Order Artiodactyls, or artiodactyls (artiodactyla) These are herbivorous or omnivorous animals of medium and large size, of various builds, which have a pair of fingers on their feet. Of these, the third and fourth are equally well developed, covered with horny

Suborder Toothless whales The largest whales belong to this group. The body is streamlined, elongated, with a huge head. They have no teeth, numerous horny plates hang from the upper jaw - a whalebone, which forms a giant sieve that delays

Suborder Toothed whales Unlike baleen whales, they have single-pointed teeth, a small mouth and tongue. They navigate underwater and find food mainly with the help of echolocation and excellent hearing. They use sophisticated sound signaling. Most toothed whales are

Order Artiodactyls The order includes herbivorous animals of medium and large sizes, adapted to fast running. Most have long legs with a pair of toes (2 or 4) covered with hooves. The axis of the limb passes between the third and fourth

Suborder Non-ruminant artiodactyls This suborder includes wild boar, hippopotamus, etc. All representatives of this order have a massive body, a short neck and a small tail. The limbs are small, four-fingered, ending in hooves. They eat plant foods, among them there are

Suborder Semi-monkeys This group includes lemurs, tarsiers, and others. Lemurs (lemur vari, ring-tailed lemur etc.) are common in Madagascar and some neighboring islands. They have a somewhat elongated muzzle, large, golden eyes, a tail longer than the body,

Suborder Monkeys Most of them live in tropical forests, some choose rocky mountains. All of them are well adapted to climbing, many have a grasping tail, which is used as a rudder when making a long jump. In addition, with a tail

Ruminants feed on fiber, which they can only digest with the help of bacteria.[ ...]

A goat is a ruminant animal. She has a four-chambered stomach, including a scar, mesh, booklet, abomasum.[ ...]

The stomach of ruminants (for example, deer, cattle and antelopes) consists of four sections, and swallowed food first enters one of them, which is called the mesh. The first chewing leads to grinding food to particles with a volume of 1-1000 μl, and some of them can reach a length of 10 cm. Only particles with a volume of no more than 5 μl can pass from the grid to the next section of the stomach, the book; larger animals regurgitate and chew again (continuous "cud chewing" process). The scar is inhabited by numerous bacteria (1010-1011 in 1 ml) and protozoa (105-106 in 1 ml); The pH of the environment in it is regulated by animals due to the release of salivary glands a secret containing 100-140 mm bicarbonate and 10-50 mm phosphate. Thus, a continuous influx of substrates and control of the conditions of its fermentation by microorganisms is provided by the host itself, and the products of microbial fermentation are the main source of nutrition for it (Fig. 13.4).[ ...]

When administered parenterally to ruminants, the metabolism of this pesticide does not differ significantly from the changes it undergoes in other animal species. LDbo DNOC for sheep when ingested through the mouth is 200 mg / kg, for goats - 100 mg / kg.[ ...]

Herbivores, in order to digest plant food, need to chew it thoroughly (ruminants), and birds grind it in their muscular stomach. Carnivores do not need to chew anything at all, since in the meat of the victim all the components they need for life are contained in a form ready for assimilation, so the food can be swallowed whole.[ ...]

It is important to observe the mode of watering animals. During water starvation in animals, water-salt metabolism is disturbed. There is a thickening of the blood. The activity of organs and systems is disrupted. The productivity of animals, especially lactating cows, is sharply reduced. During grazing, animals are recommended to drink at least 3 times a day: the first time - 2 hours after the start of grazing; the last time - 2 hours before its end. High-yielding cows are watered 4-5 times a day. The need of cows for water especially increases after milking. Watering cattle and sheep immediately after feeding clover or alfalfa can lead to swelling (tympania) of the rumen and death of the animals. Therefore, when grazing on legumes, ruminants are recommended to drink water no earlier than 2.5-3 hours after eating.[ ...]

The mutualistic nature of the connection between ruminants and ruminal microflora is obvious: the microbes receive a constant source of food and fairly stable conditions, and the animal receives substances available for digestion from feed, ¡which cannot be processed using its own enzymes.[ ...]

During rest, the physical activity of animals is limited. They take a peculiar pose, their body is relaxed, their eyes are usually closed. During this period, the process of chewing food is activated in ruminants (when the animal moves, it is weakened and even suppressed). Timely provision of rest helps to improve digestion, increase the productivity of animals, and prevent their morbidity.[ ...]

We have seen that, both among plants and among animals, there are very diverse relationships that can be considered a mutualistic symbiosis. This includes associations of two completely different organisms that are related by behavioral reactions, but spend part of their life cycle independently of each other and retain their individual characteristics (gobies and shrimps, pigeon butterflies and ants). Next in terms of complexity are chemostat-type ecosystems (strictly external to tissues) in the rumen of ruminants and the caecum of termites; then - intercellular ectomycorrhiza and intracellular zooxanthellae of the coelenterates. These stages can be regarded as successive stages of integration - first individual members of the community, and then, as it were, parts of one "organism".[ ...]

Fenuron has a gonadotropic effect on ruminants; this explains the fact that intoxication of animals with this drug is accompanied by abortions.[ ...]

For poisoning of farm animals with herbicides of this group, the following symptoms are characteristic: salivation, body trembling, lethargy, general depression, tympania (in ruminants), lack of appetite, and sometimes impaired coordination of movements.[ ...]

That part of the drug that is absorbed by the tissues of the animal decomposes, apparently as a result of hydrolysis to pyruvic, acetic acid and CO2. In the rumen of ruminants, dalapon is not exposed to microflora.[ ...]

In order for tree greens to be better absorbed by animals, it must be crushed. In unground form, ruminants are fed with green leaves, small leafy branches (up to 6 mm in diameter), fresh bark of young trees, although it is better to grind them as well.[ ...]

The collection is devoted to the physiology and biochemistry of protein nutrition in ruminants different direction productivity and age. Outlined modern concepts assessment of feed protein and rationing of nitrogenous substances for animals. The effect of diets with different levels of digestible protein on productivity and metabolism in cows is shown. Principles new system protein nutrition of highly productive cows.[ ...]

Energy nutritional value of feed. Energy is t[ ...]

In deeper layers of soil and sediments (as well as in the body of large animals, for example, in the rumen of ruminants, where anaerobic conditions exist), the content of CO2 increases, and oxygen becomes a limiting factor for aerobes. The role of man in the CO2 cycle was considered in Chap. 4.[ ...]

The transformation of fiber by microbes in the complex stomach of ruminants has been studied in great detail (Hangate, 1963). This system is an environment with a continuous supply of nutrients to high level. Activities can be characterized using a parameter such as speed, assuming that they are constant. Using this principle, Hungate and colleagues found out which organisms are involved in the transformation of cellulose, and determined the end products and energy balance the entire system. Since this system is anaerobic, it is inefficient for bacterial growth (only 10% of the energy is assimilated by bacteria), but it is precisely because of this inefficiency that ruminants can even exist on such a substrate as fiber. The main part of the energy obtained as a result of the activity of microbes is stored in fatty acids, which are formed from fiber, but do not decompose further. Ruminants can directly assimilate these end products. Thus, the term "efficiency" can be quite misleading. In this example, anaerobic metabolism is inefficient for bacteria, but highly efficient for ruminants.[ ...]

It is known that the microbiological processes occurring in the intestines of farm animals (especially ruminants) play a huge role in digestion. The content of microorganisms in the alimentary canal is very high (up to 1 billion different bacteria can be found in 1 g of c la or the contents of the rumen), their composition is diverse. All these organisms in the process of life form and secrete into the intestines various substances that can be beneficial or toxic to the animal.[ ...]

While lead enters the human body through the food chain from plant foods through the liver and kidneys of ruminants, mercury mainly accumulates in fish and shellfish and also in the liver and kidneys of mammals. In the 1970s, when mercury-containing preparations were widely used in seed treatment, accidents were reported when working with treated seed. Mercury enters the body mainly in the form of methyl compounds (see Equation 3.19). It is accepted that the annual dose for an adult is 18 mg of mercury or 10 mg of methylmercury; the actual dose in Germany is about 5.7 mg per year.[ ...]

Ungulates are divided into two orders: equids (horse, donkey, zebra, rhinoceros, tapir), these are herbivorous animals; artiodactyls (deer, cows, giraffes, goats, sheep) herbivorous ruminants.[ ...]

Mutualism brings benefits to both partners - in symbiosis it is vital, in proto-cooperation it is not very significant. So, ruminants and microorganisms of their rumen cannot exist without each other, and hydra, on the contrary, can live without chlorella algae, like that one without it.[ ...]

These bacteria live under strictly anaerobic conditions in the silt of reservoirs, in swamps and other places, as well as in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. Especially a lot of them in the rumen of ruminants.[ ...]

Animal farms can be another source of methane, since CH4 is spontaneously released in manure storages. According to some reports, ruminants emit up to 15% of all methane into the atmosphere.[ ...]

for goats highest value have vitamins A, D and E. Other vitamins, for example, group B, are synthesized in the rumen, due to which ruminants cover the need for them.[ ...]

Some other mutualistic connections are already important to the community. Wood is one of the main biological resources of our planet, but there are very few higher animals in the world that are able to digest cellulose and lignins, these main components of wood. In the zone of a cold temperate climate, the decomposition of wood is carried out mainly by higher fungi. In warm temperate and tropical climates, a lot of dead wood is consumed by termites, which contain special flagellar protozoa in their digestive tract that are able to use wood as food. From this partnership, the protozoa get a home and a supply of termite-crushed wood particles for food, and the termites feed on the excess sugars they get from the over-digested wood they need. Large herbivorous mammals need symbiotic bacteria living in the rumen, a special part of the stomach of ruminants, to digest plant tissues. Some higher plants (especially legumes) depend on a partnership with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that settle in the roots of these species: the plant supplies the bacteria with food, and the bacteria supply the plant with nitrogen.[ ...]

It was along the path of strengthening symbioses that many of the original life forms evolved before they became single living organisms. For example, the microorganisms that inhabit the food tract of ruminants are not part of the cow's body at all. But only they are able to form fatty acids from the fiber eaten by the cow, which the cow can assimilate. Cows cannot digest fiber directly, and therefore they will die of starvation if their food tract is sterilized, even if there is an abundance of herbs around. Bacteria, in turn, in the cow's alimentary tract are provided with a stable environment with a constant temperature.[ ...]

The rumen micro-organisms are constantly multiplying and at the same time decreasing in numbers as its contents pass into the intestines. Further digestion of food, including some microbes, occurs in the intestine due to the ruminant's own enzymes. The main products of digestion in the rumen are volatile fatty acids (acids (acetic, propionic, butyric), ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane. Fatty acids are absorbed and serve as the main source of carbon nutrition for the ruminant. Especially important is propionic acid, the only one that can be converted by these animals into carbohydrates and is indispensable for their metabolism - substances, especially during lactation.[ ...]

The content of cobalt in plants primarily depends on the presence of its soluble compounds in the soil. The lack of cobalt in some soils (less than 2...2.5 mg/kg of soil) leads to a decrease in its content in plants, which in turn causes a serious disease of animals that feed on these plants. The reduced content of cobalt in feed - less than 0.07 mg/kg of dry matter - leads to a sharp decrease in the productivity of farm animals; live weight gain decreases, milk yields decrease. Cobalt regulates metabolism and promotes blood formation. With its deficiency in ruminants, the content of vitamin B12 is sharply reduced in the rumen, liver, and also in milk. The amount of other important vitamins also decreases.[ ...]

Cellulose is the main food for these organisms and an enzyme is needed to digest it. There is evidence of the formation of cellulase also in higher plants, where its role is apparently reduced to the softening of cell walls before their growth. For higher plants and most higher animals (except ruminants), cellulose is not nutrient. Since cellulose is insoluble, it must be broken down outside the cell membrane, i.e., on the surface of the fungal cell or at some distance from it. At the points of contact of fungal hyphae with the cell walls of cellulose materials, holes are formed, and the dissolution of the cell walls is observed even at some distance from the penetrating hyphae. During cultivation, fungi secrete cellulolytic enzymes into the culture medium. Almost nothing is known about the secretion mechanism, although it can be assumed that live cells are secreted, and not dead ones.[ ...]

Methane (CH4) also plays a significant role in the greenhouse effect, accounting for approximately 19% of its total value (as of 1995). Methane is formed in anaerobic conditions such as natural swamps different type, the thickness of seasonal and permafrost, rice plantations, landfills, as well as as a result of the vital activity of ruminants and termites. Estimates show that about 20% of total methane emissions are associated with fossil fuel technologies (fuel combustion, emissions from coal mines, extraction and distribution natural gas, oil refining). In total, anthropogenic activity provides 60-80% of the total methane emission into the atmosphere.[ ...]

In the USA and in other foreign countries, a special grade of urea with a content of 42% N is used for feed purposes. However, experience has shown that urea with a content of 45-46% nitrogen can also be used. In France, urea (44% N) is produced, which is supplied in microgranules, processed in a special way to improve the appetite of ruminants. In the USSR, to improve the efficiency of animal husbandry, the production of carbamide concentrate is being organized. This product must have a protein equivalent (total nitrogen in terms of a factor of 6.25) in the range of 40-80%.[ ...]

Adaptations can be morphological, expressed in the adaptation of the structure (shape) of organisms to environmental factors, an example is the difference in the size of the auricles in forest and steppe hedgehogs; physiological - adaptation of the digestive tract to the composition of food, an example is the structure of the stomach with the presence of an additional section in ruminant herbivores; behavioral or ecological - adaptation of animal behavior to temperature conditions, humidity, etc., an example is hibernation in a number of animals: rodents, bears, etc.[ ...]

Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy in the body, which is released as a result of redox reactions. It has been established that the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrate is accompanied by the formation of energy in the amount of 4.2 kcal. Cellulose is not digested in the gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates due to the lack of a hydrolyzing enzyme. It is digested only in the body of ruminants (large and small cattle, camels, giraffes and others). As for starch and glycogen, they are easily broken down by amylase enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals. Glycogen in the gastrointestinal tract is broken down to glucose and some maltose, but in animal cells it is broken down by glycogen phosphorylase to form glucose-1-phosphate. Finally, carbohydrates serve as a kind of nutritional reserve of cells, being stored in them in the form of glycogen in animal cells and starch in plant cells.[ ...]

After 1970, the range of feed phosphates produced by the industry has expanded significantly. If for two decades the main feed phosphate was precipitate, then in last years such feed additives appeared as fluorine-free phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, etc. For ruminants with a large excess of calcium in the diets, it is necessary to use calcium-free supplements: ammonium phosphates and dipatrppphosphate.[ ...]

Let's focus on carbohydrates. In biochemical analyzes of feed, they appear under the heading "nitrogen-free extractive substances" (NES). These are the most digestible carbohydrates (monosaccharides and polysaccharides), but other substances, such as tannins, also fall into this rubric. However, we find carbohydrates in analyzes and under the heading "crude fiber", but these are poorly digestible and indigestible carbohydrates (cellulose, lignin, chitin). Few game animals (ruminants) can absorb them, and then only partially. Hence, the more crude fiber in the feed, the lower its nutritional quality. Examples of such feeds are rose hips (46.9% fiber), reed grass species (29.3-37.8%).[ ...]

The ecological balance in ecosystems is maintained by complex mechanisms of relationships between living organisms and environmental conditions and between individuals of the same species and individuals. different types together. The relationship between organisms of the same trophic level is called horizontal, and the relationship between organisms of different trophic levels is called vertical. Organisms of the same trophic level (plants, phytophagous animals, predators, detritivores) are connected mainly by competition for resource consumption, i.e. competition. Competition arises when some resource is not enough. In animals, less often in plants, mutual assistance can be noted. Relations between organisms of different trophic levels are more diverse. The main type of relationship is predation, eating an organism of a lower trophic level (plants - herbivores, herbivores - predators of the first order, predators of the first order - larger predators of the second order). There are widespread symbiotic relationships between plants and pollinators, plants and symbiotrophic fungi and bacteria, ruminant herbivores and microorganisms that live in the digestive tract, and so on. All these relationships in a natural ecosystem are aimed at maintaining its ecological balance.[ ...]

Up to 10 technologies and their numerous variations are known using mycelial and yeast-like micromycetes for cooking /?5, 220, 4007. Different authors used Peecylomycea verioti, Áepergillue niger, A.oryzee, Rhizopus oryzae, Mucor ra-oemoeue, Fuserium moniliforme, Chaetomium globoeum, Pénicillium sp., Pénicillium chryaogemim from thermophiles - Sporotriohum pul-▼erulentum, S.thermophile, Chaetomium cellulolyticum. Straw and other cellulose-containing roughage occupy a significant share in the feed balance of ruminants. As you know, these types of feed have a low digestibility coefficient; the breakdown of the predominant polymers of roughage (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, etc.) is mainly carried out by anaerobic cellulose-destroying bacterial flora in the rumen of animals. In this regard, the problem of increasing the digestibility of coarse cory, their availability for splitting by the microflora of the digestive tract and increasing the nutritional value is very important in general events creating a fodder base for animal husbandry.[ ...]

There is a very significant danger that radioactive isotopes in sewage will get into plants cultivated in irrigated fields. When these waters are irrigated, the grass becomes radioactive. Cows, eating this grass, begin to secrete radioactive milk. At the same time, some radioactive isotopes, such as Cs137, pass into milk at a concentration five times higher than that introduced. The same isotope is deposited in the meat of ruminants in an amount of up to 5% of the introduced concentration (Klechkovsky, 1956).

Artiodactyls are a family of mammals. There are 242 species of them.

Due to the fact that these animals have hooves, they are called a detachment of artiodactyls. Such animals usually have two or four fingers.

The artiodactyl order is herbivorous. A detachment of artiodactyls lives in families. In connection with natural changes some artiodactyls carry out seasonal migrations.

Animals such as cats and dogs can prey on a detachment of artiodactyls. Also, people are enemies of artiodactyls. They kill them for meat and skins.

The detachment of artiodactyls is divided into corn-footed, ruminant and non-ruminant. Let us consider in more detail the class of ruminant artiodactyls.

This order of ruminant artiodactyls includes:

giraffe family

The giraffe family includes two species: giraffes and okapi. Let's take a brief look at each type.

giraffes.

The giraffe is the tallest animal that lives in the savannas of Africa.

The growth of a giraffe reaches six meters, and they weigh a whole ton. Its legs are long, and the front legs are longer than the hind legs. The tail is long, reaching one meter. There are bony horns on the head. The eyes are large, and the tongue is very long - 45 centimeters.

They lay down very rarely. Even giraffes sleep standing up. These animals move very fast. Their speed can reach sixty kilometers per hour.

Giraffes live in herds of up to twenty individuals. Life expectancy is fifteen years.

Okapi.

Okapis resemble a horse, but their relative is a giraffe. They have another name - forest giraffe. They live in the mountains and plains of the Republic of the Congo.

This animal has a very interesting coloration: legs like a zebra, that is, in black and white stripes. The muzzle is black with white spots, on top of the horn like a giraffe. Females do not have such horns.

The body is dark brown. The tail is long - forty centimeters. The length of the animal reaches two meters. And the height is almost two meters. They weigh an average of 250 kilograms. The tongue is long and blue, its length is thirty centimeters. The ears are large and sensitive.

Due to the decrease in the number of okapi, they are listed in the Red Book.

deer family.

The deer family includes two genera of deer:

• Asian deer;
• Water deer.

Asian deer- These are the smallest ruminant ungulates. They live in the forests of Asia. Their body length reaches seventy centimeters. And the weight does not exceed eight kilograms. Deer have no antlers. The coat color of Asian deer is brown. They lead only a nocturnal lifestyle.

water deer- larger than Asian deer. Their body length reaches one hundred centimeters. Body weight reaches fifteen kilograms. And these deer do not grow antlers either, but the males have long upper fangs. They are nocturnal, like Asian deer. Fur color is brown.

Musk deer family

The musk deer family includes only one genus - the musk deer.

musk deer this is an unusual animal that has fangs. They are located on the upper jaw.

These animals live in the mountains in the north of Russia, as well as in China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Vietnam, Nepal, Korea.

The length of these animals is small - one meter, and the height is eighty centimeters. The weight of the musk deer does not exceed eighteen kilograms.

This amazing animal eats lichens, epiphytes, blueberry leaves, needles and ferns.

The life expectancy of these animals is very small - five years. And only in captivity they can live no more than twelve years.

deer family

deer family- refers to the order of ruminant artiodactyls that live in America, Europe, Africa.

All the deer family have branched and long antlers, which they shed in winter. In females, such horns do not grow. The horns of males are very heavy, about thirty kilograms. And their length can reach two meters.

The size of deer can be different. Some are as tall as a dog, while others are as tall as a bull.

They feed on deer leaves, shoots of shrubs and trees.

The deer family consists of three subfamilies, nineteen genera and fifty-one species. The most interesting are the following:

• Red deer are the largest deer. Their weight can reach three hundred kilograms.
• The white type of deer is the rarest deer with a white color.
• The American species is white-tailed deer. They live in North America.
• Siberian breed. It includes the following breeds: Even, Chukchi, Evenki, Nenets,.
• Pudu is the smallest deer species. His height does not exceed forty centimeters, and his weight is not more than ten kilograms.

Bovid family

The bovid family includes:

• buffaloes;
• bison;
• bulls;
• Sheep;
• Goats;
• Antelopes;
• Gazelle.

Let's take a brief look at each type.

buffaloes.

The buffalo is a very dangerous animal, especially for humans. Statistics show that more than two hundred people die from this animal every year.

The weight of the buffalo reaches a ton, the height is two meters, and its length is more than three meters.

These animals feed exclusively on grass. Every day they eat twenty kilograms of fresh grass.

Buffaloes have huge horns twisted inwards.

bison.

Bison is a very powerful and strong animal. It is often confused with bison. They reach three meters in length and two meters in height. Weight ranges from 700 to 1 thousand kilograms.

Bison live in western and northern Missouri. These animals live in herds. Their number consists of twenty thousand individuals. The bison feeds only on grass. On the day he eats up to twenty-five kilograms of fresh grass.

The life expectancy of a bison does not exceed twenty-five years.

Bulls.

The bull is an artiodactyl ruminant mammal. There are the following types of bulls:

• Wild bull - lives in nature, is the predecessor of the domestic bull.
• Domestic bull - bred by man for milk, meat and skin.
• Musk ox is the only representative of musk oxen.
• Tibetan bull. In another way, this animal is called Yak. It differs from other bulls in its coat, which hangs down from the sides and covers the legs.

Sheep.

The ram is a mammal. Its length can reach 180 centimeters, height-130 centimeters, and weight from 25 to 220 kilograms. hallmark of these animals are their horns. They are very large, massive and twisted.

Sheep are divided into the following types:

Goats.

A goat is a ruminant animal. They are domestic and wild. Most goats have beards. Wool, depending on the breed, is short and long. The horns are long and curved back.

The life expectancy of goats does not exceed ten years.

Antelopes.

Antelopes are a subfamily of bovids. Their body length ranges from twenty centimeters to two meters.

gazelles.

The gazelle is a small animal that belongs to the antelope subfamily. The length of the gazelle does not exceed 170 centimeters, the height is 110 centimeters, and the spring is no more than 85 kilograms.

The horns of the gazelle are long, lyre-shaped. Their length can reach eighty centimeters.

Basically, these animals live in Africa. Gazelles live in herds of thousands of individuals.

Systematics of the suborder Ruminants:

Family: Antilocapridae Gray, 1866 = Pronghorns

Family: Moschidae Gray, 1821 = Musk deer

The suborder Ruminants includes wild and domesticated forms of animals. Of the representatives of the suborder, domestic cattle and small cattle should be noted, and of wild animals - bison, bison, buffalo, yaks, mountain sheep and goats, antelopes, deer, giraffes. The suborder includes about 160 species of ungulates of various sizes.

Dimensions small, medium and large. Body type most are slender, limbs are long, four- or two-fingered. The terminal phalanges of the fingers bear real hooves. Hoofed animals. The lateral fingers (if the limb is four-fingered) are underdeveloped, and when walking, as a rule, do not touch the ground. Sexual dimorphism is usually well expressed. Most species have horns. With a few exceptions, all ruminants have specific skin glands on the head, in the groin, and on the limbs. One or two pairs of nipples are located in the groin.

Ruminants are characterized primarily by unique process of digestion- the presence of chewing gum. Roughly chewed food first enters the first section of the complex stomach - the scar, where, under the influence of saliva and the activity of microorganisms, it undergoes fermentation. From the scar, food moves to the second section of the stomach - a mesh with a cellular structure of the walls. From here she burps back into oral cavity, where it is crushed by teeth and abundantly moistened with saliva. The resulting semi-liquid mass is swallowed again and enters the third section of the stomach - the book, the walls of which form parallel folds - leaflets. Here, the food is somewhat dehydrated and passes into the last section of the stomach - the abomasum, where it is exposed to gastric juice.
Ruminants are characterized by the absence of incisors in the upper jaw; they are functionally replaced by a solid transverse roller.
On the molars there are folds of enamel lunate shape. The intestines of ruminants are very long. The mammary glands form an udder located in the groin of the female, with 2-4 nipples. In most species, horns sit on the frontal bones of the skull of males (and sometimes females). various shapes and buildings. Usually these are slender animals capable of fast running. II and V fingers are rudimentary or completely reduced. The metacarpal bones of the III and IV fingers on the forelimbs and the metatarsals on the hind limbs are fused into massive bones, which, together with a partial reduction of one of the bones of the forearm and lower leg, gives the limbs a rod-like structure - a sign developed as an adaptation to running (as well as a reduction in the number of fingers) .
Usually polygamous. inhabit various biotopes. Usually kept in herds, sometimes very significant. Only representatives Tragulidae- solitary animals. They feed on various plants, mainly herbs. There are 1-2 cubs in a litter, and only a water deer has 4-7 cubs.
At representatives of the bovine family (Bovidae) males, and sometimes females, have horns formed by conical (straight or curved) bone outgrowths of the frontal bones of the skull, dressed in horn covers. In almost all species (except the American pronghorn), they are not subject to annual change. There are no fangs in the upper jaw.
Of the wild animals of the fauna of our country, bison belong to this family, mountain goats and rams, saigas, goitered gazelles, gazelles, chamois and gorals. Mighty wild bulls - bison were formerly widespread in the forests of Europe, but later were almost completely exterminated. At present, they have managed to breed again, and now herds of bison graze in a number of reserves.
Several species of wild mountain goats live within the CIS in the Caucasus, in the mountains Central Asia and in Altai. They inhabit the alpine zone, keeping on the rocks and in alpine meadows. They usually graze in small herds. Two species of wild sheep live in the CIS: one of them is mountain sheep ( Ovis ammon) is found in the mountains and foothills Southern Siberia, Central Asia and Transcaucasia, acclimatized in the Crimea. It inhabits high-mountain steppes (syrts), ridges of foothills, mountain remnants among the steppe; the other is a bighorn ( Ovis canadensis), which differs from the mountain sheep in thick horns, lives in the mountains of the northern regions Far East, Yakutia and Taimyr. Both species are valuable game animals. In the steppes of the Lower Volga region and Kazakhstan, huge herds of saigas now roam ( Saiga tatarica), which were very rare animals here 50 years ago. Now they serve as an object of intensive fishing. In the deserts of Central Asia lives a slender gazelle - gazelle ( Gazella gutturosa). In connection with a sharp decrease in the number, it is included in the Red Book of Russia.
Cattle bred by man originated from the tur, which is widespread in Europe and Asia ( Bos taurus), exterminated already in historical time. In Transcaucasia, buffaloes are also bred, which differ from cattle in their almost bare skin and huge lunar horns. These animals are the domesticated form of the wild Indian buffalo ( Bubalus arnee). In the mountains of Pamir and Altai you can meet herds of domesticated bulls - yaks ( Bos mutus). Our domestic sheep are descended from wild mountain sheep ( Ovis ammon), and goats - from a kind of wild bezoar goat ( Capra aegagrus), and now found in the mountains of Transcaucasia and Western Asia.
Kinds deer family (Cervidae) are characterized by the fact that their males, and in reindeer and females, wear branched bone horns on their heads, which are replaced annually. Of the wild representatives of this family, elk, northern, red and spotted deer and roe deer are found in the CIS. In the northern regions of the country and in the south of Siberia, domesticated reindeer are bred, which are used as transport animals; meat, milk, fur and leather skins are obtained from them. In the south of the Far East and Altai, spotted deer and marals (a kind of red deer) are bred to obtain antlers - young antlers that grow after the annual change and have not yet had time to ossify. A valuable medicine, pantocrine, is made from antlers.
The suborder includes 6 families. Thriving Group

Owners of personal farmsteads with ruminants in order to receive the largest number products from them and in order for the animals to be healthy, it is necessary to know the characteristics of digestion in this group of animals.

In ruminants, of all farm animals, the stomach is the most complex - multi-chambered, divided into four sections: scar, mesh, book, the first three sections are called proventriculus, the last - abomasum is a true stomach.

Scar- the largest section of the stomach of ruminants, its capacity in cattle, depending on age, is from 100 to 300 liters, in sheep and goats from 13 to 23 liters. In ruminants, it occupies the entire left half of the abdominal cavity. Its inner shell, as such, does not have glands, it is keratinized from the surface and is represented by many papillae, which roughen its surface.

Net- is a small rounded bag. The inner surface also has no glands. The mucous membrane is represented by protruding in the form of lamellar folds up to 12 mm high, forms cells along appearance honeycomb-like. With the scar, book and esophagus, the mesh communicates with the esophageal trough in the form of a semi-closed tube. The mesh in ruminants works on the principle of a sorting organ, passing only sufficiently crushed and liquefied feed into the book.

Book- lies in the right hypochondrium, has a rounded shape, on the one hand it is a continuation of the grid, on the other it passes into the stomach. The mucous membrane of the book is represented by folds (leaves), at the ends of which there are short, coarse papillae. The book is an additional filter and grinder for roughage. The book absorbs a lot of water.

Abomasum- is a true stomach, has an elongated shape in the form of a curved pear, at the base - a thickened narrow end of which passes into the duodenum. The mucous membrane of the abomasum has glands.

The food swallowed by animals will first fall into the vestibule of the scar, and then into the scar, from which, after some time, it returns to the oral cavity for re-chewing and thorough wetting with saliva. This process in animals is called chewing gum. The regurgitation of the food mass from the scar into the oral cavity is carried out according to the type of vomiting, in which the mesh and the diaphragm are successively reduced, while the larynx of the animal closes and the cardiac sphincter of the esophagus opens.

Gum animals usually starts 30-70 minutes after eating and proceeds in a rhythm strictly defined for each animal species. The duration of mechanical processing of a food coma in the form of chewing gum in the mouth is about one minute. The next portion of food goes into the mouth after 3-10 seconds.

The ruminant period in animals lasts for average 45-50 minutes, then the animals enter a period of rest, which lasts for different animals for different times, then the period of chewing begins again. During the day, the cow thus chews about 60 kg food content of the rumen.

The chewed food is then re-swallowed and enters the scar, where it is mixed with the entire mass of the cicatricial contents. Due to strong contractions of the muscles of the proventriculus, food is mixed and moves from the vestibule of the scar to the abomasum.

The multi-chambered stomach in ruminants performs a unique, complex digestive function. In the rumen, the animal's body uses 70-85% digestible dry matter diet but only 15-30% used the rest of the gastrointestinal tract animal.

The biological feature of ruminants is that they consume a lot of vegetable feed, including roughage, which contain a large number of indigestible fiber. Due to the presence of numerous microflora (bacteria, ciliates and fungi) in the contents of the rumen, plant foods are subjected to very complex enzymatic and other processing. The number and species composition of microorganisms in the rumen of animals depends on a number of factors, of which feeding conditions play a primary role. At each changing the diet of feeding in the rumen simultaneously changes the microflora Therefore, for ruminants, the gradual transition from one type of diet to another is of particular importance. The role of ciliates in the rumen is reduced to the mechanical processing of feed and the synthesis of their own proteins. They loosen and tear the fiber so that the fiber becomes more accessible to the action of enzymes and bacteria. Under the action of cellulolytic bacteria in the pancreas, up to 70% of digestible fiber is broken down, out of 75% of the dry matter of the feed digested here. In the rumen, under the influence of microbial fermentation, a large amount of volatile fatty acids - acetic, propionic and butyric, as well as gases - carbon dioxide, methane, etc. Up to 4L volatile fatty acids, and their ratio directly depends on the composition of the diet. Volatile fatty acids are almost completely absorbed in the proventriculus and are a source for the animal organism. energy, and are also used for the synthesis of fat and glucose. When entering the abomasum, microorganisms die under the influence of hydrochloric acid. In the intestine, under the influence of amylolytic enzymes, they are digested to glucose. 40-80% the protein (protein) received with the feed in the rumen undergoes hydrolysis and other transformations, is broken down by microbes to peptides, amino acids and ammonia, amino acids and ammonia are also formed from the non-protein nitrogen entering the rumen. Simultaneously with the processes of cleavage of vegetable protein in the rumen, the synthesis of bacterial protein and protozoan protein. For this purpose in practical activities non-protein nitrogen (carbamide, etc.) is also used. Can be synthesized in the rumen per day from 100 to 450 grams microbial protein. In the future, bacteria and ciliates with the contents of the rumen enter the abomasum and intestines, where they are digested to amino acids, and fats and fats are digested here. conversion of carotene to vitamin A. Due to the protein of microorganisms, ruminants are able to satisfy up to 20-30% of the body's needs for protein. In the rumen of animals, the microorganisms present there synthesize amino acids, incl. and irreplaceable.
Along with the breakdown and synthesis of protein in the rumen, ammonia absorption which is converted in the liver into urea. In cases where a large amount of ammonia is formed in the rumen, the liver is not able to convert it all into urea, its concentration in the blood increases, which leads to the appearance of clinical signs in the animal toxicosis.

Lipolytic Enzymes microorganisms in the rumen are hydrolyzed feed fats to glycerol and fatty acids, and then in the wall of the scar are synthesized again.

The microflora present in the rumen synthesizes vitamins: thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, nicotinic acid, biotin, folic acid, cobalamin, vitamin K in quantities that practically provide the basic needs of adult animals.

The activity of the scar is closely interconnected with other organs and systems and is under the control of the central nervous system. The mechano- and baroreceptors present in the scar are irritated by stretching and contraction of the muscle layer, the chemoreceptors are irritated by the environment of the contents of the scar and all together affect the tone of the muscle layer of the scar. The movement of each of the sections of the proventriculus affects other sections of the digestive tract. So the overflow of the abomasum slows down the motor activity of the book, the overflow of the book weakens or stops the contraction of the mesh and scar. Irritation of the mechanoreceptors of the duodenum causes inhibition of the contractions of the proventriculus.

Diseases of the proventriculus are observed most often in cattle, less often in small cattle, leading to a sharp decline in productivity, and sometimes case.

The most frequent causes of disease of the proventriculus are: untimely feeding, poor-quality feed, contamination of feed with metal objects, a quick transition from succulent to dry feed and vice versa.

One-sided abundant feeding with concentrates, brewer's grains and stillage or coarse low-nutrient feeds leads to a violation of the function of the proventriculus and metabolism.

The leading factor in the occurrence of diseases of the proventriculus is a violation of the motor and microbial functions of the proventriculus. Under the influence of strong irritation of mechano-, thermo- and chemoreceptors, rumen contractions are inhibited, chewing gum is disturbed, digestion in the rumen is disturbed, the pH of the rumen contents changes to the acid side, the contents undergo microbial decay with the formation of toxins.