The head of the Ministry of National Security of Turkmenistan lost his post, the head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs received a special rank. KGB of the Turkmen SSR National security of turkmenistan

On June 13, according to the TV report of the Turkmen television, during the meeting of the Security Council, following the results of work for five months of the current year, the head of the Ministry of National Security of Turkmenistan was dismissed Dovrangeldy Bayramov.

According to the state information agency TDH, Bayramov was dismissed with the wording "for serious shortcomings in his work", and also demoted from colonel to major.

The new Secretary of Homeland Security was Yaylym Berdyev who previously headed the Ministry of Defense.

Recall that on May 30, Dovrangeldy Bayramov was severely reprimanded by President Berdimuhamedov with a final warning "for shortcomings in the selection and placement of personnel."

A few hours before the report, one of the readers of "Chronicles of Turkmenistan" commented on the dismissal of the minister.

According to him, the head of the 4th Department of the Ministry of National Security and several of his subordinates were taken into custody. More than $ 27 million was found in the house of the arrested person.

In all banks, including the Central Bank, checks are carried out to identify the interest rates of converted funds by one or another legal entities, who were “protected” by the above-mentioned employees of the power department. “Essentially, the black market was controlled by the head of the 4th department of the MNB,” a reader writes.

« At the direction of the arrested person, the banks converted 20-50% of the declared amount at a time. For a month, almost the entire amount sat down on the accounts. Then the currency was cashed out and thrown into the black market with a 400-500% difference with the state rate,” the commentary says.

On this moment we cannot confirm or deny this information.

The Minister of National Security of Turkmenistan, Dovrangeldi Bayramov, was dismissed from his post. This decision was announced on June 13 at an expanded off-site meeting of the Security Council, dedicated to the results of the work of law enforcement agencies for five months of this year.

According to the state information agency TDH, Bayramov was fired with the wording "for serious shortcomings in his work", and also stripped of the rank of colonel and demoted to major.

Bayramov was previously reprimanded three times in 2017 and one in March of this year, with the wording "for improper performance official duties", as well as "for shortcomings in the selection of personnel."

Bayramov became head of the Ministry of National Security of Turkmenistan in March 2016.

At the same meeting, the Minister of Internal Affairs, Major General Iskender Mulikov, on the contrary, was promoted, he was given the special rank of police lieutenant general.

It should be noted that 43-year-old Mulikov is an official who has been punished by the head of state, including for "improper performance of official duties."

In July last year, after the dismissal of the Prosecutor General and, according to some reports, his arrest, it was reported about. According to several Azatlyk sources, President Berdymukhammedov did not accept his application.

“Mulikov now walks along thin ice. He was saved by the fact that he had a close relationship with influential people from Berdimuhamedov's inner circle"- Azatlyk's source, close to the authorities, said. Then it was not possible to officially confirm the information.

These personnel decisions regarding the heads of law enforcement agencies of Turkmenistan, announced on June 13 at a meeting of the Security Council, coincided with a sharp restriction on the ability of the population to officially convert currencies, as well as a sharp increase in demand and an increase in the cost of foreign currency on the "black market".

The official report does not specify what Bayramov was guilty of as head of the Ministry of National Security. But he was instructed

Before him, during the reign of President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, four leaders were replaced. The last Guychgeldi Khodjaberdiev, having been in office for less than five months, was removed from his post with the wording "for health reasons" in March 2016.

At present, the Ministry of National Security of Turkmenistan is again headed by Yaylym Berdyev, within recent years head of the Ministry of Defense. Previously, Berdyev headed the Ministry of National Security in 2011-2015.

During the meeting of the Security Council, the head of state replaced several more heads of law enforcement agencies. The former head of the State Customs Service and border troops Begench Gundogdyev. It is noteworthy that last year the major general was demoted to the rank of colonel. Officially, the reasons were not explained, but according to Azatlyk's sources, the demotion in the rank of head of the border troops was associated with.

As reported state press On June 13, the newly appointed head of the Ministry of National Security, Yaylym Berdyev, arrived at the Oguzhan Palace Complex to attend a meeting of the Security Council together with President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, accompanying the head of state on a bicycle.

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• Ministry of National Security - Minister Geldymukhammed Ashirmukhammedov
• Turkmenbashi bodyguard service
• Government Communications Authority
• State Courier Service (SFS)
• State Service for Registration of Foreign Citizens (SFRIG)

Geldymukhammed Ashirmukhammedov was appointed Minister of National Security from the post of Minister of Internal Affairs by Presidential Decree on December 9, 2004. In February 2007, he was reassigned. He had presidential ambitions after the death of S. Niyazov. Possible resignation.

Ashirmukhammedov (b. 1957) graduated from the Turkmen State University majoring in physics teacher. Until 1982, he worked in his specialty at a school. In 1982-1992, he worked in a number of positions in the KGB of the TSSR, and then in the KNB of Turkmenistan. In 1983 in Minsk, and then in 1985 in Kyiv, he graduated from the higher courses of the KGB. From 1992 to 1997 he was a senior officer in the security service of the President of Turkmenistan. From 1997 to 2002 - Commander of the Land Forces of the Armed Forces of the country. In 2002, he was appointed to the position of Deputy Chairman of the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan. In the same year he became the first deputy minister of internal affairs of the country. Since August 2004 - Minister of Internal Affairs of Turkmenistan.

The alignment of forces

Rumors about the strong special services of Turkmenistan are greatly exaggerated. The country has indeed managed to create a strong counterintelligence regime, but it is mainly aimed at controlling the opposition. In addition, organized crime was practically crushed in Turkmenistan: operations were once carried out here to shoot thieves in law. But areas that were previously subject to criminal leaders have come under the control of corrupt officials.

And all this is the merit not of the special services, but of the regime, which gave counterintelligence unlimited rights, comparable only to the rights of the NKVD. At the same time, it is hardly possible to speak seriously about the level of professionalism of the Turkmen Chekists. Rather, they pay more attention to the search for dissatisfied people than to operational work and investigation. For example, in December 2000, members of the National Security Committee (KNB) arrested Ashgabat journalist Nikolai Gerasimov. A correspondent who collaborated with the Azeri news agency Azertaj was suspected of spying for Azerbaijan on the grounds that he allegedly participated in a festive demonstration in Ashgabat, carrying a portrait of Heydar Aliyev. True, he was given a term for some reason for fraud.

In the summer of 2002, it became obvious that the NKB was repeating the fate of the NKVD in detail: the repressive apparatus, which so famously cracked down on the opposition, was itself subjected to repression. Moreover, in the best Stalinist traditions, heads flew from the very top.

Cleaning

On March 4, 2002, Saparmurat Niyazov announced that the chairman of the National Security Committee, as well as his adviser on legal issues and coordination of the activities of law enforcement and military bodies, Mukhamet Nazarov, had been relieved of all posts. First, Nazarov was demoted to lieutenant general for "shortcomings in his work," and then he was placed under house arrest.

Thus began the purges in the National Security Committee, the most important Turkmen special service, whose structure has remained unchanged since the days of the KGB. Nazarov was followed by two of his deputies - Colonel Hayit Kakaev, who headed the Metropolitan Directorate of the NKB, and Lieutenant Colonel Orazmukhammed Berdyev: they were dismissed from the bodies, deprived of all military ranks, awards and entitlement privileges. And in place of Nazarov, the Minister of Internal Affairs, Poran Berdyev, was appointed, who was instructed to carry out a purge in the organs.

Lost his post and Defense Minister Kurbandurdy Begendzhov. Now, until 2012, he, together with the head of the Food Industry Association Kakajan Ovezov, also removed in March 2002, will grow wheat. As Turkmenbashi noted, "this will allow them to atone for their guilt." Rejepbay Arazov, who previously headed the Turkmen parliament, has been appointed the new minister, as well as the coordinator of the activities of all law enforcement agencies.

On March 5, the heads of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Prosecutor General's Office and Supreme Court appeared on national television with accusations against the NCU "of interfering in the investigative actions of the police and the prosecutor's office, as well as in court hearings." The main reproach expressed by Berdyev was: "Recently, the NKB has not reported to anyone." The very next day, three more high-ranking employees of the NCU were dismissed, deprived of their awards and titles, including the head of the NCU Directorate for the Balkan velayat (region) Colonel Gurban Annadurdiyev and the head of the NCU Directorate for the Mary velayat, Colonel Bayramkuli Khudaikuliyev.

According to the newspaper "Al-Ittihad" (United United Arab Emirates), in March alone, four employees of the National Security Committee, who held more modest positions, were executed. By April 1, 60 employees of the NCU had already been taken into custody. 80% of the leadership of the NKB were subjected to repressions. The result is quite natural - the leadership of the NKB should have studied the history of the "big brother" better.

After the purge, Poran Berdiyev was appointed director of the KNB. However, he only lasted 90 days in this position. On September 10, 2002, he was removed and appointed hakim of the Balkan velayat. On the same day, a meeting was held with the heads of law enforcement agencies of Turkmenistan. The National Security Committee was transformed into the Ministry of National Security by presidential decree. Batyr Busakov, former Deputy Interior Minister, has been appointed its head. Former deputy chairman of the KNB, Geldimuhamed Ashirmukhamedov, was appointed to the post of first deputy minister of internal affairs.

However, Berdyev was not left alone. On November 15, 2002, at a meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers, Berdyev was also removed from this position and put under house arrest on the direct orders of Saparmurat Niyazov. And on November 25, 2002, Berdyev was killed. The nature of the crime suggests that it was committed by professionals and carefully prepared.

In November 2003, Annageldy Gummanov was appointed Minister of National Security of Turkmenistan. In December 2004, he was appointed First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Her reasons

By the spring of 2002, Niyazov faced the same problem as Stalin when he decided to get rid of Yezhov. By the time Yezhov was removed, people from the NKVD controlled too many departments, in fact creating a shadow vertical of power: by 1938, the Chekists not only led the state security agencies, but also controlled the people's commissariats (in our opinion, the ministries) of communications and transport, controlled the production of weapons, mining , the development of new types of weapons, etc.

An identical situation has arisen in Turkmenistan. People from the NKB are now in charge of many departments in the country. The Deputy Prosecutor General is the former head of the investigative department of the NKB Begmurad Otuzov, the deputy minister of internal affairs is the former deputy chairman of the NKB Khadzhimurat Odzharov. Even the Minister of Defense before the current repressions was a native of the KNB, Kurbandurdy Begendzhov, who headed the department of military counterintelligence there.

The chief of the NKB Nazarov himself in June 2001, when he was appointed adviser to the president, actually became the curator of all the country's law enforcement agencies. In the autumn of that year. The NKB defeated the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the country, first of all, all the embassies of Turkmenistan abroad. Considering how much the press wrote about the fact that the representative offices of Turkmenistan have long been engaged in ensuring drug trafficking from Afghanistan through Turkmenistan to Europe, in fact, such a defeat meant that the NKB was able to control another cash flow.

On September 10 last year, speaking to the staff of the NCU, Niyazov noted with satisfaction that last year 10,000 foreign citizens were arrested and deported from the country, 350,000 religious books "incompatible with our religion" and about 80,000 cassettes were confiscated. However, he considered these measures insufficient and ordered to increase the staff of the NKB from 1.5 to 2.5 thousand people. It should not be surprising that only a few months have passed and the growing influence of the NKB began to seriously disturb Turkmenbashi.

coloring

However, the reasons for the purge of the NKB lie not only in the fear of losing control over the situation in the country. Turkmenistan is still an Asian country, and clan relations play a big role in political life countries.

In addition to the Ministry of National Security, there is another special service in the country that is not controlled by anyone - the personal security service of Turkmenbashi. Its number is almost 2 thousand people, and it is headed by Akmurad Rejepov. Until recently, it was believed that Rejepov and Nazarov were in the same bundle. The fact is that both of them are representatives of the same clan - the Chardjou (Ersaryns), whose informal head is Rejepov. It is based on people from the Lebap velayat, where Mukhamet Nazarov is from.

But it became crowded for two figures of this level. In the spring of 2002, there were rumors that Nazarov tried to replace Rejepov. He, having access to the body, managed to convince the president that Nazarov was hatching plans to overthrow Niyazov.

Just two months after the arrest, on June 15, 2002, the trial of Nazarov and his colleagues - deputy Kh. Kakaov and the head of an independent division of the NKB, Lieutenant Colonel Allamyrat Allakulyev, ended. In total, three defendants received 58 years of strict regime: Nazarov and Kakaev 20 years each, of which they will spend 3 years in prison, Allakulyev - 18 years. Their property was confiscated.

Apparently, in order to intimidate all the arrested employees of the NKB, they are kept in the building of one of the departments of the national security agencies near Ashgabat, where capital punishment was carried out before. Niyazov instructed employees of General Rejepov's department to escort the arrested.

Relations with the special services of the Russian Federation

Turkmen colleagues have complicated relations with the Russian special services. On the one hand, the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation signed an agreement on cooperation in intelligence activities with the NKB back in December 1994. On the other hand, Turkmenistan became only the tenth CIS state with which the SVR signed such an agreement.

Representatives of the NKB participate in all kinds of meetings of the CIS special services dedicated to the fight against drugs and terrorism. But often they are limited only to the role of observers. Turkmen Chekists, for example, do not participate in the work of the CIS Antiterrorist Center. For the same reason, we do not write anything about the special forces of the Turkmen special services - due to the complete lack of information in Russia (it is not possible to get them in Turkmenistan itself for obvious reasons).

Contacts between Russia and Turkmenistan in the field of border protection have practically ceased. In December 1999, the last Russian border guards left this country. Niyazov terminated the contract, according to which more than two thousand Russian border guards served in Turkmenistan: a separate air group was located in Mary, and a separate naval group was stationed in Turkmenbashi (former Krasnovodsk).

In February 2001, the Turkmen border guards did not even come to such a protocol event as the 40th meeting of the Council of Commanders of the Border Troops of the CIS Member States, which was held in Baku. Even after the September events, the situation has not changed: in December last year, the head of the General Staff of the Federal Border Service of the Russian Federation, Nikolai Reznichenko, confirmed that Russia does not plan to deploy its border guards in Turkmenistan.

Chronicle

18.02.02 As the guardian of the body (and throne) of Turkmenbashi, the head of the local KNB and, at the same time, (since June 2001) adviser to the President on legal issues and coordination of the activities of law enforcement and military bodies, Mukhammed Nazarov, is nominated - a simple and sincere person, not burdened with pangs of conscience and insensitive to the pleas of opposition sufferers. Personally interrogating the human rights activist, Mammadov promised that "no one will be allowed to shake our Turkmenistan, harm our Motherland." After the treacherous flight to Moscow of former Foreign Minister Boris Shikhmuradov, it was Nazarov who managed to somehow calm down the inconsolably furious Serdar, relieve the first stress with promises to roughly punish "Judas". Shikhmuradov (or rather, the Shikhmuradovs) - at the same time as Boris broke with Turkmenbashi and his brother Konstantin - fled at the wrong time. The situation in the country left much to be desired, in 2000-2001 Serdar carried out another total purge of personnel - removing the last major and potentially dangerous figures to rest, or under arrest. / NOMAD - Geopolitics from one end /

October 31, 2001. The National Security Committee of Turkmenistan, together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the republic, will audit all the country's representative offices abroad. This was stated by the President of Turkmenistan Saparmurad Niyazov. /Nega-network/

September 10, 2001. Speaking to the employees of the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan, President Saparmurat Niyazov noted with satisfaction that last year 10,000 foreign citizens were arrested and deported from the country, 350,000 religious books "incompatible with our religion" and about 80,000 cassettes were confiscated . However, he considered these measures insufficient and ordered to increase the staff of the KNB from 1.5 to 2.5 thousand people. / Evening Moscow /

June 2001 The former deputy chairman of the National Security Committee - head of the military counterintelligence department Gurbanberdy Begendzhov has become the new Minister of Defense of Turkmenistan. According to a RIA Novosti correspondent, on Wednesday the relevant decree of the country's President Saparmurat Niyazov was made public. Former Minister of Defense of Turkmenistan Batyr Sarjaev has been appointed head of the national department "Turkmendemirellary" /Turkmen Railways/.

Gurbanberdy Begenjov was born in 1956 in the Mary region of Turkmenistan, Turkmen by nationality. Higher education, in 1970 he graduated from the Turkmen Agricultural Institute. Since 1978 he worked as a teacher at the Bayramali Veterinary College. From 1981 to 1983 he worked as the second, and then the first secretary of the Bairamali city committee of the Komsomol. In 1985, he headed the department of working and rural youth of the Central Committee of the Komsomol of Turkmenistan. Since 1985, he has been working in the system of the State Security Committee of the Turkmen SSR, then in the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan. He has the military rank of colonel. Until recently, he headed the military counterintelligence department of the National Security Committee, was the deputy chairman of the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan. / Eurasian Bulletin No. 16 /

January 29, 2001. The National Security Committee of Turkmenistan plans to significantly strengthen the departments involved in the fight against the spread of narcotic substances and smuggling, including spiritual ones. It is assumed that the special service will be increased by 1 thousand people, the increase will occur at the expense of employees of the internal affairs bodies. Speaking on national television, President Saparmurat Niyazov said `groups fighting drugs will be strengthened, as well as groups that deal with those who want to split the state, who come from abroad and try to sow discord among us, intervene in politics, religion, pursues its own selfish goals, tries to set us against each other`.

According to the National Security Committee, 2,200 tons of narcotic substances, including 220 kg of heroin, were found and seized in Turkmenistan last year. In addition, during 2000, an attempt was suppressed to bring into the territory of Turkmenistan about 350 thousand religious books incompatible with the Muslim religion and about 80 thousand video cassettes. /Agency "Kazakhstan-press"/.

According to the "Society for the Promotion of Human Rights in Central Asia", on January 21, 1999, members of the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan arrested a member of the Council of Compatriots under the State Duma of Russia, Vyacheslav Mamedov, in Krasnovodsk on January 21, 1999. The Turkmen authorities accuse him of slanderous fabrications about the situation in the country and inciting migratory sentiments among the Russian-speaking population. The persecution of Mammadov began after the December 18 radio station Mayak broadcast his interview about the activities of the Russian community in Turkmenistan.

Cooperation with Russia

By 1994, the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation had established partnerships with almost all intelligence agencies of the former socialist countries, with the exception of Albania. The basis of cooperation with them is the joint struggle against the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, drug trafficking, international organized crime and terrorism. Simultaneously foreign intelligence by the end of 1994, it negotiated and signed relevant agreements with the intelligence services of these states, the last of which was signed in December 1994 in Ashgabat with the chairman of the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan S. Saidov. Turkmenistan has become the tenth CIS state with which Russia has signed a friendly agreement in the field of intelligence activities. /

Turkmenistan: heirs of the NKVD

The country's intelligence system:

Department of Homeland Security;

Personal Security Service of the President;

Government Communications Authority;

State Courier Service (SFS);

State Service for Registration of Foreign Citizens (SFRIG).

The special services of Turkmenistan were the most disciplined and loyal to the leader of all Turkmens, Turkmenbashi, and the most merciless to the internal opposition and radical Islamic movements.

After the death of Saparmurat Niyazov in December 2006, the secret services of this country tried to start pursuing an independent personnel policy and even violated the Constitution regarding the procedure for the transfer of power and appointed and. O. the president of the country is a person convenient for himself. Although there was no further strengthening of the security forces in power. February 2007 new president country Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov made personnel appointments in the "power" structures of the republic and actually replaced all the leaders.

During a meeting with the security forces, the president, addressing the new leaders, urged them to always remember their high duty to the Fatherland and “protect peace and tranquility like the apple of their eye.” native land to strictly guard the law and order”.

“Your most important task is to protect and increase the gains of sacred independence, which the Turkmen people have every right to be proud of. Our main achievements - social stability, civil harmony and national unity - are the basis for the successful advancement of Turkmenistan along the path of peace, creation and progress, at the origins of which stood the Great Saparmurat Turkmenbashi. Based on them, our country was able to overcome the difficult transition period with honor and now looks confidently into its future,” the head of state emphasized.

Berdimuhamedov also urged law enforcement officials to keep their ranks clean.

In response, the participants assured the head of state that "they will spare no effort, and if necessary, life itself in the name of achieving the goals set for them and will justify the high trust placed in them."

In the summer of 2007, the President of Turkmenistan dealt another blow to his political opponents - the former heads of the special services. Akmurad Rejepov, the former head of the security service of the Turkmen president, has been sentenced to 20 years in prison for participating in corruption deals and other crimes related to the use of his official position. Together with him, his son, colonel of the Turkmen special services Nurmurad Rejepov (he was imprisoned for 13 years), as well as businessman, former head of the Oriental company Murad Agaev (he was sentenced to 17 years in prison) were convicted.

Although the main reason for such a harsh sentence is political. Akmurad Rejepov headed the Security Service of Saparmurat Niyazov for almost 17 years, he was considered the second most influential person in the republic and was even predicted to be the successor to the head of state.

However, after the change of leadership of the republic, he fell into disgrace. In May 2007, shortly after the inauguration of new President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, he was fired, and a few days later it became known from unofficial sources that Rejepov, his son, and some other high-ranking security officials were arrested.

Murad Agaev, a businessman close to Rejepov, was arrested the day before his resignation. Under Niyazov, he controlled the export and import of tobacco and alcohol in the republic, and was also "looking" over the gambling business owned by the Niyazov family.

According to experts, repressions against security officials from Niyazov's inner circle will continue.

So far, the new leaders of the special services of Turkmenistan have not yet had time to prove themselves. Therefore, we will tell about the deeds of their predecessors.

Until 2002, not a single serious case of manifestation of religious extremism was recorded in the country, which cannot be said about the neighbors - Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan. Even the attempt in 2002 on the head of the country, Saparmurat Niyazov, still causes controversy among experts. According to one version, it was staged by the special services themselves (more on this will be discussed below), and according to another, there really was a conspiracy. The attempt was organized by influential circles of the Tajik opposition, which have their supporters in the state apparatus and special services. The problem is that the special services of the republic in the event of activation of the radical secular and religious opposition (nothing prevents them from joining their efforts to change the government in the country) will not be able to neutralize this threat. To prove this thesis, it is necessary to recall the history of the creation and functioning of the “organs” of Turkmenistan.

On the basis of the republican KGB in 1991, the National Security Committee was created. And in 1992, under the established General Staff of the Army of Turkmenistan, its own military intelligence agency, the Intelligence Department, was founded. Both intelligence services immediately established a good relationship with the Russian special services, as well as the "authorities" of the neighboring countries, which helped them to carry out further operations against their opposition exiles. Türkiye, which is ethnically and religiously close, has become another important strategic partner.

Rumors about the strong special services of Tajikistan are exaggerated. Although they managed to create a strong counterintelligence regime, aimed mainly at controlling the opposition. The most striking example is the lightning arrest of a group of people suspected of organizing a series of explosions in Tashkent in 2000. In addition, organized crime has actually been defeated in this country (there, as in Uzbekistan, an operation was carried out to shoot thieves in law). However, this is not the merit of the National Security Committee, but of the regime, which gave counterintelligence unlimited rights, comparable only to the rights of the NKVD.

Not only in terms of rights and the number of fabricated trials, the KNB was similar to the NKVD of the USSR in the mid-thirties of the last century, but also in the “purges” of its own apparatus.

March 4, 2002 can be considered the official start date for the repressions. On that day, the country's President Saparmurat Niyazov announced that the chairman of the KNB and his adviser on legal issues and coordination of the activities of law enforcement and military bodies, Mukhammed Nazarov, had been relieved of all posts. He was first demoted to lieutenant general for "shortcomings in his work" and then placed under house arrest. And this was only the beginning of the official's torment.

Thus began the "cleansing" in the central office of the National Security Committee - the most important Turkmen special service, whose structure has remained unchanged since the days of the KGB. Mukhammed Nazarov was followed by two of his deputies - Colonel Hayit Kakaev, who headed the Metropolitan Directorate of the NKB, and Lieutenant Colonel Orazmukhammed Berdyev: they were dismissed from the bodies, deprived of all military ranks, awards and entitlement privileges. As noted in the presidential decree: "for serious shortcomings in work and as not having coped with their official duties." This was only the first stage of repression against the security forces.

At the end of May 2002, an investigation was completed on charges of illegal activity by the leadership of the republic's special services. According to the Prosecutor General of Turkmenistan Gurbanbibi Atajanova, the demoted heads of the KNB Mukhammed Nazarov and Khayit Kakaev, as well as the Minister of Defense Kurbandurdy Begendzhev, the head of the border service Tirkish Tyrmyev “formed a criminal group that was engaged in committing serious crimes, murders, torture, illegal arrests and searches, drug trafficking ".

In total, the former leadership of the KNB was charged under eleven articles of the Criminal Code of Turkmenistan, the Prosecutor General said on May 23, 2003 in an interview with national television. Muhammad Nazarov was sentenced to twenty-five years in prison.

According to one of the representatives of the opposition, the former deputy head of the Central Bank of Turkmenistan, Annadurdy Khadzhaev, this person will most likely never be released, just like those with whom he ended up in the dock.

One of possible causes harsh treatment of convicts - they knew too much about the drug trade, in which Turkmenbashi himself participated. Among the unnecessary "witnesses" is the arrested former head of the border troops Akmurad Kabulov, who knew about all the crossings of the Turkmen border by drug couriers.

In May 2002, Saparmurat Niyazov himself informed the inhabitants of the republic about the successes in the field of "cleansing" the administrative apparatus of the country. According to him, former minister Defense of Turkmenistan Gurbandurdy Begendzhev was sentenced by a court to ten years in prison. The former vice-premier of the government, the former head of the Mary velayat (region) Aman Ataev and the head of the republic's food industry association Kakajan Ovezov were sentenced to the same term. They were accused under a number of articles of the Criminal Code of the Republic, including taking bribes and corruption. According to the president, the crimes of these officials "have been proven, confessions have been obtained."

“We came to the conclusion that they, without losing their freedom, should earn their forgiveness with their work,” he said, adding that the former head of the Defense Ministry and other convicts would be engaged in growing grain in one of the regions of the republic.

In place of Mukhammed Nazarov, the Minister of Internal Affairs, Poran Berdyev, was appointed, who was instructed to carry out a “cleansing” in the “organs”. Redjebay Arazov, who previously headed the Turkmen parliament, was appointed the new minister of defense, as well as the coordinator of the activities of all law enforcement agencies.

Obviously, Saparmurat Niyazov was forced to take these measures in the conditions of a permanent crisis that his regime was going through in connection with the landslide process of former high-ranking representatives of the Turkmen leadership, deputy prime ministers, ministers and diplomats going into opposition. All attempts by the Turkmen national security to catch at least one oppositionist from abroad or to obtain his extradition by the authorities foreign states were not successful. In such a situation, the head of state's anger towards his chief Chekists is more than understandable.

To create an atmosphere of fear among local Chekists, on March 5, 2002, the heads of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Prosecutor General's Office and the Supreme Court spoke on national television with accusations against the KNB "of interfering in the investigative actions of the police and the prosecutor's office, as well as of court hearings". The main reproach expressed by Berdyev: "Recently, the KNB has not reported to anyone."

The very next day, three more high-ranking officers of the KNB were dismissed, deprived of their awards and titles, including the head of the KNB department for the Balkan velayat, Colonel Gurban Annadurdiyev and the head of the KNB department for the Mary velayat, Colonel Bayramkuli Khudaikuliyev.

According to the newspaper Al-Ittihad (United Arab Emirates), in March 2002 alone, four employees of the National Security Committee, who held more modest positions, were executed. By April 1, 2002, 60 employees of the NCU had been taken into custody. As of June 2002, 80% of the leadership of the KNB were subjected to repression.

The main reason for the personnel “purges” is that people from the KNB headed so many departments in the country. For example, the Deputy Prosecutor General is the former head of the investigative department of the KNB, Begmurad Otuzov, and the deputy minister of internal affairs is the former deputy chairman of the KNB, Khadzhimurat Odzharov. Even the minister of defense before the start of the current repressions was a native of the KNB, Kubandurdy Begendzhev, who headed the department of military counterintelligence there.

The chief of the KNB, Mukhammed Nazarov, in June 2001, when he was appointed adviser to the president, actually became the curator of all the "power" departments of the country. In the autumn of the same year, the KNB defeated the country's Foreign Ministry, primarily all the embassies of Turkmenistan abroad. Considering how much the press wrote about the fact that the representative offices of Turkmenistan have long been involved in ensuring drug trafficking from Afghanistan through Turkmenistan to Europe, in fact, such a defeat meant that the KNB was able to control another cash flow.

In fact, official Ashgabat began to actively engage in drug trafficking back in 1993. The former deputy head of the Central Bank of Turkmenistan, Annadurdy Khadzhaev, claims that before his eyes, the special services, with the knowledge and guarantee of Turkmenbashi, organized a scheme for the supply of drugs to Russia and Western countries. Here is what he told the journalist of Nezavisimaya Gazeta Victoria Panfilova:

“In 1993, before the monetary reform in order to introduce the national currency, the Central Bank of Turkmenistan equipped one of the vaults in the complex of buildings of the former Central Committee of the Communist Party of Turkmenistan. In the summer of 1993, I was invited by the head of the office of the president's office and categorically demanded that I hand over the keys to one of the empty isolated rooms in the vault. They explained to me that in this room some “state values ​​\u200b\u200bthat require the same level of safety as money” will be stored. The CBT instruction on the storage, accounting and transportation of valuables prohibits the storage of other valuables in the vaults of the bank that are not related to its activities. Therefore, I began to object to the violation of the instructions, besides, the bank rules for opening and closing the vault require the obligatory presence of three financially responsible persons - bank employees dealing with such issues. However, under pressure from the staff of the President's Office and the secret services, we were nevertheless forced to hand over the keys to one of the storage rooms.

Then the manager called me and asked the financially responsible persons of the bank to come and open the entrance to the vault. After completing this procedure, bank employees reported to me that the so-called valuables were packed in sugar bags and large flasks of milk. What exactly is in them, they could not say, because the employees of the special services asked the bank employees to step aside.

At the fourth or fifth such "procedure" I decided to personally attend. Everything was confirmed, I saw what was happening with my own eyes. The question arose: what values ​​​​can be stored in such a container? From one of the responsible law enforcement officials, I learned that these were allegedly “confiscated law enforcement drugs."

When bank employees asked why the drugs could not be stored in the premises of the law enforcement agencies themselves, they were told that everything was done on the basis of the law, with the sanction of the president. In the future, they were supposed to be used as raw materials for the national pharmaceutical industry. The only problem is that then in the republic they produced certain types vaccines and dressings.

Other interesting feature, which the banker reported: “The keys to the premises where the narcotic substances were stored were in the possession of the responsible person - the head of the presidential apparatus or his deputy. Until 1997, such a procedure took place less than once a month, and then it became systematic.”

Now it is difficult to estimate the amount of "raw materials" for the pharmaceutical industry. According to Annadurdy Khadzhaev, it was at least hundreds of kilograms. “Cars (sometimes with foreign numbers) carrying containers arrived and left regularly once a week. Storage workers were simply not allowed to work. I realized that something strange was happening, and at the next demand to open the vault, I began to openly resent the fact that bank employees were being forced to perform functions that were not characteristic of them. By that time, the keys to this room in the vault had been transferred from the head of the presidential administration to the jurisdiction of his deputy, Alexander Zhadan, and he personally began to carry out all operations to receive and place the “valuable cargo.”

It is clear that the increased attention from the banker began to irritate the local intelligence services. This is what it led to: “Once I was summoned by the head of the presidential guard, Akmurad Rejepov, and the chairman of the KNB, Mukhammed Nazarov, and strictly warned that all financially responsible persons of the bank who witnessed what was happening should keep their mouths shut. I immediately remembered what happened at the end of 1996 with Border Guard Major Vitaly Usachev, who tried to interfere with drug trafficking at the Ashgabat airport: he was shot. I realized that it was necessary to be silent, otherwise the same fate could befall any of us.

By virtue of his professional duties, Annadurdy Khadzhaev supervised the processes of transporting money around the country, so he and his subordinates regularly visited the airport. “Here we have become the unwitting owners of yet another secret. One of the transit points was the VIP-lounge of the Ashgabat airport. If earlier the right to use this hall extended to members of the government, ministers, chairmen of state committees and their deputies, then since 1996 a ban on the use of the VIP-hall has been established. Huge special luggage was sent through this hall, which was not subjected to customs inspection. Luggage was delivered from the presidential office to the airport, then, under diplomatic cover, it was sent by regular plane to Russia and there, naturally, without being subjected to inspection, was taken to the Embassy of Turkmenistan in Russia. These operations were personally supervised by Alexander Zhadan, Deputy Presidential Affairs Manager.

Operations to send huge luggage that were not subject to customs inspection through the Ashgabat airport were also carried out by Turkish businessman Ahmed Chalyk.

Although the KNB was engaged not only in drug control. Thus, on September 10, 2001, speaking in Ashgabat to the officers of the KNB, Saparmurat Niyazov noted with satisfaction that last year ten thousand foreign citizens were arrested and deported from the country, 350 thousand religious books “incompatible with our religion” were confiscated, and about 80 thousand cassettes. However, he considered these measures insufficient and ordered to increase the staff of the KNB from 1.5 to 2.5 thousand people. Not surprisingly, only a few months have passed, and the growing influence of the NKB began to seriously disturb Turkmenbashi.

Summing up the results of 2002, one of the leaders of the opposition, former ambassador Turkmenistan in Turkey and Israel Nurmukhammed Khanamov said that in 2002 the local special services almost completely renewed their composition three times. “In addition, Saparmurat Niyazov categorically forbade employment in law enforcement agencies and special services of people who received education during the Soviet Union. Frightened by numerous "purges", having before them examples of unsubstantiated dismissals, and often imprisonment, the employees of the special services of Turkmenistan are demoralized and depressed. All this could not but affect the quality of their work, so now it is difficult for the special services to control the situation in the country.

Another success of the KNB was the arrests of opposition leaders and their relatives, which followed immediately after the assassination attempt on the country's president on November 25, 2002. On that day, Saparmurat Niyazov's cortege, which was heading to work in the morning, was fired from machine guns in the center of the capital from truck"KAMAZ". Several people were injured in the shootout.

The leadership of Turkmenistan qualified the assassination attempt on the president as an act international terrorism directed against the constitutional norms of Turkmenistan. The former Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan Boris Shikhmuradov, the former Deputy Prime Minister and Chairman of the Board of the Central Bank Khudaiberdy Orazov, the ex-Ambassador of Turkmenistan to Turkey Nurmukhammed Khanamov, as well as former first deputy minister Agriculture Saparmurad Yklymov.

Among those arrested who gave confessions are former Foreign Minister Batyr Berdyev, former Hyakim of the Tashauz velayat Yazgeldy Gundogdyev, former head of the Mejlis (parliament) Tagandurdy Khallyev, as well as a number of other former high-ranking officials and employees of the “power” structures of the republic. Among those arrested is a Russian journalist and screenwriter Leonid Komarovsky. He was detained the day after the assassination attempt on Saparmurat Niyazov.

In total, according to Ashgabat, forty-six people were tried and convicted in this case at the end of January 2003. In addition, five or six alleged participants in the assassination attempt were not found by the law enforcement agencies of the republic, and the search for them was terminated.

Those who were not arrested were resettled in specially created settlements in the desert regions of the country for those who "lost all confidence and deserve general censure" . According to independent media and the opposition, the total number of those repressed exceeds fifty thousand people.

The correspondent of the Deutsche Welle radio station, Oraz Sariyev, found out from his source in the Tajik prosecutor's office the details of how the KNB organized the assassination attempt. He said that “in the first half of September 2002, a group of supporters of the Taliban movement crossed the Turkmen border from the territory of Afghanistan. In addition to the Afghans, including ethnic Turkmens, the group included several Chechens. The group passed along the usual well-established route near the intersection of the Turkmen-Afghan and Turkmen-Iranian borders. After the start of the anti-terrorist operation in Afghanistan, Taliban, IMU and al-Qaeda militants often used the territory of Turkmenistan as a staging post. These crossings were carried out by agreement with the Turkmen border guards, of course, for money, either for the purpose of "respite" in Turkmenistan, or for transit to Russia, to Chechnya.

At that time, nothing boded unpleasant for a group of militants. But this time they were met "not by border guards, but by employees of the KNB and the guards of the president of Turkmenistan - this operation to arrest militants who came from Afghanistan was carried out under the supervision of the head of one of the departments of the presidential guard, a Chechen by nationality."

The arrested were urgently taken to the Ashgabat pre-trial detention center of the KNB. Work was carried out with the detainees “under the control of the said high-ranking official of the presidential bodyguard, after which they agreed to “participate in the assassination attempt” on Niyazov. The script was written, they were given firearms, which could not cause any harm to the armored presidential limousine. After performing the roles prescribed to them, which consisted in simulating an attack on the presidential motorcade, they were taken to the Yklymovs' house on Shota Rustaveli Street, where they were detained, in fact, already again, by the special services - this detention was filmed on a video camera and was present as material evidence of the involvement of the Yklymovs in the assassination attempt ".

In February 2003, the journalists of the Deutsche Welle radio station managed to find out new details of the organization of the assassination. According to information received from sources in the prosecutor's office, the performance was organized and directed by Colonel of the Turkish intelligence service MIT ("Milli Istikhbarat Teshkilaty", i.e. "National Intelligence Service") Yilmaz Ihsan.

The mediator in organizing this operation, developed on the direct instructions of President Saparmurat Niyazov and the head of the presidential guard Akmurad Rejepov, was Ahmet Chalyk, a well-known Turkish businessman in Turkmenistan, who enjoyed the special confidence of Turkmenbashi. The businessman, a Kurdish by nationality, closely cooperates with the Turkish intelligence service MIT, but at the same time he was repeatedly seen in contacts with representatives of the Kurdish Workers' Party (PKK) and in providing financial support to Kurdish separatists. Recall that the PKK has been at war with Ankara for many years.

This businessman created in Europe (in particular, in Holland and Germany) front companies engaged in money laundering from illegal business. Here is what one of the leaders of the opposition, the former Deputy Minister of Agriculture of Turkmenistan, Saparmurat Yklymov, said about him: “... this is Niyazov's man, a businessman with seven grades of education. He controls the textile, cotton, construction, and, more recently, gas and oil businesses. In 1996, he tried to extradite me from Sweden to Turkmenistan, and in 2000 he wanted to organize my murder, we received this information from his own people. This fact was recorded by the special services of Sweden, which strengthened the security measures after that.”

Living in exile agrees with the fact that the assassination attempt is a staging of the special services former employee Ministry of Internal Affairs of Turkmenistan Alexander Petrov. He claims that “the methods used by the special services are very diverse. I fully admit that the staging of the assassination attempt was a well-planned action, in the implementation of which by no means amateurs were involved. Although one does not need to have special intelligence to understand: a terrorist attack is a dirty falsification. Primitive but effective. There is a reason, there are objectionable ones, and it turned out to be very easy to rake these objectionable people under the same brush and remove them away.

Another proof of close contacts between Turkish and Turkmen official circles in the context of the assassination attempt on Turkmenbashi is the visit to Turkmenistan of a Turkish government delegation headed by the leader of the ruling Justice and Development Party, Recep Erdogan, on January 9, 2003. During this visit, an agreement was reached that Turkish citizens detained as "participants in the assassination" were extradited to Ankara.

Here is how Alexander Petrov commented on this fact: “Very convenient position. The Turkish citizens who participated in the staging were extradited back to Turkey, and they are probably no longer in danger. Everything is organized like clockwork.”

Although the reasons for the numerous "purges" of the KNB and the destruction of the opposition lie not only in the fear of losing control over the situation in the country. Turkmenistan is still an Asian country, and clan relations play a big role in the political life of the country.

There was another special service in the country that was not controlled by anyone - the bodyguard service of Turkmenbashi. Its number is almost two thousand people, and it is headed by Akmurad Rejepov. Until 2002, it was believed that Akmurad Rejepov and Muhammad Nazarov were in the same bundle. The fact is that both of them are representatives of the same clan - the Chardzhou (Ersaryn) clan, whose informal head is Akmurad Rejepov. It is based on people from the Lebap velayat, where Muhammad Nazarov is also from.

But it became crowded for two figures of this level. In the spring of 2002, there were rumors that Muhammad Nazarov tried to replace Rejepov. He, having access to the "body", managed to convince the president that Muhammad Nazarov was hatching plans to overthrow him. What happened next is described at the beginning of the chapter.

Although sometimes local intelligence officers use methods borrowed from colleagues from Iran to fight the opposition. So, back in 1997, special equipment was purchased in Israel, which allows you to monitor all telephone conversations in automatic mode. programmed keywords(for example: “president”, “turkmenbashi”, names of government members, etc.), by saying which, subscribers automatically lose the right to continue communication - the corresponding phone number is turned off by itself.

Disconnection is merciful by local standards. By 2000, all political opposition had been destroyed or forced out of the country. No one can name the exact number of political prisoners. Political emigrants also have no guarantees that one day they will not end up in one of the Turkmen prisons. At the official request of Tajikistan, they can be deported to their homeland as terrorists or simply kidnapped.

Turkmenistan has complex relations with other states. According to one of the leaders of the opposition, Nurmukhammed Khanamov: “Countries neighboring Turkmenistan remain in the sphere of interests of the Turkmen special services. Saparmurat Niyazov preferred to act outside the framework of generally accepted norms international law. As in everything, Saparmurat Niyazov has "his own way" in interstate relations. Extremely negative attitude Saparmurat Niyazov to his Azerbaijani colleague is well known. Using this hostility of their leader and trying to please him, the Turkmen secret services repeatedly reported to Saparmurat Niyazov that President Heydar Aliyev was hiding his (Saparmurat Niyazov) opponents in his country. Of course, Saparmurat Niyazov authorizes the conduct of special operations of his intelligence in Azerbaijan. Representatives of the special services of Turkmenistan felt at ease in Russia, and in Turkey, and in some other countries. True, not everyone followed Saparmurat Niyazov's lead…” .

As an example, one can cite an official request to FSB Director Nikolai Patrushev from State Duma deputy Alexei Melnikov. The document was prepared in January 2003.

« Dear Nikolay Platonovich!

Shikhmuradova Larisa Orazovna, sister of one of the leaders of the Turkmen opposition, former Deputy Prime Minister of Turkmenistan Boris Shikhmuradov, turned to me. According to her, the Turkmen special services organized surveillance of her on the territory of Moscow and tried to drag her into the car of the embassy of Turkmenistan.

Shikhmuradova L.O. is a citizen of Russia, has never been a citizen of Turkmenistan, works as a deputy director of the Scientific Library of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov.

I ask the FSB of Russia to protect Larisa Shikhmuradova from the encroachments of foreign special services» .

In fact, with domestic special services Turkmen colleagues have complicated relations. On the one hand, back in December 1994, the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation signed an agreement on cooperation in intelligence activities with the KNB. On the other hand, Turkmenistan became only the tenth CIS state with which the SVR signed such an agreement.

Representatives of the KNB participate in all kinds of meetings of the CIS intelligence agencies dedicated to the fight against drugs and terrorism, but often limit themselves to the role of observers. Turkmen Chekists, for example, do not participate in the work of the CIS Antiterrorist Center.

Contacts between Russia and Turkmenistan in the field of border protection have practically ceased. In December 1999, the last Russian border guards left this country. Saparmurat Niyazov terminated the contract, according to which over two thousand Russian border guards served in Turkmenistan: a separate air group was stationed in Mary, and a separate naval group was stationed in Turkmenbashi (former Krasnovodsk).

In February 2001, the Turkmen border guards did not even come to such a protocol event as the 40th meeting of the Council of Commanders of the Border Troops of the CIS Member States, which was held in Baku. Even after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack, the situation did not change: in December 2001, Nikolai Reznichenko, Chief of the General Staff of the Federal Border Service of the Russian Federation, confirmed that Russia was not planning to station its border guards in Turkmenistan.

There are areas where employees and leaders of the KNB have achieved international recognition and respect. For example, activities in the arms market. The secret service began to master it in 1993. The main contractors of the Turkmen side, depending on the military-political situation, were Iran, Turkey, Ukraine and Bulgaria.

In April 1994, the deputies of the Minister of Defense of Turkmenistan visited Bulgaria, where during the negotiations they worked out the issue of purchasing 10 thousand units from the Bulgarian-American company Teraton-Meitrix. AK-47 assault rifles, 1,000 mortars of 133 mm and 82 mm caliber with 500 rounds of ammunition for each unit, and 5,000 RPG-7 grenade launchers. At that time, Teraton-Meitrix fulfilled its obligations only by 1/3. The weapons purchased from her by the Turkmens were intended for delivery to Turkey, which at that time was conducting active fighting against the Kurdish rebels.

From the American side, the leadership of Teraton-Meitrix was represented by Robert Paris (who is also the president of the company), and from the Bulgarian side - by Mladen Mutovchinsky. However, behind the scenes, the management of the company was carried out at that time by US Congressman John Tower, who died at the end of 1994 in a car accident.

In May 1994, a delegation of Turkmen military "merchants" traveled to Hungary. However, after clarifying the intentions of the Hungarian side to act as an intermediary in the proposed transactions, the Turkmens curtailed negotiations and left for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In these countries, the Turkmens held successful negotiations on the purchase of portable anti-aircraft missile systems(MANPADS) "Igla" class "ground - air".

In the mid-nineties of the last century, the Ministry of Defense and the National Security Committee of Turkmenistan held negotiations with Moldova on the purchase of SS-23 Spider missiles (Soviet designation OTR-23), which were to be destroyed under the Soviet-American treaty on the reduction of medium and short-range missiles (INF). The specified rocketry was intended for resale to Iran. The results of the negotiations are unknown. However, in the context of permanent regional conflicts, Turkmens have always had a demand for such services. Thus, with the knowledge of Turkmenbashi, in the context of the escalation of the intra-Yemeni confrontation in 1994, Turkmen military emissaries actively supported the "southerners" (the former socialist south of Yemen). Through the mediation of the Ministry of Defense of Turkmenistan, the following types of weapons were delivered to Aden:

1. Phoenix Air exported 4 units of MiG-29 fighters from Moldova, 20 BN-21 Grad 122 mm units, 13 thousand units of AKM-47 assault rifles from Romania.

2. The Globul Air company removed from Belarus 8 Su-22 attack aircraft, 50 ZAB-500 bombs, 50 Betab-500 bombs.

3. 3. The company "Elmet Engineering" exported from Belarus 10 thousand pieces of NURS S5K. From Ukraine 4 units of MiG-17 fighters. From Bulgaria, 18 CA4 Gvozdika units, 60 Muar missiles, 40 Strela-3M missiles, 20,000 AKM-47 assault rifles, 10 million 7.62 mm cartridges.

The listed items of combat systems and weapons were officially issued for export through government agencies and were intended for shipment to South Yemen. Deliveries were authorized by the leadership of the above countries and coordinated by the highest ranks of the ministries of defense, including Turkmenistan.

The military structures of Turkmenistan in 2000 held confidential negotiations with a native of Lebanon, Bakri Abdul Rede (a citizen of Belgium) and Russian Defense Ministry officers Alexander Islyamov and Viktor Bout on the re-export of weapons to Sudan.

In fact, before the start of the bombing in Afghanistan as part of the US counter-terrorist operation, Turkmenistan began to actively help the Taliban regime by purchasing large quantities cartridges of caliber 7.62 mm for AKM in Bishkek. In addition, the Turkmenbashi regime supplied the former Kandahar administration with fuel and lubricants (POL) for tanks and other vehicles.

Various types of fuels and lubricants and weapons followed to Herat, then to Kandahar and Kabul through the Afghan border town of Turgundi. Starting from 1997, these deliveries were carried out systematically, and the employees of the Ministry of Defense and the leaders of the KNB of Turkmenistan, including the former high-ranking dignitary of Turkmenbashi Boris Shikhmuradov, repeatedly visited Mullah Omar, Mullah Dadullo. Frequent guests in Ashgabat in 2001 were DT commanders Mullah Abdurazak - commander of the 5th army corps, G. Nasratiyar - commander of the 18th division, mullah Fazel - chief of the general staff of the Ministry of Defense of DT and deputy last mullah Berodar, not to mention the former military the political elite of the DT.

In January 2002, in a conversation with the German ambassador in Ashgabat, Turkmenbashi stated that it was impossible to provide his territory for the deployment of Bundeswehr troops who were supposed to carry out peacekeeping operations in Afghanistan, referring to the status of positive neutrality, which does not allow Turkmenistan to provide third countries with any whatever the infrastructure for their use against another state.

Le Corbusier and his heirs translated and knew the Soviet avant-garde artists in the West, but after 1932, when the diversity of ideas in the Soviet Union was over, their projects, buildings and few texts became a thing of the past. Le Corbusier put himself in the first position -