Atmospheric vortex to disperse clouds. Dispersal of clouds - establishment of good weather

The orbit of warm and cold currents, trying to equalize the temperature difference between north and south, occurs with varying degrees of success. Then the warm masses take over and penetrate in the form of a warm tongue far to the north, sometimes to Greenland, Novaya Zemlya and even to Franz Josef Land; then masses of Arctic air in the form of a giant “drop” break through to the south and, sweeping away warm air on their way, fall on Crimea and the republics Central Asia. This struggle is especially pronounced in winter, when the temperature difference between north and south increases. On weather maps of the northern hemisphere you can always see several tongues of warm and cold air penetrating to different depths to the north and south (find them on our map).

The arena in which the struggle of air currents unfolds occurs precisely in the most populated parts of the globe - the temperate latitudes. These latitudes experience the vagaries of the weather.

The most turbulent areas in our atmosphere are the boundaries of air masses. Huge whirlwinds often appear on them, which bring us continuous changes in the weather. Let's get to know them in more detail.

Let's imagine a front separating cold and warm masses (Fig. 15, a). When air masses move at different speeds or when one air

The mass moves along the front in one direction, and the other in the opposite direction, then the front line can bend and air waves form on it (Fig. 15, b). At the same time, the cold air turns more and more to the south, flows under the “tongue” of warm air and displaces part of it upward. - The warm tongue penetrates further and further to the north and “washes out” the cold mass lying in front of it. The air layers gradually swirl.

From the central part of the vortex, air is forcefully thrown out to its outskirts. Therefore, at the top of the warm tongue, the pressure drops greatly, and a kind of basin is formed in the atmosphere. Such a vortex with low pressure in the center is called a cyclone (“cyclone” means circular).

Since air flows to places with lower pressure, in a cyclone it would tend from

The edges of the vortex are directly towards the center. But here we must remind the reader that due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis, the paths of all bodies moving in the northern hemisphere are deviated to the right. Therefore, for example, the right banks of rivers are more eroded, the right rails on double-track railways wear out faster. And the wind in the cyclone also deviates to the right; the result is a vortex with the direction of the winds counterclockwise.

In order to understand how the rotation of the Earth affects the air flow, imagine a section earth's surface on the globe (Fig. 16). The direction of the wind at point A is shown by the arrow. The wind at point A is southwest. After some time, the Earth will rotate, and point A will move to point B. The air flow will deviate to the right, and the angle will change; The wind will become west-southwest. After some time, point B will move to point C, and the wind will become westerly, i.e. it will turn even more to the right.

If lines of equal pressures, that is, isobars, are drawn in the region of the cyclone, it will turn out that they surround the center of the cyclone (Fig. 15, c). This is what a cyclone looks like on the first day of its life. What happens to him next?

The tongue of the cyclone stretches further and further to the north, sharpens and becomes a large warm sector (Fig. 17). It is usually located in the southern part of the cyclone, because warm currents most often come from the south and southwest. The sector is surrounded on both sides by cold air. Look at how the warm and cold flows move in a cyclone, and you will see that there are two fronts that are already familiar to you. The right boundary of the warm sector is the warm front of the cyclone with a wide strip of precipitation, and the left is the cold one; the belt of precipitation is narrow.

The cyclone always moves in the direction shown by the arrow (parallel to the isobars of the warm sector).

Let's turn again to our weather map and find a cyclone in Finland. Its center is marked with the letter H (low pressure). On the right is a warm front; The polar sea air flows into the continental air, and it snows.

On the left is a cold front: sea arctic air, bending around the sector, bursts into the warm southwest current; a narrow strip of snowstorms. This is already a well-developed cyclone.

Let's now try to “predict” future fate cyclone It is not hard. After all, we have already said that a cold front moves faster than a warm front. This means that over time, the wave of warm air will become even steeper, the cyclone sector will gradually narrow, and, finally, both fronts will close together and occlusion will occur. This is death for the cyclone. Before occlusion, the cyclone could “feed” on a warm air mass. The temperature difference between the cold flows and the warm sector remained. The cyclone lived and developed. But after both fronts closed, the cyclone’s “feed” was cut off. Warm air rises and the cyclone begins to fade. The precipitation is weakening, the clouds are gradually dissipating, the wind is dying down,
the pressure equalizes, and a small vortex zone remains from the formidable cyclone. There is such a dying cyclone on our map, beyond the Volga.

The sizes of cyclones are different. Sometimes it is a vortex with a diameter of only a few hundred kilometers. But it also happens that a vortex covers an area up to 4-5 thousand kilometers in diameter - an entire continent! A variety of air masses can flock to the centers of huge cyclonic eddies: warm and humid, cold and dry. Therefore, the sky above the cyclone is most often cloudy, and the wind is strong, sometimes stormy.

Several waves may form at the boundary between air masses. Therefore, cyclones usually develop not singly, but in series, four or more. While the first is already fading, in the latter the warm tongue is just beginning to stretch out. A cyclone lives for 5-6 days, and during this time it can cover a huge area. A cyclone travels an average of about 800 kilometers per day, and sometimes up to 2000 kilometers.

Cyclones come to us most often from the west. This is due to the general movement of air masses from west to east. Strong cyclones are very rare in our territory. Prolonged rain or snow, sharp gusty winds - this is the usual picture of our cyclone. But in the tropics there are sometimes cyclones of extraordinary strength, with severe downpours and stormy winds. These are hurricanes and typhoons.

We already know that when the front line between two air currents sags, a warm tongue is squeezed into the cold mass, and thus a cyclone is born. But the front line can also bend towards warm air. In this case, a vortex appears with completely different properties than a cyclone. It is called an anticyclone. This is no longer a basin, but an airy mountain.

The pressure in the center of such a vortex is higher than at the edges, and the air spreads from the center to the outskirts of the vortex. Air from higher layers descends in its place. As it descends, it contracts, heats up, and the cloudiness in it gradually dissipates. Therefore, the weather in an anticyclone is usually partly cloudy and dry; on the plains it is hot in summer and cold in winter. Fogs and low stratus clouds can occur only on the outskirts of the anticyclone. Since in an anticyclone there is not such a big difference in pressure as in a cyclone, the winds here are much weaker. They move clockwise (Fig. 18).

As the vortex develops, its upper layers warm up. This is especially noticeable when the cold tongue is from -

The vortex is cut and stops “feeding” on the cold or when the anticyclone stagnates in one place. Then the weather there becomes more stable.

In general, anticyclones are calmer vortices than cyclones. They move more slowly, about 500 kilometers per day; they often stop and stand in one area for weeks, and then continue on their way again. Their sizes are huge. An anticyclone often, especially in winter, covers all of Europe and part of Asia. But in individual series of cyclones, small, mobile and short-lived anticyclones can also appear.

These whirlwinds usually come to us from the northwest, less often from the west. On weather maps, the centers of anticyclones are designated by the letter B (high pressure).

Find the anticyclone on our map and see how the isobars are located around its center.

These are atmospheric vortices. Every day they pass over our country. They can be found on any weather map.

Now everything on our map is already familiar to you, and we can move on to the second main issue of our book - predicting the weather.

The atmosphere of our planet is never calm; its air masses are in constant movement. The air element reaches its highest strength in cyclones - circular rotations of the wind towards the center. Storms and hurricanes are wildly rotating giant whirlwinds. Most often they originate over heated areas of the tropical zones of the oceans, but they can also arise in high latitudes. The very high-speed whirlwinds tornadoes are still largely mysterious.

The Earth's atmosphere is like an ocean, where air splashes instead of water. Under the influence of solar radiation, topography and the daily rotation of the planet, inhomogeneities arise in the air ocean. Regions low blood pressure called cyclones, elevated anticyclones. It is in cyclones that strong winds originate. The largest of them reach thousands of kilometers in diameter and are clearly visible from space thanks to the clouds that fill them. At their core, these are vortices, where air moves in a spiral from the edges to the center, into an area of ​​​​low pressure. Such vortices, constantly existing in the atmosphere, but born precisely in the tropics in the Atlantic and the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean and reaching wind speeds of over 30 m/s, are called hurricanes. (“Hurricane” on behalf of the Indian evil god Huracan). In order for the air to move at such a speed, a large difference is necessary atmospheric pressure at a short distance.

Similar phenomena in the western part of the Pacific Ocean, north of the equator, are called typhoons (from the Chinese “taifeng”, which means “big wind”), and in the Bay of Bengal they are simply called cyclones.

Hurricanes appear over the warm waters of the oceans between the fifth and twentieth degrees of north and south latitude. A prerequisite for their formation is a huge mass of heated water. It has been established that the water temperature should not be lower than 26.5 ° C, the heating depth should be at least fifty meters. Warmer than the air, ocean water begins to evaporate. Masses of heated steam rise upward, forming an area of ​​low pressure and drawing the surrounding air into motion. At a certain altitude, the heated steam reaches the dew point and condenses. Standing out at the same time thermal energy heats the air, causing it to rush upward, and thus feeds the newborn cyclone. The rotational component of wind speed spins it counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The rotation draws ever larger masses of air from outside into the vortex. As a result, the silhouette of the cyclone takes the form of a giant funnel, with its neck facing downwards. Its edges sometimes rise to the upper boundaries of the troposphere. Inside the funnel, a zone of clear, calm weather with low atmospheric pressure is formed, surrounded by thunderclouds. This is the eye of the hurricane. Its usual size is 30 x 60 kilometers. It occurs only in powerful tropical cyclones and is clearly visible from space. A tropical cyclone moves north or south of the equator, depending on its place of birth. Over land it quickly weakens, collapsing due to the roughness of the earth's surface and lack of moisture. But once he gets out to the ocean, the flywheel can spin with renewed vigor. A powerful hurricane can wipe out entire islands and change the coastline. Having struck densely populated areas, it causes colossal destruction, and the accompanying downpours and floods deal another, no less dangerous blow. Thus, more than three hundred thousand people died from the consequences of the cyclone that hit the state of Bangladesh in 1970. Hurricane Katrina, which emerged in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005, killed nearly two thousand people and caused more than $80 billion in damage.

Hundreds of cyclones form in the tropical zone every year, but not all of them reach hurricane strength. The National Hurricane Center in Florida is forecasting 11 severe storms for the coming season. Already in store for them proper names. The tradition of naming hurricanes was started back in the 16th century by the Spaniards, who ruled Latin America. They called them after saints. Then they came into fashion female names, since the 1970s men's. The idea was picked up by weather services around the world, except South Asia.

The Atlantic is very stormy

In high and polar latitudes there are similar vortex phenomena, only the mechanism of their formation is different. An extratropical cyclone receives energy from a powerful atmospheric front where cold polar air converges with warm air. The unwinding of such a system also occurs due to the rotation of the Earth. The diameter of extratropical cyclones is larger than that of tropical cyclones, but their energy is less.

When the wind speed in an extratropical cyclone reaches 20 24 m/s (9 points on the Beaufort scale), it is classified as a storm. Stronger winds are rare. If a hurricane nevertheless forms, for example, over the North Atlantic, then it rages in the ocean, sometimes capturing the coast of Europe. IN last years However, exceptions began to occur. In December 1999, the strongest hurricane Lothar, which originated precisely from the North Atlantic cyclone, advanced to the center of the continent, to Switzerland. “Kirill,” which paralyzed the lives of Europeans for several days in January 2007, also affected large territory. The wind speed there sometimes reached 62 m/s.

In the last decade extratropical cyclones are more often moving into the category of storms and hurricanes, and their trajectories have also changed. If earlier atmospheric depressions that originated over the North Atlantic rushed through Great Britain and the Scandinavian Peninsula to the Arctic Ocean, now they began to go east and south, bringing powerful winds and heavy rainfall to the center of Europe and even Russia. These facts indicate that the likelihood of severe storms is increasing and we should be prepared for elements like Kirill.

A tornado destroyed a residential area in the town of Kvirla in East Germany on the night of October 2, 2006

People and Hurricanes: War of the Worlds

The kinetic energy of one powerful hurricane is enormous 1.5 x 10 12 watts, this is half the generating capacity of all power plants in the world. Some developers have long dreamed of directing it in a useful direction, but information about this is at the level of rumors. Allegedly, there are secret laboratories developing meteorological weapons and even testing them. One of the few official confirmations that work is underway in this direction is the report Weather as a Force Multiplier: Owning the Weather in 2025, posted some time ago on the US Air Force website. It has a chapter on weather control for military purposes. Among the main strike capabilities of meteorological weapons are directed storms. The US military knows their “combat power” firsthand: in 1992, Hurricane Andrew destroyed the Homestead base on the Florida peninsula. However, the idea of ​​directed storms should be considered more of a fantasy than a project. So far, hurricanes have not been controlled by humans.

To resist the natural elements, they proposed a lot of ways, including exotic ones - driving them away from the shore with the help of giant fans or tearing them apart with a hydrogen bomb. In the Stormfury experiment, conducted by American scientists in 1960–1980, silver iodide was sprayed in the area of ​​a hurricane. It was assumed that this substance contributes to the freezing of supercooled water, as a result of which heat is released, and in the area of ​​​​the eye of the hurricane, rain and winds intensify, destroying the structure of the entire vortex. In fact, it turned out that there is too little supercooled water in tropical cyclones, and the effect of spraying is minimal. Most likely, preventive measures will help, such as changing the parameters of the specific atmospheric depression from which the hurricane is born. For example, cooling the ocean surface with cryogenic materials or icebergs, spraying soot over water to absorb solar radiation (so that the water does not heat up). After all, there must be some trigger mechanism that suddenly twists the wind into a furious spiral. It is here that lies the key to controlling the elements and the ability to accurately predict the place and time of the birth of a hurricane. Only specialists cannot detect it in any way, and therefore attempts to prevent the strengthening of the vortex do not lead to success.

From Kansas to Oz

There are small vortices in the atmosphere called tornadoes. They arise in thunderclouds and stretch towards water or land. Tornadoes occur almost everywhere on Earth, but most often, about 75% of cases, their appearance is noted in the United States. Americans call them “tornadoes” or “twisters,” meaning their frantic rotation and complex trajectory. In Europe, the same phenomenon is known as a “thrombus”.

There are plenty of facts about tornadoes; they began to be studied at the end of the 19th century. (You can even create a mini-tornado in your own home by placing a fan over a hot tub.) However, there is still no coherent theory of their origin. According to the most common idea, tornadoes originate at an altitude of the first kilometers when warm air coming from below meets a cold horizontal wind. This explains, for example, why there are no tornadoes in very cold places, such as Antarctica, where the air at the surface is not warm. To accelerate the vortex to high speed, it is also necessary that the atmospheric pressure inside it drop sharply. Tornadoes often accompany tropical cyclones. Such a pair hurricane with tornado produces especially severe destruction. Several tornadoes occur in a row. So, in April 1974, 148 tornadoes appeared in the USA and Canada within 18 hours. More than three hundred people died.

Typically, a tornado is shaped like an elephant's trunk hanging from a thundercloud. Sometimes it looks like a funnel or pillar. Having captured water, sand or other materials from the surface, the tornado becomes visible. The width of the average tornado is several hundred meters, the speed of movement is 1020 m/s. It lives for several hours and travels tens of kilometers. A strong whirlwind sucks in, like a giant vacuum cleaner, everything that gets in its way and scatters it tens of kilometers around. There are many funny stories about miraculous rains, for example, from fruits or jellyfish. In 1940, in the village of Meshchery, Gorky Region, silver coins fell from the sky, which the tornado “borrowed” from a shallow treasure. Once in Sweden, a whirlwind that suddenly flew into the stadium right in the middle of a bandy match lifted the goalkeeper of one of the teams along with the goal and carefully moved them several meters without causing any harm. Although moments before that, he broke telegraph poles like matches and smashed several wooden buildings into pieces.

The energy of a tornado is less than that of hurricanes, but its wind speed is much higher and can reach 140 m/s. For comparison: tropical cyclones of the highest, fifth, category on the US Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale begin with a wind speed of 70 m/s. A stick, sufficiently spun by a tornado, can pierce a tree trunk, and a log can ram a house. Only 2% of tornadoes reach destructive power, and yet their average annual damage to the economies of the affected countries is very large.

What about global warming?

Researchers note that in the Atlantic, periods of hurricane and tornado activity alternate with relative calm. The number of atmospheric vortices, in particular powerful hurricanes (an average of 3.5 per year), increased in 1940–1960 and from 1995 to the present. The strength of the current winds and ocean storms amazes even experienced sailors. Some scientists consider the latest outbreak of atmospheric activity to be long-term and linked to global warming. Others defend its connection with solar activity cycles. Both versions have not yet been confirmed; on the contrary, on a planetary scale, an increase in the number of tropical cyclones has not been noticed.

However, the question of how hurricane activity will change as average annual temperature planet remains open. Therefore, accurate tropical cyclone forecasts are more important than ever. For them, the most involved modern means: space satellites, airplanes, buoys stuffed with electronics, radars, supercomputers. There is a lot of information: all hurricanes are recorded, tracked and notified of possible danger. Timely notification and evacuation these are the only ones for today effective ways fight against the elements.

Innokenty Senin

Active influence on the weather is human intervention in the course of atmospheric processes by changing for a short time certain physical or chemical properties in some part of the atmosphere by technical means. This includes the precipitation of rain or snow from clouds, the prevention of hail, the dispersal of clouds and fogs, the weakening or elimination of frost in the ground layer of air, etc.

People have been trying to change the weather since ancient times, but only in the 20th century were special technologies for influencing the atmosphere that lead to weather changes developed.

Cloud seeding is the most common way of changing weather; it is used either to create rain in dry areas, to reduce the likelihood of hail - causing rain before the moisture in the clouds turns into hailstones, or to reduce precipitation.

The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources

Describe atmospheric dangerous phenomena(cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes, storms, storms, squalls, tornadoes, heavy precipitation, droughts, fogs, ice, blizzards, frosts, frosts, storms, thunderstorms).

We live at the bottom of a large ocean of air, which is located around the globe. The depth of this ocean is 1000 km and is called the atmosphere.

Winds are so-called “mixing devices”, they provide:

Exchange between polluted and clean air;

Oxygen saturation of fields and forests, warm and cold Arctic regions:

They disperse the clouds and bring rain clouds to the fields that produce crops, thus the wind is the most important component of life.

The gaseous environment around the Earth, which rotates with it, is called the atmosphere. Uneven heating contributes to general circulation atmosphere, which influences the Earth's weather and climate.

Atmospheric pressure is distributed unevenly, which causes air to move relative to the Earth from high to low. Wind is the movement of air relative to the earth's surface, resulting from an uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure and directed from a zone of high pressure to a zone of low pressure.

The strength of the wind depends on the pressure gradient: the greater the difference in atmospheric pressure and the closer the interacting areas are, the faster the pressure difference equalizes and the higher the wind speed.

Wind direction depends on:

The relative positions of the high and low pressure;

Rotation of the Earth;

In 1806, the English admiral Bafart developed a scale for determining wind strength in points. This scale is still used today.

Wind begins to cause damage at speeds of about 20 m/s. Wind speed is calculated in both meters per second and kilometers per second. Multiplying the first value by a coefficient of 3.6, we get the second value (in the reverse operation, the same coefficient acts as a divisor).

A person stays on his feet at wind speeds of up to 36 m/s. With a wind speed of 44 m/s, no one would dare to leave the room. As soon as the wind pressure, which is equal to the square of the speed, exceeds the mass of a person, his forces change, the wind picks him up and carries him.

For a person, the most favorable wind speed on hot days, when he is lightly dressed, is 1-2 m/s. At a wind speed of 3-7 m/s, irritation appears. Strong winds of more than 20 m/s cause disruption of life.

Beaufort scale for determining wind force

Wind force (points)	Verbal notation	Speed ​​m/s	Average rounded, m/s	Average rounded, km/h	Average rounded, nodes	Rounded average pressure, kg/m	The influence of wind on objects
	Quiet wind	0,3-1,5			2,5	0,1	A light breeze is felt. The direction of the wind can be determined by the smoke. The leaves and flags are motionless.
	Light breeze	1,6-3,3				0,5	The pennant fluctuates slightly, sometimes flags and leaves on the trees.
	Light wind	3,4-5,4					Flags flutter, small leaf-covered tree branches sway.
	Moderate wind	5,5-7,9					Small flags and pennants are stretched out, tree branches without foliage sway. The wind raises dust and scraps of paper
	Fresh breeze	8,0-10,7					Large flags are stretched out, large bare branches of trees sway.
	Strong wind	10,8-13,8					Large branches sway, whistles in the gear, between houses and stationary objects.
	strong wind	13,9-17,1					The trunks of small trees without foliage sway. Telephone wires are humming.
	Very strong wind	17,2-24,4					Shakes large trees, breaks branches and twigs. Noticeably delays movement against the wind.
	Storm	20,7-24,4					Breaks large bare branches of trees, moves light objects, damages roofs.
	Heavy storm	24,5-28,4					Breaks trees and damages buildings.
	Fierce Storm	28,5-32,6					Causes great destruction.
	Hurricane	32 or more	More than 32	More than 105	More than 57	More than 74	Causes catastrophic destruction, uproots trees

Weather conditions act as an air conditioner to keep our planet habitable. They are the driving force that moves heat and moisture from one place to another and can create powerful bursts of energy.

Weather systems– these are circular areas of vortex air flows width from 150 to 400 km. Their thickness varies greatly, reaching 12-15 km and located virtually throughout the entire height of the troposphere (the atmospheric layer closest to the Earth). The thickness of other, smaller and rapidly moving systems does not exceed 1-3 km.

Weather systems are characterized by changes in air pressure, as well as different blowing winds.

The main linear (pressure) systems are cyclones and anticyclones. Anticyclone- This is an area of ​​​​high atmospheric pressure with a downward air flow with a maximum in the center. Cyclone is an area of ​​low pressure with rising air currents with a minimum in the center. Therefore, cyclones are characterized by cloudy weather.

Anticyclones, as an area of ​​high atmospheric pressure, are usually characterized by stable weather, which most often does not change significantly for several days. The wind blows clockwise around the center in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. On synoptic maps, anticyclones are depicted as concentric isobars (lines connecting areas of equal pressure) around a center with the highest pressure.

Anticyclones are usually characterized by light winds and clear skies. The absence of clouds means that the heat emitted by the surface during the day escapes into outer space. As a result, the soil and surface air cool quickly at night. In winter, cooling causes frost when there is humidity in the air, frost or fog. Light winds of the anticyclone region contribute to the evolution of these weather phenomena. If strong, it could mix the air masses, and surface cooling would spread to much deeper layers of air.

Warm and cold air mix with difficulty. Therefore, warm air flowing in waves in the polar front flows through the flow of cold dense air, rather than mixing with it. Cold air follows warm air and thus forms cyclone. Usually there are 2 fronts inside a cyclone: warm front separates the approaching flow of warm air from cold air. In this case, warm air rises above the layer of cold, dense air ahead. In the rising cooled air, water vapor condenses and clouds form. The warm front is followed by cold front. Along this front, cold air pushes underneath the layer of warm air, causing it to rise. Therefore, a cold front also brings cloudy, rainy weather. The cold front moves faster than the warm front, causing them to eventually collide and force warm air upward.

Meteorologists carefully study the sequence of weather conditions associated with cyclones. This knowledge is extremely important for weather forecasting. For example, thin upper-level cirrus clouds followed by lower-level gray rain clouds. These clouds usually carry rain that falls for several hours before a warm front arrives.

Behind the warm front is an area of ​​warm air with inherent cloudiness and humidity.

This is followed by a cold front, where thunderstorms occur due to rising air currents. Heavy rain often falls along the edge of a cold front, usually for less duration than under warm front conditions. After the passage of a cold front, clear, cold weather usually sets in.

As a result natural processes, occurring in the atmosphere, phenomena are observed on Earth that pose an immediate danger and complicate the functioning of human systems. Atmospheric hazards include cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons), storms (storms), tornadoes (tornadoes), hail, blizzards, downpours, ice, fog, lightning.

Cyclones can be:

1. Ordinary (non-tropical), which arise as a result of the interaction of cold and warm air fronts with each other.

2. Tropical, which have different names:

- “hurricane” - the name is associated with the name of the god of storms among the ancient Mayan people, called by residents of the United States. Central and South America.

- “typhoon” translated from Chinese means “very big wind”, as residents of Russia call it ( Far East), Australia, Korea, China, India, Japan. In a strange irony, typhoons and hurricanes are given female names.

Tropical cyclones

In the homeland of hurricanes, in the tropics, air masses are highly heated and saturated with water vapor - the temperature of the ocean surface at these latitudes reaches twenty-seven to twenty-eight degrees Celsius. As a result, powerful upward currents of air arise and the release of the solar heat stored in it and the condensation of the vapors contained in it. The process develops and grows, the result is a kind of giant pump - neighboring masses of the same warm and vapor-saturated air are sucked into the funnel formed at the origin of this pump, and thus the process spreads even wider, capturing more and more new areas on the surface of the ocean.

When you pour water from your bathtub through the drain hole, it creates a whirlpool. Approximately the same thing happens with the air rising upward at the origin of the cyclone - it begins to rotate.

The giant air pump continues to work, more and more moisture condenses on its funnel-shaped top, and more and more heat is released. (American meteorologists have calculated: within one day, over a million tons of water can be lifted upward - in the form of steam, with which the surface layer of the atmosphere is continuously saturated; the energy released during condensation in just ten days would be enough for such a highly industrialized state, like the USA, for six years!). An average cyclone is believed to release approximately the same amount of energy as 500,000 atomic bombs with the yield dropped over Hiroshima. The atmospheric pressure in the center of the emerging cyclone and on its outskirts becomes unequal: there, in the center of the cyclone, it is much lower, and a sharp drop in pressure is the cause of strong winds, which soon develop into hurricanes. In a space with a diameter of three hundred to five hundred kilometers, the strongest winds begin their furious whirlwind.

Having arisen, cyclones begin to move at an average speed of 10-30 km/h, sometimes they can hover over the area for some time.

Cyclones (regular and tropical) are large-scale eddies with a diameter: regular from 1000 to 2000 km; tropical from 200 to 500 km and altitude from 2 to 20 km.

Air masses move in the cyclone area in a spiral, twisting towards its center (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere, vice versa in the southern hemisphere) at a speed of:

Regular no more than 50-70 km/h;

Tropical 400-500 km/h

In the center of the cyclone, the air pressure is lower than at the periphery, which is why, moving in a spiral, air masses tend to the center, where they then rise upward, generating heavy cloudiness.

If in the center:

For a conventional cyclone, the air pressure compared to atmospheric pressure (760 mm r.s.) is 713-720 mm r.s.;

Then in the center of a tropical cyclone the pressure drops to 675 mm r.s.

In the center of a tropical cyclone there is an area of ​​low pressure with high temperature, 10-40 km in diameter, where calm reigns - eye of the typhoon.

Every year on Globe At least 70 tropical cyclones arise and fully develop.

When a tropical cyclone (typhoon, hurricane) approaches the coast, it carries huge masses of water in front of it. storm shaft accompanied by strong rains And tornadoes. It swoops down on coastal areas, destroying everything in its path.

Example

In 1970 there was a typhoon. which broke through the mouth of the Ganges River (in India) and flooded 800,000 km 2 of coastline. Had a wind speed of 200-250 m/s. Sea wave reached a height of 10 m. About 400,000 people died.

Today there are modern methods forecasting tropical cyclones (typhoons, hurricanes). Each suspicious cluster of clouds, where it did not appear, is photographed by meteorological satellites from space, and weather service planes fly to the “eye of the typhoon” to obtain accurate data. This information is put into computers to calculate the path and duration of a tropical cyclone (typhoon, hurricane) and notify the population in advance of the danger.

Hurricane

A hurricane is a wind with a force of 12 points (up to 17 points) on the Beaufort scale, i.e. at a speed of 32.7 m/s (over 105 km/h) and reaches up to 300 m/s (1194 km/h)

Hurricane– a strong small-scale atmospheric vortex in which air rotates at speeds of up to 100 m/s. It has the shape of a pillar (sometimes with a concave axis of rotation) with funnel-shaped extensions at the top and bottom. The air rotates counterclockwise and at the same time rises in a spiral, drawing in dust, water, and various objects. A hurricane on land is called storm, and by the sea storm. The main characteristics of hurricanes are:

Wind speed;

Movement paths;

Dimensions and construction;

Average duration of actions.

The most important characteristic of hurricanes is wind speed. From the table below (on the Beaufort scale) you can see the relationship between wind speed and the name of the modes. The average speed of a hurricane in Ukraine is 50-60 km/h.

Hurricane sizes vary widely. Usually its width is taken to be the width of the zone of catastrophic destruction, which can be measured in hundreds of kilometers. The hurricane front reaches a length of up to 500 km. Hurricanes occur at any time of the year, but are more common from July to October. In the remaining 8 months they are rare, their paths are short.

The average duration of a hurricane is 9-12 days. In Ukraine, hurricanes do not last long, from a few seconds to several hours.

A hurricane is almost always clearly visible, and a strong buzzing sound is heard as it approaches.

Hurricanes are one of the most powerful natural forces. In terms of their harmful effects they are not inferior to such terrible natural disasters like earthquakes. This is explained by the fact that they carry colossal energy. The amount of it released by an average hurricane in one hour is equal to the energy of a nuclear explosion of 36 Mgt.

A hurricane poses a triple threat to people who find themselves in its path. The most destructive are wind, waves and rain.

Often, downpours accompanied by a hurricane are much more dangerous than the hurricane wind itself, especially for those people who live on or near the coast. A hurricane creates waves up to 30 m high on the coast, can cause downpours, and later cause the emergence of an epidemic, for example, a hurricane storm tide, coinciding with a normal tide, caused a gigantic flood on the coast of India in 1876, during which the wave rose 12-13 m About 100,000 people drowned and almost as many died from the consequences of the ferocious epidemic.

When a hurricane spreads over the sea, it causes huge waves 10-12 meters high or more, damaging or even leading to the death of ships.

The greatest danger during a hurricane comes from objects lifted from the ground and spun to great speed. Unlike storms, a hurricane travels in a narrow band, so it can be avoided. You just need to determine the direction of its movement and move in the opposite direction.

Hurricane wind destroys strong and demolishes light buildings, devastates sown fields, breaks wires and knocks down power and communication lines, damages highways and bridges, breaks and uproots trees, damages and sinks ships, causes accidents on utility and energy networks in production . There were cases when hurricane winds destroyed dams and dams, which led to large floods, threw trains off the rails, tore bridges from their supports, knocked down factory chimneys, and washed ships ashore.

Chapter Six
VORTEX MOTION OF GASES AND LIQUIDS

6.1. Mysteries of atmospheric vortices

We deal with the vortex movement of gases and liquids everywhere. The largest vortices on Earth are atmospheric cyclones, which, along with anticyclones - zones of high pressure in the earth's atmosphere that are not captured by vortex movement, determine the weather on the planet. The diameter of cyclones reaches thousands of kilometers. The air in the cyclone undergoes a complex three-dimensional spiral movement. In the Northern Hemisphere, cyclones, like water flowing from a bathtub into a pipe, rotate counterclockwise (when viewed from above); in the Southern Hemisphere, they rotate clockwise, which is due to the action of Coriolis forces from the rotation of the Earth.
In the center of the cyclone, the air pressure is much lower than at its periphery, which is explained by the action of centrifugal forces during the rotation of the cyclone.
Originating in mid-latitudes in places where atmospheric fronts bend, a mid-latitude cyclone gradually forms into an increasingly stable and powerful formation as it moves mainly to the north, where it carries warm air from the south. An incipient cyclone initially captures only the lower, surface layers of air, which are well heated. The vortex grows from bottom to top. With the further development of the cyclone, the influx of air into it continues to occur at the surface of the earth. Rising upward in the central part of the cyclone, this warm air leaves the formed cyclone at an altitude of 6-8 km. The water vapor contained in it at such an altitude, where it is cold, condenses, which leads to the formation of clouds and precipitation.
This picture of the development of a cyclone, recognized today by meteorologists all over the world, was successfully simulated in the “meteotron” installations created in the 70s in the USSR to cause rain and successfully tested in Armenia. Turbojet engines installed on the ground created a swirling stream of hot air rising upward. After some time, a cloud appeared over this place, gradually growing into a cloud that began to rain.
Tropical cyclones behave significantly differently from slow-moving mid-latitude cyclones, which Pacific Ocean They are called typhoons, and in the Atlantic - hurricanes. They have much smaller diameters than mid-latitude ones (100-300 km), but are characterized by large pressure gradients, very strong winds (up to 50 and even 100 m/s) and heavy rains.
Tropical cyclones originate only over the ocean, most often between 5 and 25° north latitude. Closer to the equator, where the deflecting Coriolis forces are small, they are not born, which proves the role of Coriolis forces in the birth of cyclones.
Moving first to the west and then to the north or northeast, tropical cyclones gradually turn into ordinary, but very deep cyclones. Getting from the ocean to land, they quickly fade over it. So in their life, ocean moisture plays a huge role, which, condensing in the ascending vortex air flow, releases a huge amount of latent heat of evaporation. The latter heats the air and increases its rise, which leads to a strong drop in atmospheric pressure when a typhoon or hurricane approaches.

Rice. 6.1. Giant atmospheric vortex-typhoon (view from space)

These giant raging vortices have two mysterious features. The first is that they rarely appear in the Southern Hemisphere. The second is the presence in the center of such a formation of the “eye of the storm” - a zone with a diameter of 15-30 km, which is characterized by calm and clear skies.
Due to their huge diameters, it is possible to see that a typhoon, and even more so a mid-latitude cyclone, is a vortex only from a cosmic altitude. Photos of swirling chains of clouds taken by astronauts are spectacular. But for a ground observer, the most visually visible type of atmospheric vortex is a tornado. The diameter of its column of rotation, reaching towards the clouds, at its thinnest point is 300-1000 m over land, and only tens of meters over the sea. IN North America, where tornadoes appear much more often than in Europe (up to 200 per year), they are called tornadoes. There they originate mainly over the sea, and go wild when they find themselves over land.
The following picture of the birth of a tornado is given: “On May 30, 1979, at 4 o’clock in the afternoon, two clouds, black and dense, met in northern Kansas. 15 minutes after they collided and merged into one cloud, a funnel grew from its lower surface. Quickly lengthening, it took the form of a huge trunk, reached the ground and for three hours, like a gigantic snake, played tricks across the state, smashing and destroying everything that came in its way - houses, farms, schools..."
This tornado tore the 75-meter reinforced concrete bridge from its stone piers, tied it in a knot and threw it into the river. Experts later calculated that to accomplish this, the air flow had to have supersonic speed.
What the air does in tornadoes at such speeds confuses people. Thus, wood chips dispersed in a tornado easily penetrate boards and tree trunks. It is said that the metal pot, captured by the tornado, was turned inside out without tearing the metal. Such tricks are explained by the fact that the deformation of the metal in this case was carried out without a rigid support that could damage the metal, since the object was floating in the air.

Rice. 6.2. Photo of a tornado.

Tornadoes are by no means a rare natural phenomenon, although they appear only in the Northern Hemisphere, so a lot of observational data about them has been accumulated. The cavity of the funnel ("trunk") of a tornado is surrounded by "walls" of air frantically rotating in a spiral counterclockwise (as in a typhoon) (see Fig. 6.3.) Here the air speed reaches 200-300 m/s. Since the static pressure in it decreases as the speed of the gas increases, the “walls” of the tornado suck in the air heated at the surface of the earth, and with it the objects that come across it, like a vacuum cleaner.
All these objects rise upward, sometimes right up to the cloud into which the tornado rests.

The lifting force of tornadoes is very high. Thus, they carry not only small objects, but sometimes livestock and people over considerable distances. On August 18, 1959, in the Minsk region, a tornado lifted a horse to a considerable height and carried it away. The body of the animal was found only one and a half kilometers away. In 1920, in Kansas, a tornado destroyed a school and lifted a teacher with an entire class of schoolchildren and desks into the air. A few minutes later they were all lowered to the ground along with the wreckage of the school. Most of the children and the teacher remained alive and unharmed, but 13 people died.
There are many cases where tornadoes lift people and carry them over considerable distances, after which they remain unharmed. The most paradoxical of them is described in: a tornado in Mytishchi near Moscow hit the family of the peasant woman Selezneva. Having thrown the woman, eldest son and infant into a ditch, he carried away his middle son Petya. He was found only the next day in Moscow's Sokolniki Park. The boy was alive and well, but scared to death. The strangest thing here is that Sokolniki is located from Mytishchi not in the direction where the tornado was moving, but in the opposite direction. It turns out that the boy was carried not along the path of the tornado, but in the opposite direction, where everything had long since calmed down! Or did he travel back in time?
It would seem that objects in a tornado should be carried by a strong wind. But on August 23, 1953, during a tornado in Rostov, it is said in , a strong gust of wind opened the windows and doors in the house. At the same time, the alarm clock, which was standing on the chest of drawers, flew through three doors, the kitchen, the corridor and flew up into the attic of the house. What forces moved him? After all, the building remained unharmed, and the wind, capable of carrying an alarm clock like that, should have completely demolished the building, which has a much greater windage than the alarm clock.
And why do tornadoes, lifting small objects lying in a heap right up to the clouds, lower them at a considerable distance in almost the same heap, not scattering them, but as if pouring out of a sleeve?
The inextricable connection with the mother thundercloud is characteristic difference tornado from other vortex movements of the atmosphere. Either because huge electric currents flow from a thundercloud along the “trunk” of a tornado to the ground, or because dust and water droplets in a tornado vortex are highly electrified from friction, but tornadoes are accompanied high level electrical activity. The cavity of the “trunk” is constantly pierced from wall to wall by electrical discharges. Often it even glows.
But inside the cavity of the “trunk” of a tornado, the vortex movement of air is weakened and is more often directed not from bottom to top, but from top to bottom* (* However, it is stated that in the cavity of the “trunk” of a tornado, air moves from bottom to top, and in its walls, from top to bottom.). There are known cases when such a downward flow inside a tornado became so strong that it pressed objects into the soil (see Fig. 6.3.). The absence of intense rotation in the internal cavity of a tornado makes it similar in this respect to a typhoon. And the “eye of the storm” is present in a tornado before it reaches from the cloud to the ground. Here is how Y. Maslov poetically describes it: “In a thundercloud, an “eye” suddenly appears, precisely an “eye”, with a dead, lifeless pupil. The feeling is that it is peering at its prey. He noticed it! At the same moment, blazing with fire, “With the roar and speed of an express train, it rushes to the ground, leaving behind a long, clearly visible trail - a tail.”
Experts have long been interested in the question of the sources of that truly inexhaustible energy that tornadoes, and even more so typhoons, have at their disposal. It is clear that the thermal energy of huge masses of moist air is ultimately converted into the energy of air movement in an atmospheric vortex. But what makes it concentrate in such small volumes as the body of a tornado? And doesn’t such spontaneous concentration of energy contradict the second law of thermodynamics, which states that thermal energy can only spontaneously dissipate?
There are many hypotheses on this matter, but there are still no clear answers.
Investigating the energy of gas vortices, V. A. Atsyukovsky writes that “the body of the gas vortex is compressed by the environment during the formation of the vortex.” This is confirmed by the fact that the “trunk” of a tornado is thinner than its base, where friction with the ground does not allow it to develop a high rotation speed. Compression of the vortex body by pressure environment causes an increase in the speed of its rotation as a result of the law of conservation of angular momentum. And with an increase in the speed of gas movement in the vortex, the static pressure in it drops even more. It follows from this, Atsyukovsky concludes, that the vortex concentrates the energy of the environment, and this process is fundamentally different from others, accompanied by the dissipation of energy into the environment.
This is where the theory of motion could save the second law of thermodynamics if it were possible to discover that gas vortices emit energy in significant quantities. In view of what was said in section 4.4, the theory of motion requires that when the rotation of air in a tornado or typhoon accelerates, they emit energy no less than they consume to spin up the air. And through a tornado, and even more so a typhoon, during its existence, huge masses of air pass, swirling.
It would seem that it is easier for moist air to throw out “extra” mass-energy without radiating it. In fact, after condensation of moisture, when it is lifted by an atmospheric vortex to a great height, drops of falling rain leave the vortex, and its mass decreases because of this. But the thermal energy of the vortex not only does not decrease because of this, but, on the contrary, increases due to the release of latent heat of evaporation during water condensation. This leads to an increase in the speed of movement in the vortex both due to an increase in the speed of air ascent and due to an increase in the speed of rotation during compression of the vortex body. In addition, removing the mass of water droplets from the vortex does not lead to an increase in the binding energy of the rotating system and to an increase in the mass defect in the remaining vortex. The binding energy of the system would increase (and along with it the stability of the system would increase) if, when accelerating the rotation of the system, part of the internal energy of the system - heat - was removed from it. And heat is most easily removed by radiation.
Apparently, it never occurred to anyone to try to register thermal (infrared and microwave) radiation from tornadoes and typhoons. Maybe it exists, but we just don’t know it yet. However, many people and animals feel the approach of a hurricane even when indoors and without looking at the sky. And it seems that not only because of the drop in atmospheric pressure, which forces the crows to croak from pain in the bones that have voids. People feel something else, frightening for some, exciting for others. Maybe this is torsion radiation, which from a tornado and typhoon should be very intense?
It would be interesting to ask astronauts to take infrared photographs of typhoons from space. It seems that such photographs could tell us a lot of new things.
However, similar photographs of the largest cyclone in the atmospheres of the planets of the Solar System, although not in infrared rays, were taken a long time ago from a cosmic altitude. These are photographs of Jupiter's Great Red Spot, which, as studies of its photographs taken in 1979 from the American spacecraft Voyager 1 revealed, is a huge, permanently existing cyclone in the powerful atmosphere of Jupiter (Fig. 6. 4). The “eye of the storm” of this cyclopean cyclone-typhoon with dimensions of 40x13 thousand km glows even in the visible light range with an ominous red color, which is where its name comes from.

Rice. 6.4. The Great Red Spot (GB) of Jupiter and its surroundings (Voyager 1, 1979).

6.2. Ranke's vortex effect

While studying cyclic separators for purifying gas from dust, the French metallurgical engineer J. Ranquet discovered in the late 20s of the 20th century unusual phenomenon: in the center of the jet, the gas leaving the cyclone had a lower temperature than the original one. Already at the end of 1931, Ranke received the first patent for a device that he called a “vortex tube” (VT), in which the compressed air flow is divided into two streams - cold and hot. Soon he patents this invention in other countries.
In 1933, Ranke gave a report to the French Physical Society about the phenomenon he discovered of the separation of compressed gas in VT. But his message was met with distrust by the scientific community, since no one could explain the physics of this process. After all, scientists had only recently realized the impracticability fantastic idea"Maxwell's demon", which, in order to separate warm gas into hot and cold, had to release fast gas molecules through a micro-hole from a vessel with gas and not release slow ones. Everyone decided that this contradicts the second law of thermodynamics and the law of increasing entropy.

Rice. 6.5. Ranke vortex tube.

For more than 20 years, Ranke's discovery was ignored. And only in 1946 the German physicist R. Hilsch published a work on experimental studies VT, in which he gave recommendations for the design of such devices. Since then, they are sometimes called Ranke-Hilsch pipes.
But back in 1937, the Soviet scientist K. Strakhovich, as described in, without knowing about Ranke’s experiments, theoretically proved in a course of lectures on applied gas dynamics that temperature differences should arise in rotating gas flows. However, only after the Second World War in the USSR, as in many other countries, the widespread use of the vortex effect began. It should be noted that by the beginning of the 70s, Soviet researchers in this direction took world leadership. An overview of some Soviet works on VT is given, for example, in the book, from which we borrowed both the above in this section and much of what is stated below in it.
In the Ranke vortex tube, the diagram of which is shown in Fig. 6.5, a cylindrical pipe 1 is connected at one end to a volute 2, which ends with a nozzle input of rectangular cross-section, which supplies compressed working gas into the pipe tangentially to the circumference of its inner surface. At the other end, the snail is closed by a diaphragm 3 with a hole in the center, the diameter of which is significantly smaller than the internal diameter of pipe 1. Through this hole, a cold gas flow exits pipe 1, which is divided during its vortex movement in pipe 1 into cold (central) and hot (peripheral) parts. The hot part of the flow adjacent to the inner surface of pipe 1, rotating, moves to the far end of pipe 1 and leaves it through the annular gap between its edge and the adjusting cone 4.
B explains that any moving flow of gas (or liquid) has, as is known, two temperatures: thermodynamic (also called static) T, determined by energy thermal movement gas molecules (this temperature would be measured by a thermometer moving along with the gas flow at the same speed V as the flow) and stagnation temperature T0, which is measured by a stationary thermometer placed in the path of the flow. These temperatures are related by the relation

(6.1)

in which C is the specific heat capacity of the gas. The second term in (6.1) describes the increase in temperature due to the deceleration of gas flow at the thermometer. If braking is carried out not only at the measurement point, but throughout the entire cross-section of the flow, then the entire gas is heated to the braking temperature T0. In this case, the kinetic energy of the flow is converted into heat.
Transforming formula (6.1), we obtain the expression

(6.2)

which suggests that as the flow velocity V increases under adiabatic conditions, the thermodynamic temperature decreases.
Note that the last expression applies not only to gas flow, but also to liquid flow. In it, with an increase in the flow velocity V under adiabatic conditions, the thermodynamic temperature of the liquid should also decrease. It was precisely this decrease in the temperature of the water flow accelerated in the tapering conduit to the turbine that L. Gerbrand pointed out, as we noted in section 3.4, when he proposed converting the heat of river water into the kinetic energy of the flow supplied to the turbine of hydroelectric power plants.
Indeed, once again rewriting expression (6.1) in the form

(6.3)

For the increase in kinetic energy of water flow, we obtain the formula

(Here m is the mass of water passing through the conduit).
But let's return to the vortex tube. Accelerating in its entrance scroll to high speed, the gas at the entrance to the cylindrical pipe 1 has a maximum tangential speed VR and the lowest thermodynamic temperature. Then it moves in pipe 1 along a cylindrical spiral to the far outlet, partially closed by cone 4. If this cone is removed, then the entire gas flow will freely exit through the far (hot) end of pipe 1. Moreover, the VT will be sucked through the hole in diaphragm 3 and part of the outside air. (The operation of vortex ejectors, which are smaller in size than direct-flow ones, is based on this principle.)
But by adjusting the gap between cone 4 and the edge of pipe 1, they achieve an increase in pressure in the pipe to such a value at which the suction of external air stops and part of the gas from pipe 1 begins to exit through the hole in the diaphragm 3. In this case, a central (paraxial) gas appears in pipe 1. a vortex flow moving towards the main (peripheral) one, but rotating, as stated in, in the same direction.
In the entire complex of processes occurring in the VT, there are two main ones, which, in the opinion of most researchers, determine the redistribution of energy between the peripheral and central vortex gas flows in it.
The first of the main processes is the restructuring of the field of tangential velocities of rotating flows as they move along the pipe. The rapidly rotating peripheral flow gradually transfers its rotation to the central flow moving towards it. As a result, when the gas particles of the central flow approach diaphragm 3, the rotation of both flows is directed in the same direction, and occurs as if a solid cylinder, and not a gas, is rotating around its axis. Such a vortex is called “quasi-solid”. This name is determined by the fact that the particles of a rotating solid cylinder, in their movement around the cylinder axis, have the same tangential velocity dependence on the distance to the axis: Vr. =. ?r.
The second main process in the VT is the equalization of the thermodynamic temperatures of the peripheral and central flows in each section of the VT, caused by turbulent energy exchange between the flows. Without this equalization, the internal flow, which has lower tangential velocities than the peripheral one, would have a higher thermodynamic temperature than the peripheral one. Since the tangential velocities of the peripheral flow are greater than those of the central flow, after equalizing the thermodynamic temperatures, the stagnation temperature of the peripheral flow moving to the outlet of pipe 1, half-covered by cone 4, turns out to be greater than that of the central flow moving to the hole in the diaphragm 3.
The simultaneous action of the two described main processes leads, according to most researchers, to the transfer of energy from the central gas flow in the VT to the peripheral one and to the separation of gas into cold and hot flows.
This idea of ​​the work of VT remains recognized by the majority of specialists to this day. And the design of the VT has hardly changed since the time of Ranke, although the areas of application of the VT have been expanding ever since then. It was found that VTs that use a conical (small cone angle) pipe instead of a cylindrical one show slightly better operating efficiency. But they are more difficult to manufacture. Most often, VTs operating on gases are used to produce cold, but sometimes, for example, when working in vortex thermostats, both cold and hot flows are used.
Although the vortex tube has a much lower efficiency than other types of industrial refrigerators, which is due to the large energy costs of compressing the gas before feeding it into the VT, the extreme simplicity of the design and unpretentiousness of the VT make it indispensable for many applications.
VT can operate with any gaseous working fluids (for example, water vapor) and at a wide variety of pressure differences (from fractions of an atmosphere to hundreds of atmospheres). The range of gas flow rates in VT is also very wide (from fractions of m3/hour to hundreds of thousands of m3/hour), and therefore the range of their capacities. At the same time, with an increase
The diameter of the VT (that is, with an increase in its power) also increases the efficiency of the VT.
When VT is used to produce cold and hot gas flows simultaneously, the pipe is made uncooled. Such VTs are called adiabatic. But when using only a cold flow, it is more profitable to use VTs, in which the pipe body or its far (hot) end is cooled by a water jacket or other method forcibly. Cooling allows you to increase the cooling capacity of the VT.

6.3. Vortex tube paradoxes

The vortex tube, which became that “Maxwell’s demon”, which separates fast gas molecules from slow ones, did not receive recognition for a long time after its invention by J. Ranke. In general, any processes and devices, if they do not receive a theoretical justification and scientific explanation, in our "enlightened" age are almost certainly doomed to rejection. This, if you like, is the flip side of enlightenment: everything that does not find an immediate explanation has no right to exist! And in Ranke's pipe, even after the appearance of the above explanation of her work, much remained and remains unclear. Unfortunately, the authors of books and textbooks rarely note the ambiguities of certain issues, but, on the contrary, more often seek to circumvent and veil them in order to create the appearance of the omnipotence of science. The book is no exception in this regard.
So, on her page 25 when explaining the process of redistribution! energy in the VT by rearranging the velocity field of rotating gas flows and the emergence of a “quasi-solid” vortex, one can notice some confusion. For example), we read: “When the central flow moves towards... it experiences increasingly intense swirling from the external flow. In this process, when the outer layers twist the internal ones, as a result... the tangential velocities of the internal flow decrease, and those of the external flow increase ". The illogicality of this phrase makes one wonder if the authors of the book are trying to hide something that cannot be explained, to create the appearance of logic where there is none?
Attempts to create a theory of VT by constructing and solving a system of gas-dynamic equations describing processes in VT have led many authors to insurmountable mathematical difficulties. Meanwhile, the study of the vortex effect by experimenters revealed more and more new features in it, the justification of which turned out to be impossible according to any of the accepted hypotheses.
In the 70s, the development of cryogenic technology stimulated the search for new possibilities of the vortex effect, since other existing cooling methods - throttling, ejection and expansion of gases - did not provide a solution to the practical problems that arose in cooling in large volumes and liquefying gases with low condensation temperatures. Therefore, research into the operation of vortex coolers continued even more intensively.
The most interesting results in this direction were achieved by Leningraders V. E. Finko. In his vortex cooler with a VT having a cone angle of up to 14°, air cooling to 30°K was achieved. A significant increase in the cooling effect was noted with an increase in gas pressure at the inlet to 4 MPa and higher, which contradicted the generally accepted point of view that at a pressure of more than 1 MPa, the efficiency of HT practically does not increase with increasing pressure.
This and other features discovered during tests of a vortex cooler with subsonic inlet flow velocities, which do not agree with the existing ideas about the vortex effect and the methodology adopted in the literature for calculating the cooling of gases with its help, prompted V. E. Finko to analyze these discrepancies.
He noticed that the stagnation temperatures of not only cold (Hox), but also “hot” (Hog) outgoing gas flows turned out to be significantly lower than the temperature T of the gas supplied to its VT. This meant that the energy balance in its VT did not correspond to the well-known Hilsch balance equation for adiabatic VT.

(6.5)

where I is the specific enthalpy of the working gas,

In the available literature, Finko did not find any works devoted to testing relation (6.5). In published works, as a rule, the fraction of cold flow JLI was determined by calculation using the formula

(6.6)

based on the results of temperature measurements Tovkh Gog Gokh. The last formula is obtained from (6.5) using the conditions:
V.E. Finko creates the stand described in, on which, along with measuring stagnation temperatures of flows, gas flow rates Ovx, Ox, Og were measured. As a result, it was firmly established that expression (6.5) is unacceptable for calculating the energy balance of VT, since the difference in the specific enthalpies of the incoming and outgoing flows in the experiments was 9-24% and increased with increasing inlet pressure or with decreasing temperature of the incoming gas. Finko notes that some discrepancy between relation (6.5) and test results was observed earlier in the works of other researchers, for example in, where the value of discrepancy was 10-12%, but was explained by the authors of these works by the inaccuracy of flow measurements.
Further, V.E. Finko notes that none of the previously proposed mechanisms of heat exchange in HT, including the mechanism of countercurrent turbulent heat exchange, explains the high rates of heat removal from the gas, which lead to significant temperature differences recorded by him (~70°K and more) in its vortex cooler. He offers his explanation for the cooling of gas in the VT by the “work of vortex expansion of gas” carried out inside the pipe over the portions of gas that previously entered there, as well as over the external atmosphere where the gas exits.
Here we should note that in the general case the energy balance of VT has the form:

(6.7)

where Wokhl is the amount of heat removed per unit time from the VT body due to its natural or artificial cooling. When calculating adiabatic tubes, the last term in (6.7) is neglected due to its smallness, since the VTs usually have small sizes and their heat exchange with the surrounding air through convection is insignificant compared to the heat exchange between gas flows inside the VT. And when artificially cooled VTs operate, the last term in (6.7) ensures an increase in the proportion of the cold gas flow leaving the VT. In the Finko vortex cooler there was no artificial cooling, and natural convection heat exchange with the surrounding atmospheric air was insignificant.
Finko’s next experiment, described in, seemingly had no direct relation to issues of heat transfer in VT. But it is precisely this that makes us most strongly doubt not only the correctness of the previously existing ideas about the mechanism of heat exchange between gas flows in the VT, but also, in general, the correctness of the entire generally accepted picture of the operation of the VT. Finko inserts a thin rod along the axis of his VT, the other end of which is fixed in a bearing. When the VT is operating, the rod begins to rotate at a speed of up to 3000 rpm, driven by the rotating central gas flow in the VT. But only the direction of rotation of the rod turned out to be opposite to the direction of rotation of the main (peripheral) vortex gas flow in the VT!
From this experiment we can conclude that the rotation of the central gas flow is directed opposite to the rotation of the peripheral (main) flow. But this contradicts the prevailing idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"quasi-solid" rotation of gas in the VT.
In addition to all this, V.E. Finko recorded infrared radiation of the band spectrum in the wavelength range of 5-12 microns at the exit of the cold gas flow from his VT, the intensity of which increased with increasing gas pressure at the entrance to the VT. Sometimes “blue radiation emanating from the core of the flow” was also visually observed. However, the researcher did not attach much importance to the radiation, noting the presence of radiation as a curious accompanying effect and did not even give the values ​​of its intensities. This suggests that Finko did not connect the presence of this radiation with the mechanism of heat transfer in the VT.
This is where we must again recall the mechanism proposed in Sections 4.4 and 4.5 for dumping “extra” mass-energy from a system of bodies being driven into rotation to generate the necessary negative binding energy of the system. We wrote that it is easiest for electrically charged bodies to release energy. When they rotate, they can simply emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or photons. In a flow of any gas there is always a certain number of ions, the movement of which in a circle or arc in a vortex flow should lead to the emission of electromagnetic waves.
True, at technical frequencies of rotation of the vortex, the intensity of radio wave radiation by a moving ion, calculated using the well-known formula for cyclotron radiation at the fundamental frequency, turns out to be extremely low. But cyclotron radiation is not the only and far from the most important of the possible mechanisms for the emission of photons from a rotating gas. There are a number of other possible mechanisms, for example, through excitation of gas molecules by ion-acoustic vibrations with subsequent emission of excited molecules. We are talking here about cyclotron radiation only because its mechanism is most understandable to the engineer who is reading this book. Let us repeat once again that when nature needs to radiate energy from a system of moving bodies, it has a thousand ways to do it. Moreover, from such a system as a gas vortex, in which there are so many possibilities for radiation that are understandable even with today’s development of science.
V. E. Finko recorded the band spectrum of electromagnetic radiation with
wavelength =10 µm. The band spectrum is characteristic of thermal radiation of gas molecules. Solids produce a continuous spectrum of radiation. From this we can conclude that in Finko’s experiments it was the radiation of the working gas, and not the metal casing of the VT, that was recorded.
The thermal radiation of a rotating gas can consume not the rest mass of the emitting molecules or ions, but the thermal energy of the gas as the most mobile part of its internal energy. Thermal collisions between gas molecules not only excite the molecules, but also feed the ions with kinetic energy, which they emit in the form of electromagnetic energy. And it seems that the rotation of the gas somehow (perhaps through a torsion field) stimulates this radiation process. As a result of the emission of photons, the gas is cooled to lower temperatures than follows from the known theories of heat exchange between the central and peripheral vortex flows in the VT.
Unfortunately, Finko’s work does not indicate the intensity of the observed radiation, and therefore nothing can yet be said about the magnitude of the power carried away by it. But he noted heating of the inner surface of the walls of the VT by at least 5°K, which could be due to heating by this particular radiation.
In this regard, the following hypothesis arises about the process of heat removal from the central flow to the peripheral vortex gas flow in the VT. The gas of both the central and peripheral flows emits photons during their rotation. It would seem that the peripheral one should radiate more intensely, since it has a higher tangential speed. But the central flow is in an intense axial torsion field, which stimulates the emission of photons by excited molecules and ions. (This, in Finko’s experiments, proves the presence of a blue glow precisely from the “core” of the flow.) In this case, the gas of the flow is cooled due to the radiation leaving it, which carries away energy, and the radiation is absorbed by the walls of the pipe, which are heated by this radiation. But the peripheral gas flow, in contact with the pipe walls, removes this heat and heats up. As a result, the central vortex flow turns out to be cold, and the peripheral one is heated.
Thus, the VT body plays the role of an intermediate body, ensuring heat transfer from the central vortex flow to the peripheral one.
It is clear that when the VT body is made cooled, the heat transfer from it to the peripheral gas flow is reduced due to a decrease in the temperature difference between the pipe body and the gas in it, and the cooling capacity of the VT increases.
This hypothesis also explains the violation of the thermal balance discovered by Finko, which we discussed above. Indeed, if part of the radiation leaves the VT through its outlets (and this part can be ~10%, judging by the geometry of the device used by Finko), then the energy carried away by this part of the radiation is no longer registered by instruments that measure the stagnation temperature of the gas at the pipe outlets. The fraction of radiation leaving the pipe especially increases if the radiation is generated predominantly near the opening of the diaphragm 3 of the pipe (see Fig. 6.5), where the gas rotation speeds are maximum.
A few more words must be said about heating the peripheral gas flow in the VT. When V.E. Finko installed a gas flow “straightener” (lattice “brake”) at the “hot” end of his VT; the “hot” part of the outgoing gas flow after the “straightener” already had a temperature 30-60°K higher than Tovx. At the same time, the share of the cold flow increased due to a decrease in the flow area for removing the “hot” part of the flow, and the temperature of the cold part of the flow was no longer as low as when working without a “straightener”.
After installing the “straightener,” Finko notes a very intense noise when its VT operates. And he explains the heating of the gas when a “straightener” is placed in the pipe (which, as his estimates showed, could not heat up so much only due to the friction of the gas flow against the “straightener”) by the occurrence of sound vibrations in the gas, the resonator of which is the pipe. Finko called this process “a mechanism of wave expansion and compression of gas,” leading to its heating.
It is clear that the inhibition of rotation of the gas flow should have led to the conversion of part of the kinetic energy of the flow into heat. But the mechanism of this transformation was revealed only in Finko’s work.
The foregoing shows that the vortex tube still conceals many mysteries and that the ideas about its operation that have existed for decades require a radical revision.

6.4. Counterflow hypothesis in vortices

Vortex motion contains so much unexplored that there will be enough work for more than one generation of theorists and experimenters. And at the same time, vortex motion is apparently the most common type of motion in nature. Indeed, all those bodies (planets, stars, electrons in an atom, etc.), about which we wrote in section 4.1 that they perform circular motion, usually also move translationally. And when adding their rotational and translational movements, the result is a spiral movement.
There are two main types of spirals: cylindrical helical spirals, which we discussed in section 4.3, and the Archimedes spiral, the radius of which increases with the number of turns. This is the appearance of spiral galaxies - the largest vortices in nature.
And the superposition of rotational motion along the Archimedes spiral and translational motion along its axis also gives a third type of spiral - conical. Water moves along such a spiral, flowing out of the bath into the pipe at its bottom, and air in the tornado. Gas moves along the same conical spiral in technical cyclones. There, with each revolution, the radius of the particle trajectory decreases.

Rice. 6.6. Velocity profile of free submerged jets of varying degrees of twist:
a - direct-flow jet; b - weakly swirling jet; c - moderately swirling jet; d - strongly swirling closed jet; d - strongly swirled open jet; a - wall; b - hole in the wall; с- jet boundaries; d - velocity profile at various distances from the wall; e - jet axis; [Y is the axial speed.

But in a Finko vortex cooler, which has a conical vortex tube, the peripheral gas flow moves along an expanding conical spiral, and the counter axial flow moves along a tapering one. This configuration of flows in the VT and technical cyclone is determined by the geometry of the walls of the apparatus.
When considering a vortex tube in Section 6.2, we wrote that reverse axial flow in it occurs when the gas outlet through the far (hot) end of the tube is partially blocked, and excess pressure is created in it, forcing the gas to seek a second outlet from the tube. This explanation of the occurrence of counter axial flow in the VT is currently generally accepted.
But experts in swirling jets, which are widely used, for example, to create torches in the burners of thermal power plants, note that a counterflow along the axis of the swirling jet also occurs in the absence of walls of the apparatus. A study of the velocity profiles of free submerged jets (see Fig. 6.6) shows that the reverse axial flow increases with increasing degree of jet twist.
The physical cause of the counterflow has not been clarified. Most experts believe that it appears because with an increase in the degree of twist of the jet, centrifugal forces throw particles of its gas to the periphery, as a result of which a rarefaction zone is created at the axis of the jet, where atmospheric air rushes,
located in front along the axis of the jet.
But the works show that the reverse flow is associated not so much with the static pressure gradient in the jet, but with the ratio of the tangential and axial (axial) components of its speed. For example, jets formed by a swirler with a tangential blade apparatus, with a blade angle of 40-45°, have a large vacuum in the axial region, but do not have reverse flows. Why they are not there remains a mystery to specialists.
Let's try to unravel it, or rather, explain in a different way the reason for the appearance of axial countercurrents in swirling jets.
As we have repeatedly noted, the easiest way to remove “extra” mass-energy from a system set into rotation is by emitting photons. But this is not the only possible channel. We can also propose the following hypothesis, which at first will seem incredible to some mechanics.
The path to this hypothesis was long and was made by more than one generation of physicists. Viktor Schauberger, a brilliant Austrian nugget, a forester who studied physics in his spare time, who devoted a lot of time in the 20s to understanding vortex motion, noticed that with the spontaneous spinning of water flowing into a pipe from a bathtub, the time for emptying the bathtub decreases. This means that in the vortex not only the tangential, but also the axial flow velocity increases. By the way, this effect has long been noticed by beer lovers. At their competitions, in an effort to get the contents of the bottle into their mouths as quickly as possible, they usually first swirl the beer in the bottle very hard before tilting it back.
We don’t know whether Schauberger loved beer (what Austrian doesn’t love it!), but he tried to explain this paradoxical fact by the fact that in a vortex the energy of thermal motion of the molecules in it is converted into the kinetic energy of the axial movement of the jet. He pointed out that although such an opinion contradicts the second law of thermodynamics, no other explanation can be found, and the decrease in the temperature of water in a whirlpool is an experimental fact.
Based on the laws of conservation of energy and momentum, it is usually believed that when a jet twists into a longitudinal vortex, part of the kinetic energy of the translational motion of the jet is converted into the energy of its rotation, and they think that as a result the axial speed of the jet should decrease. This, as stated, for example, in, should lead to a decrease in the range of free submerged jets when they swirl.
Moreover, in hydraulic engineering they usually do their best to combat fluid turbulence in devices for its overflow and strive to ensure irrotational laminar flow. This is due to the fact that, as described, for example, in, the appearance of a vortex cord in a liquid flow entails the formation of a funnel on the surface of the liquid above the entrance to the drain pipe. The funnel begins to vigorously suck in air, the entry of which into the pipe is undesirable. In addition, it is mistakenly believed that the appearance of a funnel with air, which reduces the proportion of the inlet hole cross-section occupied by liquid, also reduces the flow rate of liquid through this hole.
The experience of beer lovers shows that those who think so are mistaken: despite the decrease in the proportion of the hole’s cross-section occupied by the liquid flow, the latter, when the flow rotates, flows out through the hole faster than without rotation.
If L. Gerbrand, whom we wrote about in section 3.4, sought to achieve an increase in the power of hydroelectric power plants only by straightening the flow of water to the turbine and gradually narrowing the conduit so that the water acquired as high a speed as possible forward movement, then Schauberger also equipped the tapering conduit with screw guides, spinning the flow of water into a longitudinal vortex, and at the end of the conduit he placed an axial turbine of a fundamentally new design. (Austrian Patent No. 117749 dated May 10, 1930)
The peculiarity of this turbine (see Fig. 6.7) is that it does not have blades, which in conventional turbines cross the flow of water and, breaking it, waste a lot of energy to overcome the forces surface tension and cohesion of water molecules. This leads not only to energy losses, but also to the appearance of cavitation phenomena, causing erosion of the turbine metal.
The Schauberger turbine has a conical shape with spiraling blades in the form of a corkscrew, screwing into a swirling flow of water. It does not break the flow and does not create cavitation. It is not known whether such a turbine has ever been implemented in practice, but its design certainly contains very promising ideas.
However, we are interested here not so much in Schauberger’s turbine as in his statement that the energy of thermal motion of water molecules in a vortex flow can be transformed into the kinetic energy of a water flow. In this regard, the most interesting are the results of experiments carried out in 1952 by W. Schauberger together with Professor Franz Popel at the Technical College of Stuttgart, which are described by Joseph Hasslberger from Rome.
Studying the influence of the shape of the conduit channel and the material of its walls on the hydrodynamic resistance to the swirling flow of water in it, experimenters discovered that the best results are achieved with copper walls. But the most surprising thing is that with a channel configuration resembling an antelope horn, friction in the channel decreases with increasing water speed, and after exceeding a certain critical speed, water flows with negative resistance, that is, it is sucked into the channel and accelerates in it.

Rice. 6.7. Schauberg turbine

Hasslberger agrees with Schauberger that here the vortex transforms the heat of the water into the kinetic energy of its flow. But he notes that “thermodynamics, as taught in schools and universities, does not allow such a transformation of heat at low temperature differences.” However, Hasslberger points out, modern thermodynamics is not able to explain many other natural phenomena.
And this is where the theory of motion can help to understand why vortex motion ensures, seemingly contrary to the prevailing ideas of thermodynamics, the conversion of the heat of a swirling flow of matter into the energy of its axial motion in accordance with formula (6.4). The twisting of the flow in a vortex forces part of the heat, which is part of the internal energy of the system, to be converted into kinetic energy of the translational motion of the flow along the axis of the vortex. Why along the axis? Yes, because then the velocity vector of the acquired translational motion turns out to be perpendicular to the vector of the instantaneous tangential velocity of the rotational motion of particles in the flow and does not change the value of the latter. In this case, the law of conservation of angular momentum of the flow is observed.
In addition, the acceleration of particles in the direction perpendicular to the direction of their main (circular) motion in the vortex leads to a relativistic increase in their transverse, rather than longitudinal, mass. On the need to separately take into account the transverse and longitudinal masses of elementary particles* (This is reminiscent of separately calculating longitudinal and transverse Doppler effects.) wrote a lot in initial stage formation of STR (see, for example, .) Namely, the longitudinal mass (corresponding in this case to the tangential speed of movement of particles in the vortex) determines the magnitude of centrifugal forces during circular motion. When part of the internal energy of the system is converted into kinetic energy of the axial (axial) motion of bodies in it, centrifugal forces do not increase. Therefore, the energy of the emerging axial motion appears to have disappeared from the problem of circular motion, which is mathematically equivalent to its departure from the rotating system without any emission of photons.
But the law of conservation of momentum of the system requires that if a vortex flow acquires an axial momentum, some other body (for example, the body of a vortex apparatus) simultaneously acquires an impulse of the same absolute value in the opposite direction. In closed vortex devices, for example in vortex tubes, and also when there is no contact of the vortex flow with the walls of the device (as in some cases of free swirling jets), the axial part of the flow, which has a lower tangential speed than the peripheral part, is forced to acquire the reverse impulse. However, the recoil impulse can also be carried away by an axial (axial) flow of photons or neutrinos generated during rotational motion, which will be discussed in the eleventh chapter.
This is, in general terms, the true, from our point of view, reason for the appearance of countercurrent both in vortex tubes and in swirling jets.

Conclusions to the chapter

1 Atmospheric vortices are characterized by predominantly right-handed air movement in them and the presence of an “eye of the storm” - a central zone of slow movements or calm.
2. Tornadoes still have a number of mysteries: ultra-high speeds of air and trapped objects in them, extraordinary lifting force exceeding the pressure force of the air flow, the presence of glows, etc.
3. The thermal energy of masses of moist air is converted into energy of movement in atmospheric vortices. In this case, energy concentration occurs, which at first glance contradicts the principles of thermodynamics.
4. The contradiction with thermodynamics is removed if we assume that atmospheric vortices, in accordance with the requirements of the theory of motion, generate thermal (infrared and microwave) radiation.
5. The discovery in the 30s by J. Ranquet of the effect of gas separation in a vortex tube into hot near-wall and cold axial vortex flows marked the beginning of a number of new directions in technology, but still does not have a sufficiently complete and consistent theoretical explanation.
6. Works of V.E. Finko in the 80s cast doubt on the correctness of some generally accepted ideas about processes in a vortex tube: energy balance in it, the mechanism of countercurrent turbulent heat exchange, etc.
7. V.E. Finko discovered that the cold axial counterflow in the vortex tube has a direction of rotation opposite to the direction of rotation of the main (peripheral) gas flow, and that the gas vortex tube generates infrared radiation of the band spectrum, and sometimes also blue radiation emanating from the axial zone.
8. Placing a brake - a gas flow straightener - at the hot end of the vortex tube leads to
as discovered by V.E. Finko, to the emergence of intense sound vibrations in the gas, the resonator of which is the pipe, and to their strong heating of the gas flow.
9. A mechanism is proposed for heat removal from the axial counterflow of gas in the vortex tube to the peripheral flow due to radiation stimulated by the acceleration of gas rotation by the axial flow of photons, which heat the walls of the vortex tube, and heat is transferred from them to the peripheral gas flow washing them.
10. Axial counterflow occurs not only in vortex tubes, but also in free swirling jets, where there are no walls of the apparatus, the reason for which has not yet been fully elucidated.
11. W. Schauberger pointed out in the 30s that in a vortex, part of the energy of the thermal movement of the molecules in it is transformed into the kinetic energy of the axial movement of a water jet, and proposed using this.
12. The theory of motion explains the Schauberger effect by the fact that the swirling of the water flow causes part of the thermal energy of the molecules, which is the internal energy of the flow, not to leave the swirling flow in the form of radiation, but to be transformed into the kinetic energy of the flow in the direction perpendicular to the tangential speed of twisting, along axis of the vortex flow. The latter is required by the law of conservation of angular momentum of flow. And the law of conservation of momentum along its axis of rotation requires that when
In this case, either a countercurrent appeared, or axial radiation of photons or neutrinos was born, compensating for the change in the longitudinal momentum of the flow.