wings. Both the armor of the Chukchi and the armor of the Eskimos could be both laminar and lamellar, unlike other regions where lamellar and laminar armor usually had different designs.

Classic lamellar armor was made from hard materials(originally made of natural materials such as bone, fangs, whalebone, and sometimes even wood, since arrowheads were originally made of bone or stone), in the form of a short cuirass, or even consisting of a single breastplate. Laminar armor, on the other hand, was usually made of reinforced seal skin and was knee-length or even longer. However, later lamellar armor was made of metal (iron, steel, or bronze) and could reach the length of laminar armor. Typically, laminar and lamellar armor was worn with a high collar (protecting the throat and head) combined with one or two laminar pauldrons (used more as a shield than a pauldron). This collar and shoulder pads were made mainly of leather and wood.

Thus, at least one part of the armor (shoulders) was laminar. But sometimes the pauldron was relatively short, and instead of a laminar construction of several wooden planks, it had only one large plank, and the rest of the arm was protected by a splint or lamellar vambrace. In addition to the optional bracers, the armor could have a lamellar helmet, and splint or lamellar leggings.

Lamellar armor is considered one of the most effective types ancient armor. The first mention of it refers to biblical times. It is known that this armor surpassed armor in its effectiveness. She took second place after chain mail, which gradually began to lose ground. The lamellar armor completely replaced it and became widely used by nomads, Byzantine soldiers, Chukchi, Koryaks and Germanic tribes.

Name history

The “lamellar” armor got its name due to a peculiar design consisting of many metal plates (Latin lamella - “plate”, “scale”). These steel elements are interconnected with a cord. Lamellar armor in each state had its own distinctive features. But the principle of connecting the plates with a cord was common to the device of all ancient armor.

Bronze armor

In Palestine, Egypt and Mesopotamia, bronze was used to make lamellas. This metal is widely used in the east and in the center of Asia. Here, warriors were equipped with lamellar armor until the nineteenth century.

What was the armor in ancient Rus'?

Until the middle of the twentieth century, among scientists who studied ancient Russian weapons, there was an opinion that our ancestors used only chain mail. This statement remained unchanged for a long time, despite the fact that lamellar armor was depicted on frescoes, icons, stone carvings and miniatures. Plank armor was considered conditional, and any mention of it was ignored.

Archaeological work 1948-1958

After the end of the Great Patriotic War Soviet archaeologists discovered over 500 burnt lamellar plates on the territory of Novgorod. The find gives grounds to assert that lamellar armor was also widely used by the ancient Russians.

Rus. Mongol invasion years

As a result of archaeological excavations on the territory of Gomel, scientists discovered the largest workshop for the manufacture of armor. It was burned by the Mongols in 1239. Under the rubble, archaeologists found swords, sabers and over twenty types of ready-made lamellar plates. In a separate room, defective flake products and blanks were found: they did not have holes and bends, and the edges of the plates contained burrs. The fact of finding a long awl, file, grinding and grinding wheels at first prompted scientists to think that it was here that lamellar armor was made, assembled and adjusted. Making armor, meanwhile, is only possible with a forge. But this equipment was not found either in the workshop or nearby. The researchers came to the conclusion that an ancient armory, the very same production process for the manufacture of armor was carried out elsewhere.

What is lamellar armor?

By connecting small metal plates with laces, the ribbons that make up the lamellar armor are assembled. The photo below shows the features of the combination of steel flakes in the product.

Assembly work should take place in such a way that each plate overlaps the adjacent one with one of its edges. After conducting research on the reconstructed armor different countries scientists came to the conclusion that the plates that made up the lamellar armor of Byzantium did not overlap, but fit snugly against each other and were attached to the skin. The ribbons were tied together first horizontally and then vertically. Forging metal plates was a laborious task. The very process of assembling the armor was not particularly difficult.

Description

The weight of armor made of 1.5 mm thick plates ranged from 14 to 16 kg. Lamellar armor with overlaid plates surpassed chain mail in efficiency. The cuirass, created according to the lamellar pattern, is able to reliably protect against piercing weapons and arrows. The weight of this product does not exceed five kilograms. The impact force of the opponent's weapon is dissipated on the surface of the armor, without causing any harm to the warrior dressed in armor.

Mounting methods

In order to prevent damage to the armor, the plates in it were tied with two special cords so that their length on the back was negligible. If one cord broke, the steel elements in the armor were held by the second. This made it possible for the warrior, if necessary, to independently replace the damaged plates. This method of fastening was the main, but not the only one. Metal wire or rivets could also be used. Such structures were distinguished by high strength. The disadvantage of the second method is the low mobility of the armor.

At first, belts were used to connect steel plates. Over time, this practice was discontinued. This was due to the fact that with chopping blows of the sword, lamellar armor was often damaged. The armor, which used rivets and wire, was able to withstand blows. various types weapons.

Form

The components of the armor are rectangular steel products with paired holes evenly distributed over the entire surface. Some plates in it contain bulges. They are necessary in order to better reflect or weaken the blows of arrows, spears and other weapons.

Where is plate armor found?

When reproducing historical events of the Middle Ages in feature films, heroes often use lamellar armor. Skyrim is one of the most popular computer games, where a lot of attention is also paid to the topic of plate armor. According to the terms, these armors are worn by mercenaries, marauders and bandit leaders. According to the game, this heavy armor becomes available after passing the eighteenth level, when the hero needs a more serious level of protection. It is able to provide an improved steel plate armor, which in its characteristics significantly exceeds the usual set of steel.

How to make lamellar armor?

There are two ways to become the owner of this heavy armor:

• Use the services of workshops engaged in the manufacture of such armor.
• Get the necessary drawings, diagrams and materials, and then start making lamellar armor with your own hands. You can carry out work with reference to any historical event. Or just make plate armor according to your favorite pattern.

What will be needed for work?

• Steel plates. They are the most important element in armor and must necessarily have a form corresponding to the assembly scheme. The thickness of the hardened plates should not exceed 1 mm. Lamellar armor made of convex plates, which, unlike flat ones, are expensive, will look much more effective. Given the size of the human body, it can be assumed that at least 350-400 plates of 3x9 mm in size will be needed for armor.
• Leather belts. They are necessary for binding metal plates together. The optimal thickness of the belts should be 2 mm. Power Users recommend not to purchase ready-made belts. It is better to get sheets of leather of the required thickness, and cut the belts yourself. This will allow you to correctly calculate the required length of the cords. It is recommended to cut the straps with a width of 0.5 cm. They are ideal for holes with a diameter of 0.3 cm. You will need 80 m of cord to work. For the manufacture of belts, you can use or silk cord. The strips must be cut lengthwise so that they can hardly pass through the holes in the plates.

How is the process going?

• Prepared steel plates must have paired holes. They are made with a drill. Each hole is stitched with kapron threads. Before proceeding with the firmware, each plate should be sanded, after which its thickness may decrease slightly. Despite the fact that the reduction in thickness is not particularly noticeable, since the plates overlap each other, their thickness is initially recommended at least 1 mm. When testing lamellar armor with 1 mm plates, four arrows fired from a distance of 20 m with a bow weighing 25 kg did not cause serious damage to the armor.

• Breaking plates. The procedure is necessary for the formation of bulges on products. This work is carried out on a wooden base using a three-hundred-gram hammer with a rounded head.

• Plate painting. Vegetable oil can be used for bluing the product. Before work, the product is subject to thermal exposure. The surfaces of the plates are processed on both sides. It is recommended to cover the inner part with a special varnish for metal, and simply polish the outer part, and if necessary, tin it and cover it with gilding.
• Belt processing. Before passing the cord through the holes in the plates, the pieces of leather from which it is made must be processed. To do this, the cord is drawn several times over a piece of hard wax. If the belt is linen, then it is subject to the waxing procedure. From time to time, it is recommended to wipe the belts with a cloth dampened with vegetable oil. This will protect them from possible drying out. Steel plates are also recommended to be treated with oil. Only a leather belt is recommended for edging.
• It is recommended to use leather straps for work. They are better than silk thread products, as they are able to stretch. This quality is especially important when creating lamellar armor, since the armor, bending around the body, must initially be very tight, stretching after some time.
• At the ends of the plates, ribbons are passed into paired holes, which are subsequently connected. It is necessary to ensure that the binding occurs freely. This will give the steel plates the ability to move over each other like segmented armor.
• To prevent rust from forming on the plates, they must be treated with phosphoric acid. Dull metallic - this is the color that lamellar armor acquires after acid treatment.
• To make homemade lamellar armor, you can use soft galvanized sheet plates.

Handicraft armor, made at home, is mainly intended for beauty, not for protection. It is mainly used as a souvenir.

The history of weapons is inextricably linked with the socio-economic development of society and its political history. Therefore, the study certain types ancient Russian weapons and protective weapons is of no small importance for clarifying many issues in the history of material culture and economics ancient Rus'.

This article is devoted to plate armor - one of the least studied types of protective weapons of ancient Rus' and other peoples. of Eastern Europe early medieval.

When plate armor appeared in Rus', what place did it occupy in the system of protective weapons of the ancient Russian troops? These questions remain completely unanswered to this day. Moreover, an erroneous opinion has been established among historians and archaeologists that plate armor was not used at all in pre-Mongolian Rus' and that chain mail armor (chain mail) was the only type of metal protective clothing at that time 1 . The fact that on miniatures, frescoes, icons, in stone carving and in other monuments of the material culture of the pre-Mongol period there were repeatedly images of warriors in plate armor was not given any importance. Such images were considered conditional.

The circumstance that already in the 13th century remained without due attention. for plate armor, a special name was used - “board armor”, in contrast to just “armor” - chain mail. The name "plank armor" 2 for plate armor is very expressive and fully corresponded to the shape of the armor, which consisted, as it were, of small "plates" (plates).

In the inventories of the Moscow Armory Chamber, the epithet "plank" is applied to the oldest of the plate armor stored here - plate armor of the 16th century. 3

"Board armor" undoubtedly belonged to expensive armor and therefore were available to the wealthiest warriors and warriors. Plate armor was highly valued and, like swords, shields. helmets and chain mail, was carefully kept and passed down from generation to generation. As the most valuable armament, plate armor was sometimes paid for in trade transactions, as was the case, for example, in 1287, when the Galician prince Vladimir Vasilkovich (grandson of Roman Galitsky) gave payment for the village of Berezovichi "50 hryvnia kunas, 5 lokot skorlat yes plank armor. 4

Naturally, plate armor as a whole could fall into the ground and become the prey of archaeologists only in exceptional cases, as a result of a fire or other similar catastrophe. This explains the rarity of their finds during archaeological excavations. Only individual plates from the armor were lost or small parts of it that had become unusable were thrown away, which is observed during excavations of ancient Russian settlements.

The rarity of the finds and partly the ignorance of the details of the plate armor of the pre-Mongolian period was the reason for the underestimation of this important type of protective weapons of ancient Rus'.

Now the situation is changing radically thanks to the discoveries of Soviet archaeologists over the past decade.

2

The appearance of plate armor on the territory of the USSR dates back to the Bronze Age or even the Neolithic Age. If chain mail in the same territory became widespread only in the era of developed iron, before the beginning of our era, then plate armor had by this time more than a thousand years of history. The oldest plate armor was made of rectangular oblong bone plates with holes for attaching to a leather or cloth lining. They belong to the II millennium BC. e. and were discovered in the Neolithic burials of the Baikal region by A.P. Okladnikov 5 .

It is interesting to note that such shells were not always reliable protection for their owners. Arrows with stone and bone tips, shot from a complex bow, which became widespread during this period, apparently often pierced them. A.P. Okladnikov discovered burials of warriors in such shells, with flint and bone arrowheads deeply embedded in their bones 6 .

In Siberia, in addition to the Baikal region, armor made of bone plates was used from the 1st millennium BC. e. until the late Middle Ages. Bone plates from shells were repeatedly found during archaeological excavations by VN Chernetsov and II I. Moshinskaya in Ust-Polui (end of the 1st millennium BC - the first centuries of our era) 7 .

On European territory In the USSR, plate armor made of bone is known from Scythian mounds of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. S. A. Mazaraki during excavations near the village. Popovki (former. Poltava province.) found more than 200 bone plates from the shell in barrow No. 3. The shape is similar to all known bone plates from shells (an elongated rectangle with small holes at the ends) 8 . The length of the plates is from 60 to 103 mm, the width is from 15 to 20 mm, the thickness is 3-5 mm.

Similar plates from the shells were found in other mounds near Popoika, as well as near the village. Volkovay 9 and at the village. Lozovoy 10 during the excavations of D. Ya. Samokvasov. Similar plates from the same region were published by B. N. and V. I. Khanenko 11 .

The remains of shells made of bone plates were also found in the Kama region at the settlement of Skorodum (IV-III centuries BC) during the excavations of O. N. Bader in 1953 12 .

Armor made of bone and horn plates was also widespread in the Sarmatian period, judging by the testimony of Pausanias, who left a detailed description of contemporary Sarmatian shells (2nd century AD). The shells were made from bone plates and horse hooves and were similar to a pine cone. The plates were interconnected on a lining with the help of ox and horse sinews 13 .

Shells made of bone plates are preserved much worse than bronze and iron ones. It is not possible to establish their numerical ratio with metal ones. But given the high level military equipment and the constant improvement of military art among the Scythian and Sarmatian peoples, as well as archaeological data, it should be considered that the most common among these peoples in the 1st millennium BC. e. there were bronze and especially iron plate armor.

Metal plate armor first appeared, apparently, among the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BC. e. This is indicated by bronze scaly plates in the tomb of Amenhotep II, nailed to the figures that adorned the wooden throne. These plates did not have holes for sewing onto the lining, and did not belong to real armor, but in shape they are completely similar to the bronze plates of military shells. The same plates were found in the tomb of Ramses III. The oldest battle armor made of bronze scales is a shell found in the tomb of Pharaoh Sheshenq I (941-920 BC). Since that time, the shell has become widespread in Assyria and Babylon. Similar armor was used in Egypt and under the pharaohs of the 26th dynasty until the Persian conquest, as well as in ancient Greece and Rome 14 .

According to Herodotus, the Persians made lamellar shells according to Egyptian models 15 . Their shells were made of iron plates and resembled fish scales 16 . Indeed, the vast majority of bronze and iron shells found in Persepolis, Khorsabad, Egypt, Karmir Blur and in the Scythian burial mounds were composed of small plates with one rounded end located on top of each other, surprisingly similar to fish scales (Herodotus) and to a pine cone ( Pausanias). The oldest lamellar bronze armor on the territory of the USSR is the shell of the Urartian king Argishti I (788-750 BC), found during excavations of the Urartian fortress Teishebaini (VIII-VII centuries BC) on the Karmir Blur hill near Yerevan 17 . In 1951-1953. three more shells were found there, two of which were made of iron.

The shell with the name of Argishti I was distinguished by excellent finish and consisted of nine types of plates. most of which measured 52x19x1 mm and 30x15x1 mm. Along with them were found bronze arrowheads with the cuneiform names of kings Argishti I and Sardurn II and a bit with the name of King Menua (810-788 BC).

Iron lamellar shells were found in the rubble of the upper storey, in the layer of the conflagration 18; along with one of them, a Scythian akinak was found, which, perhaps, indicates that they belonged to the Scythian soldiers who stormed the fortress (the fortress was destroyed by the Scythians in 585 BC).

From the 7th century BC A. bronze and iron scaly plate armor in the form of a sleeveless shirt are very widespread not only among the peoples of Asia Minor and in Egypt, but also in ancient Greece and Rome, in Transcaucasia and Central Asia. Numerous archaeological finds of lamellar bronze and iron armor (about 200 are known) in mounds and catacombs North Caucasus, Crimea, the Northern Black Sea and the Volga region testify to the widest distribution of plate armor in the Scythian and Sarmatian periods and on the European territory of the USSR. Especially often they are found during excavations of mounds of the Scythian period (VI-IV centuries BC) in the Dnieper region, in the Kiev and Poltava regions 19, as well as in the Voronezh region (near the village of Mastyugino and in Chasty kurgans 20). Separate finds of bronze plates-flakes are known in the Saratov and Kazan regions 21 .

Plate armor of the Sarmatian period (II century BC - II century AD) is especially common in the Kuban 22 and the Lower Volga region 23 . Separate finds are known in the Orenburg and Kustanai regions, as well as on the Ob, but they belong to a later time (III-IV centuries AD).

The area of ​​distribution of plate armor in the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the first centuries of our era in the European and Asian territories of the USSR was huge.

The Scythians, of course, made their own lamellar shells. This is evidenced by bronze and iron blanks of plates discovered (as well as the plates themselves) at the Scythian Kamensky settlement of the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e 24 .

In addition to finds of metal plates and whole shells, from this time there are many images of warriors in plate armor (on the famous golden comb from the Solokha mound 25, on the frescoes of the catacombs in Kerch 26, etc.).

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e., alongside. with widely used plate armor, individual parts of chain mail armor in combination with plate armor begin to spread. Cases of using chain mail in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. are not uncommon, and at the turn of our era, chain mail turns into an independent armor, which received in the first half of the first millennium and. e. widespread that throughout the European territory of the USSR from the Kuban to the Kama region.

Cases of finds of plate armor of this period on the territory of the USSR are exceptionally rare, although there is no doubt that they continued to be used. Separately found metal plates from shells of the III-IV centuries. known from Siberia 27 to Kazakhstan 28 . From the 7th-8th centuries. one can point to the finds of iron armored plates in Peidzhikent 29 . Poor knowledge of this period in archaeological terms creates the impression that armor was no longer used in the Eastern European territory during the turbulent era of the migration of peoples. Of course, in the era of the devastating invasion of the Huns and subsequent waves of nomads, there was an undoubted decline in economic development Eastern European peoples, which is partly also the reason for the rarity of armor in the archaeological sites of this time.

From all of the above, it follows that plate armor and chain mail on the territory Eastern Slavs appeared not from somewhere outside, but were borrowed from other local peoples of the Sarmatian period, were the result of the development of military affairs and handicraft production, cultural oriental traditions, rooted in antiquity.

3

Excavations over the past 10-13 years have shown that among the Eastern Slavs, plate armor was also widespread in the pre-Mongol period and played an important role in the system of protective weapons of ancient Russian warriors.

My review of the archaeological collections of a number of museums in the USSR also made it possible to reveal many details of ancient Russian plate armor in old collections. Among the museum's archaeological collections there are a lot of so-called items of indeterminate purpose, among which, undoubtedly, a network of still unidentified steel and iron plates from shells. In order to draw the attention of archaeologists to these objects, which at first glance are inconspicuous, often covered with rust and deformed, it is necessary to dwell in detail on the characteristics of the remains of ancient Russian plate armor from excavations of recent years.

The discovery of real Old Russian plate armor in Novgorod in 1952 (excavations by A. V. Artsikhovsky) first drew the attention of researchers to the need to revise established views on the role of plate armor in Old Russian weapons and was decisive in this regard. Now the remains of about 40 ancient Russian plate armor of the 8th-15th centuries, found during excavations, have already been identified (see table). Their correspondence to the images of plate armor on the monuments of the pre-Mongolian period does not raise any doubts.

Plate armor, like chain mail, was relatively widespread among the Eastern Slavs already in the 7th-10th centuries. The oldest remains of Slavic plate armor were found in 1954 by V. Kukharenko at the Drevlyansk settlement of Khotamel, Davnd-Gorodaksky district. Byelorussian SSR. According to the main material - weapons and ceramics of the Korchak (or Prague) type - the settlement is well dated to the period of the 7th-9th centuries. thirty . Three slightly curved iron plates were found here, 86-90 mm long, 32-35 mm wide and about 1 mm thick. On all plates, there are from one to seven holes along the edges for connecting with each other and sewing protective clothing onto a leather or cloth base (Fig. 1, 7.8). The plates from Khotomel, in all likelihood, belong to the first period of the existence of the settlement to the 7th-8th centuries, since in shape and size they are very close to plates from shells from Avar burials well dated by coins between the Danube and Tisza and Penjikent. Similar plates were discovered in 1943 in a rich burial of an equestrian warrior in Bashui Falu in Hungary, which dates back to about 640. In armor, the plates were combined with chain mail. and the author who published this monument considers this armor brought by the Avars or Bulgarians from the East, i.e. from the territory of the USSR 31 . (There were also larger semicircular plates, similar to those very common in a later period in Novgorod and other settlements of ancient Rus').

An almost exact analogy to the armored plates from Khotomel are iron plates from the building No. 1 of Shahristan of Penjikent (Tajikistan). This building is dated by Kushan coins of the 7th-early 8th century AD. e. and, according to the author of the excavations, A. M. Belenitsoe, died at the beginning of the VIII century. (Fig. 1, 5,6) 32 . In Khotomel and Pendzhnkent, not only the plates and the location of the holes on them are similar, but also the three-bladed arrowheads that accompanied the shell plates on both sites.

Iron plates from shells (Similar forms were known among the peoples of Siberia in the 3rd-4th centuries AD. One such plate (75x20x1 mm in size) was published by M.P. Gryaznov from burial No. 37 of the burial ground of the 3rd-4th centuries AD. in Bolshiye Elbany (point XIV) on the Upper Ob (Fig. 1.1) 33 .

In all likelihood, an iron shell from a mound in the Kutr-Tas area of ​​the Kustanai region belongs to the same period, from which about 250 plates of three forms have survived (Fig. 1, 2) 34 .

In 1949, during excavations in the city of Plisnesk, Lviv region, in the layer of the 7th-10th centuries. found a large slightly curved iron plate from the shell with a rounded end (80x55x1 mm) and holes for attaching to clothing (Fig. 1, 10) 35 .

Of particular interest are iron plates for plate armor from the workshop of a gunsmith of the 10th century, discovered by G. B. Fedorov in 1957 in the Slavic settlement of Alchedar in Moldova (Fig. 1.3 c type Fig. 1.8).

Tools have been preserved in the gunsmith's workshop; pincers, various anvils, a chisel for cutting iron plates and wire for chain mail rings, punches for punching a hole, as well as products made by a gunsmith. Among the latter, there are more than a dozen iron plates of various sizes for plate armor. Some of the plates already have holes for connecting with each other and sewing on the lining, others still without a hole (a kind of semi-finished product), some with rivets, as on many plate armor from Novgorod. All plates are curved, which is generally typical for plate armor of all times.

The workshop also had blanks for chain mail rings that were not yet connected to each other. In addition, there were also several iron arrowheads typical of X in 36 .

This workshop testifies to the local production of military and protective weapons among the Slavs of Transnistria. Two types of arrowheads from a gunsmith's workshop (spiked awl-shaped and petiolate rhomboid of the Gnezdov type) are the most characteristic of the Slavic settlements of Moldavia in the 10th century.

In 1956-1957. B. A. Shramko were found on the Donetsk settlement of the Kharkov region in the layer of the X-XII centuries. two iron plates from plate armor with a hemispheric bulge in the middle (size 67x35x1) mm, bulge diameter 16 mm (Fig. 2, 1) 37 .

In terms of shape and size, these plates coincide with the plates from a nomadic burial in the area of ​​Bek-Bike near the village. Dzhalgaly in the Trans-Volga region, discovered by I. V. Sinitsyn in 1948 38 . The equestrian warrior buried here was dressed in plate armor in the form of a sleeveless shirt 110 cm long and 40 cm wide at the shoulders, 60 cm at the hem (in front). The limestones were fastened with a braid or strap, they had the same convex hemispheres in the middle and the same arrangement of holes. as well as records on the Donetsk settlement (Fig. 2, 2).

I. V. Sinitsyn dates this burial to the VIII-XII centuries. Judging by the analogy with the plates from the Donetsk settlement, this burial can probably be attributed to the 10th-12th centuries, especially since neither the rite nor other things from the burial contradict this.

In Rus', plate armor was made by city armored craftsmen; among the nomads of the southern steppes, they could appear as a result of military clashes and trade with the Russians.

Several iron or steel pastins from lamellar armor were found by M. I. Artamonov in 1951 during the excavations of Sarkel (Belaya Vezha). Six plates from the shell were soldered with rust in the same way as they were once connected on the armor. These rectangular oblong plates with holes at the ends were superimposed with steps on each other with long sides and sewn onto a cloth or leather lining (Fig. 2, 3). The plates were found in a layer of the 10th-12th centuries. and, undoubtedly, are the products of Russian artisans of Belaya Vezha 39 .

During excavations in Novgorod over the past ten years, more than 500 iron and steel plates of various shapes and sizes from various and different-time plate armor have been found. A thorough analysis of the location of the find, the depth of occurrence, the shape and size of these plates gives full reason to believe that they belong to more than two dozen different armors that were in use at different times - from the 11th to the 16th centuries. inclusive. Of these, plates from nine armors were found on layers of the 10th-13th centuries. It should be noted that the stratigraphy of the Nerevsky excavation site of Novgorod makes it possible to date the layers with an accuracy of a quarter of a century.

Plates from the shells were found one by one, then several pieces at once, sometimes several dozen; once, about 300 pieces from one armor were found.

The sizes of the plates are different, their shape is also diverse - narrow elongated, square, rectangular, wide and semicircular. All of them, without exception, have three or more small holes, and many (wide ones) also have rivets. The thickness of the plates is from 0.5 to 2 mm. All are slightly convex; their weight is from 3 to 25 g.

When connected to each other, they were fixed on a leather or cloth base so that they overlapped each other, and as a result, the plate armor (whether it was a shell, breastplate, backrest, etc.) had almost twice the thickness of the armor over the entire surface. At the same time, due to the convexity of the plates, when struck by a spear, dagger or armor-piercing arrowhead, they better reflected or softened the blow and retained greater stability than flat ones. There is no need to describe all the Novgorod finds of plate armor, we will note only a few. The remains of plate armor in Novgorod were first found back in 1948 during excavations at Yaroslav's Court, but then they were not identified. They were sintered lumps of narrow steel plates with a total of 86. All of them are curved and still strongly springy. The armor lay in the most ancient layer of the X-XII centuries, 30-40 sl from the mainland, at a depth of about 3.8 m, in an undisturbed layer. Its most probable date is the 11th century. This armor included steel plates of three types and six sizes. The main mass was made up of narrow oblong plates with a slight expansion in the middle and with holes along the edges and in the middle. Some have two holes at one of the ends (diameter about 1 mm). The length of such plates is 66-70 mm, width 6-11 mm. thickness less than 1 mm (Fig. 2, 4-3).

The armor rim of such plates was made up of larger plates with rounded corners with several holes along the edges. Their length is 70 mm, width 20-27 mm, thickness about 1 mm.

From the second plate armor found in the 11th century layer. in the Nerevsky end of Novgorod, two large rectangular plates have been preserved, one of which (90x80x2 mm) had eight holes and was probably the central one in the armor (Fig. 3, 1). It is also possible that such plates were sewn on their own in several pieces on the clothes of ordinary warriors who did not have the opportunity to purchase expensive chain mail or plate armor (armor). Such armor at a later time was called "kuyak" in Rus'. All other armor was also found in the Perm end of Novgorod.

In the XI century. and in the middle of the XII century. oblong plates with bulges and double holes were also used (Fig. 1. 11. 12). These plates are from two other armors.

Very interesting in form are seven plates from the koit shell of the 12th or the very beginning of the 13th century. (Fig. 2. 9,10). They. apparently made up short sleeves of armor or pauldrons.

From the sixth armor, dating back to the first half of the 14th century, three semicircular and one rectangular plates with holes along the perimeter were found (Fig. 4, 2). On one plate there are 19 holes spaced from each other at a distance of about 1 cm, on the others - 24 holes with an interval of 6-8 mm. Such plates could not only be independently sewn onto clothes, but also be part of chain mail armor. An example of such a combined armor is the armor found on the banks of the river. Vozhi and stored in the Ryazan Museum of Local Lore. Its probable date is the year of the famous battle with the Tatars on the river. Vozhe (1378). The same armor is available from the State Historical Museum, in the Armory in Moscow, but they are later (XVI-XVII centuries). In 1957, in Zaryadye in Moscow, large pieces of such armor were found from rows of oblong plates interconnected by chain mail rings (excavations by L, F. Dubinin).

From the seventh armor, 47 large plates of three shapes and sizes were found (Fig. 5, 3-7). The bulk of the plates (38 pieces) are rectangular plates with four holes along the edge of one of the narrow sides and a rivet in the middle. Several pieces of such plates have one rounded side. The latter made up the rim of the armor. All of them are tightly exiled with rectangular plates with iron rivets so that their holes exactly matched. When connected, the plates overlapped each other by about 1 cm. Their rows were sewn onto a leather lining, then each of the plates was still riveted. The rivets on the outer side of the plates have a very neat appearance, their shape is hemispherical. On the inside, they are riveted less neatly, but also carefully. You can also determine the thickness of the leather base by the rivets - it was about 3 mm. The leather lining burned down completely, since the plates were in a powerful layer of fire. The length of the plates is 66 mm. width 37-40 mm, thickness 1 mm. This relic is of particular interest not only because of the careful processing of the plates, but also because it was found in the estate of the Novgorod mayor Ontsifor Lukich, known both from the annals and from several birch bark letters found here. The armor is dated to the middle. 14th century It is most likely that it fell into the ground during one of the strongest fires that raged in the area in 1368.

From the eighth armor, dating back to the second half of the 14th century, about 300 narrow oblong steel plates (66 X 11 X 0.5 mm) and several larger rounded edge plates were found (Fig. 5, 6, 8-11). It should be noted that the preliminary dating of this armor, which was published immediately after the excavations in 1952 40 , is now specified on the basis of many complexes of well-dated items and pavement tiers 41 .

As can be seen from the above facts and from the table, plate armor has been used in Novgorod since the 11th, if not the 10th century. But the same table shows that the most widespread "plank armor" had in the XIII-XV. centuries, when the most widely used different kinds armor-piercing weapons, crossbows, and firearms.

Thus, this type of protective weapons developed and improved in close connection with the development military weapons and military art. In addition to Novgorod, there are also a number of finds of plate armor from ancient Russian cities and settlements.

The Kiev Historical Museum has a piece of plate iron armor made of 60 large plates (Fig. 3, 2-5). This armor comes, perhaps, from the Olelkov settlement of the X-XIII centuries 41. There are also three more plates of armor from the Kyiv region, but neither the time nor their location is precisely known 43 .

The remains of lamellar shells were found by D. A. Avdusin in Smolensk 3 1952 in the layer of the XIII-XIV centuries, on the Zaitsevsky settlement of the XII-XIII centuries (during excavations by T. N. Nikolskaya in 1956), on the settlement of Nikulchno on Vyatka near Kirov in the layer XIII-XIV centuries (excavations by L.P. Gussakovsky), in Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky in the layer XIV-XV centuries (excavations by A.L. Mongait 1956-1957), in Pskov, in layer XV -XVI centuries (excavations by G.P. Grozdilov. 1956) 44 .

To the listed finds, one should add a bronze lamellar kneecap from the burial of a nomad of the 10th-12th centuries. Kamensky burial ground (excavations by E. A. Symonovncha 45 .

As can be seen from the above facts, plate armor was widespread on the territory of the Eastern Slavs. In the X-XII centuries. lamellar armor was in service not only with Russian soldiers, but, apparently, was also used by the nomads of the southern Russian steppes and the Volga region.

Old Russian artists depicted plate armor many times on miniatures of chronicles and lives, on numerous icons and in stone carvings. So, on the slate reliefs of the Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Monastery of the XI-XII centuries. in Kyiv, mounted warriors are depicted in lamellar scaly shells in the form of a shirt with short sleeves 47 . Warriors on the reliefs of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral of the 12th century. in Vladimir and St. George's Cathedral in 1234 in Yuryev-Polsky 48 are also dressed in lamellar armor. Warriors in plate armor with short sleeves were constantly depicted on Novgorod icons and frescoes. Particularly colorful is the drawing of a scaly plate shell made of rounded plates on the icon of George of the 12th century, kept in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin 49 . He is similar to the plate armor of Dmitry Thessalonica on the icon of XII and. from the city of Dmitrov, stored in Tretyakov Gallery 50 .

Very realistic plate armor is depicted on a fresco of the 12th century. In the Church of George in Staraya Ladoga 51 and in the Church of the Savior on Kovalev - XIV century, on the icon of Boris and Gleb - XIV century, stored in the Novgorod Museum, on the icon of Dmitry Solunsky - XV century, George - XV century, on the icon "Life of Christ" - XV-XVI centuries. and others 52 .

Images of lamellar scaly shells are also found on Pskov icons of the 14th century. 53 and Moscow XV centuries. as well as on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin and on the carved wooden throne of Ivan the Terrible of 1551, stored in this cathedral. The list of images of ancient Russian plate armor could be significantly increased 55 .

In addition to the direct mention of plate armor (“board armor”), Russian chronicles also contain indirect indications of the prevalence of this type of armor.

So, in 1343, the Pskov mayor Danila fled from the battlefield, "cutting off his armor" 56 . Chain mail was worn over the head like a shirt, so M. G. Rabinovich’s assumption is absolutely correct that only plate (“plank.” - L.M.) armor could be cut off 57, often consisting of a breastplate and back, tied with ribbons or straps. There is no doubt that the armor of the Pskov posadnik Danila was exactly lamellar and, probably, heavy.

In difficult times, the soldiers abandoned their armor, as was the case in 1468 in the first Kazan campaign 58 or in 1471, when they were defeated by the troops of Ivan III on the river. Shelonians of Novgorod threw down their weapons and "fled to shame, throwing their burdens off their armor for the sake of their horses" 59 .

It is possible that the chronicle expressions “twisting in armor” 60 , “put your armor on yourself” 61 , “put armor on yourself” referred specifically to plate armor.

Images, chronicles, as well as the finds of the armor themselves listed above, allow us to judge high quality ancient Russian armor. Novgorod armor was especially good, which in the 15th century, apparently, withstood the blows of enemy weapons. Probably, this can explain the fact that in 1456 the troops of the Moscow prince Vasily the Dark "saw strong armor on the Novgorodians and began to hit their horse with arrows" 62 . The armor of the Novgorodians was valued by their enemies. When Prince Mikhail of Tver defeated the Novgorodians at Torzhok in 1315, their horses and armor were flooded” 63 . Muscovites in 1471, on the banks of the Ilmen, removed armor from captured Novgorodians, and which they. were not needed, they threw them into water or fire “I don’t hit them with the need, but with their armor led me to the waves of the hit” 64 . From last fact It can be seen that in the fifteenth century and the Moscow troops had good defensive armor, which is also confirmed by the documents of the diplomatic correspondence of Ivan III with Mengli Giray. The Tatars are constantly asking in letters through ambassadors for more and more "pansyrs, sholomovs and small armor" Mengli-Girey asks that Ivan III "point out to his pansyrs, send thou" 65 .

It is interesting that the shell of Moscow work was worn by the Gireys for three years, but it was “lost” in battle.

There is no doubt that in all the cities of Rus' there were their own shells or armored cars, they were also in Novgorod. Very colorful chronicle comparisons of shiny iron and steel armor with ice speak of the good protective weapons of the ancient Russian troops: “veins in the armor, as if in ice” 66.

Detachments of warriors who had protective armor were sometimes numerous. They counted 1,000 or more people. In 1146, for example. Yuri Dolgoruky sent his friend and ally Svyatoslav Olgonich to help "a thousand armored personnel carriers" 69 (in this case, not armored craftsmen, but warriors and protective armor).

Armor was given to warriors wearing them. a huge advantage over types without protective clothing. So, in 1359 in Novgorod, the Slavs easily dispersed the rivers: “Before, the Slavs in armor sat down byakhu (apparently, they made an ambush - A. M.) and dispersed the rivers, but they were without armor” 67.

Mail and plate armor or armor throughout the Middle Ages were very widespread in Eastern Europe and ancient Rus', and their production was at a high level for its time. There is no doubt that the brilliant victories of the Novgorodians over the Swedes in the Battle of the Neva and over the Germans in the Battle of the Ice and many others were ensured not only by the courage of the Novgorodians and the art of military leadership of Alexander Nevsky, but to a large extent by their excellent weapons.

Table of distribution of plate armor on the territory of ancient Rus' (according to archaeological finds)
№ №	Finding place, author and year of excavation	Date of monument or layer	Quantity plates	Insert dimensions (in mm)	Rice. in the text
1.	Settlement Khotomel (Yu. V. Kukharenko, 1954)	7th-9th centuries	3	90*35*1	1.7,8
2.	G. Plisnesk Lvov. region (I. D. Starchuk, 1949)	7th-10th centuries	1	80*55*1	1.10
3.	Mrs. Alchedar, Moldavia (G. B. Fedorov, 1957), in a gunsmith's workshop	10th century	10	75*80*1 77*33*1	1.9 Type 1.8
4.	Donetsk settlement Kharkiv. region (B.A. Shramko, 1956-1957)	X-XII centuries	2	67*35*1	2.1
5.	Belaya Vezha (M. I. Artamonov, 1951)	X-XII centuries	6	45*8-16*1	2.3
6.	Novgorod the Great, Yaroslav's Courtyard (A. V. Artsikhovsky, 1948-1957)	X-XII centuries	86	66*6-11*1 70*6-9*1 70*27*1 70*53*1	2.4-8
7.	In the same place, the Nerevsky end	11th century	2	90*80*2 65*36*1	3.1
8.	Ibid	11th century	1	62*24*1	1.11
9.	Ibid	12th century	3	70*52*1	3.6
10.	Ibid	12th century	1	80*40*1	1.12
11.	Ibid	XII - XIII centuries.	7	85*20*1	2.9,10
12.	Zaitsevskoe Mrs., Mtsensk. district Orlovsk. region (T. N. Nikolskaya, 1956)	XII - XIII centuries.	1	73*16*1	2,13
13.	Novgorod the Great, Nerevsky end (A. V. Artsikhovsky 1951-1957)	13th century	4	67*10*0,5 70*11*0,5	5.8,9
14.	Ibid	13th century	1	59*54*1	3.7
15.	Ibid	13th century	1	72*37*1	Type 5.3
16.	Ibid	14th century	4	62*62*1,5 75*67*2	Type 4.2
17.	Ibid	14th century	1	70*48*1	Type 3.7
18.	Ibid	14th century	47	66*40*1	5.3-7
19.	Ibid	14th century	1	72*14*0,5	5.11
20.	Ibid	14th century	300	66*11*0.5	5.8-10
21.	Ibid	14th century	3	183*43*1 and two curly from bracers	4.4,5
22.	Ibid	14th century	1	60*43*1	5.13
23-28	Ibid	15th century	14*	85*66*1 77*73*2	Type 4.2 and 3.7
29-30	Ibid	16th century	3**	57*54*1
31.	Olelkovo Mrs. (Kyiv Museum, No. 1822 and C, 69023)	X-XIII centuries	60	72*26*1 72*58*1	3.2-5
32.	Kyiv oblast. (exactly unknown; Kiev Museum, No. B-99)	X-XIII centuries	3	80*20*1
33.	Smolensk (D. A. Avdusin. 1952)	XIII-XIV centuries	8	70*50*1 70*20*2	2.11,12
34.	Mrs. Nikulchino Kirov. region (L. P. Gussakovsky, 1956-1958)	XIII-XIV centuries	4	60*51*1	5.2
35.	Drupk (L. V. Alekseev, 1957)	XIII-XIV centuries	1	63*34*1	5.1
36.	Pereyaslavl Ryazansky (A. L. Mongait, 1956-1957)	XIV-XV centuries	7	60*50*1 64*42*1	Type 3.7
37.	Tushkov town (M. G. Rabinovich, 1957)	XIV-XV centuries	1	70*10*0,5	5.12
38.	Moscow, Zaryadye (A.F. Dubynin, 1957)	XIV-XV centuries	200	70*20*1	Type 2.12
39.	Pskov (G.P. Grozdilov, 1956)	XV-XVI centuries	1	66*63*1	4.
* - from six shells; ** - from two shells

Rice. 1. Types of iron plates from armor.
1 - from burial. No. 37 in with. 37 B. Elbany on the Upper Ob, III-IV centuries. n. e.;
2-4 - from the destroyed burial of the Kustanai region. III-IV centuries. n. e.;
5-6 - Penjikent, building I, first half of the 8th century. n. e;
7,8 – site of ancient settlement Khotomel, 7th-8th centuries;
9 – site of ancient settlement Alchedar in Moldavia, from a gunsmith's workshop of the 10th century;
10 - Plisnesk, from the layer of the 7th-10th centuries;
11 – Novgorod, 11th century;
12 – Novgorod, middle of the 12th century. Rice. 2. Types of iron plates from armor. 10th-12th centuries
1 - Donetsk settlement near Kharkov, from the layer X - XII centuries.
2 - from a nomadic burial in Bek-Bik, X-XII centuries.
3 - from Belaya Vezha, layer of the 10th-12th centuries;
4-8 - Novgorod, Yaroslav's courtyard, layer of the 10th-12th centuries;
9.10 - Novgorod, Nerevsky end, line of the XII and XIV centuries;
13 - Zaitsevskoe settlement XII-XIII centuries. Rice. 3. Types of iron plates from armor of the 11th-13th centuries.
1 - Novgorod. 11th century
2-5 - Olelkovo settlement (?), X-XIII centuries;
6 - Novgorod, XII century;
7 - Novgorod. middle of the 13th century;
8 - Novgorod, first half of the 13th century. (from leggings or bracers) Rice. 4. Types of iron plates from armor of the 13th-15th centuries.
1 - Pskov, from the layer of the XV - XVI centuries;
2 - Novgorod, from the layer of the XIII - XIV centuries;
3 - Novgorod, kneecap of the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries;
4 - Novgorod, plates from bracers of the middle of the 14th century;
5 - Novgorod, mid-14th century. Rice. 5. Types of iron plates from armor of the 13th-14th centuries
1 - Drutsk, XIII-XIV centuries;
2 - settlement Nikulchino on the river. Heel, XIII-XIV centuries;
3-7 - Novgorod, the estate of the posadnik Ontsifora; middle of the 14th century
8-11 - Novgorod, from the shells of the XIII and XIV centuries;
12 - Tushkov town, from the layer of the XII-XV centuries;
13 – Novgorod, second half of the 14th century.