Active and passive reserve. Passive vocabulary: how to activate it

We bet you've been in a situation where you've come across a word that seemed very familiar. You were sure you had taught him before, but you still couldn't remember. This means that the word has gone into the passive vocabulary.

Such words are stored somewhere in the depths of memory, we vaguely remember them, but since we do not use them regularly, they begin to fade into the background, giving way to words that we use daily. Another example of a passive vocabulary is words that we understand when reading or speaking, but do not use ourselves. It turns out a small paradox: we understand these words when they are spoken by someone, but when we ourselves need to use them, they suddenly “fly out of our heads”. Those words that we use regularly are included in the so-called active vocabulary.

Why activate passive vocabulary?

The active vocabulary of any person, both the language being studied and the native language, is always less than the passive one. Some believe that it is enough to know (remember) about 1,000 words to communicate. This point of view is debatable. Yes, knowledge of 1,000 words can be enough to communicate at a primitive level (such a vocabulary is usually found in children of 3-4 years old). However, during a full-fledged live communication, it is unlikely that the interlocutor will try to adjust to this level. Yes, and you may want to more accurately formulate your judgments, reveal your point of view by 100%, be able to express yourself beautifully, according to your age.

How to activate passive vocabulary

1. Learn the words correctly
   In order for the word to be fixed in long-term memory, it is not enough to run through the list of words with your eyes, making sure that you remember everything. While learning new vocabulary, try to write it down by hand (this way you will include motor memory in the work), say each word aloud. Make up a few sentences with each of them to understand how you can use them in communication. Learn words in several visits - do not memorize them in one sitting, otherwise you will immediately forget what you learned. Break the memorization process into several steps. For example, for the first time write down the words with the translation, after a while close the column with the meaning of the words. Then, looking at each word, try to remember what it means. Then do the same, but this time, look only at the value. Periodically review the learned vocabulary.
2. Read aloud
   Reading often helps to enrich the passive vocabulary, however good book can enrich and active. By reading aloud, you learn to pronounce unfamiliar words, which increases your chances of remembering them. After reading, try to retell the text using the vocabulary you have learned from it.
3. Learn from others
   When communicating with someone in English, try to use "passive" words as often as possible. Practice incorporating them into your everyday speech, so you will bring them to the asset. You can write down new words on a piece of paper and take it to a lesson with a tutor or to a speaking club, trying to use each word from the list during the lesson.
4. Write posts
   This option is great for those who study in courses, and for those who study the language on their own. Writing texts - The best way memorization, because our memory perfectly assimilates what we have come up with on our own. If you doubt your knowledge, you can keep a personal diary, making it private access. By the way, a great way to track your progress is to re-read what you wrote after a while and try to correct it. own mistakes if they were allowed. If you are confident in your knowledge and like to speak online, you can try blogging in English, posting on Twitter or Facebook, making beautiful captions in English for photos on Instagram, or sharing your thoughts on thematic forums.
5. Learn by heart
   Learning by heart can seem too boring and tedious, but not when you are learning something interesting. Try to learn poems or songs that you like - this is great for developing memory and enriching vocabulary.
6. play games
   Different games help to replenish the vocabulary and refresh the words from the passive, and therefore activate them. Especially useful will be games to search for synonyms, scrabble, various crossword puzzles. You can search for them in English for a computer or in applications, then you will always have the game with you, and you can use your time when you are waiting for someone or when you are traveling in transport. If you are a fan computer games- try to play English versions, then learning English will become a pleasant entertainment for you, and not a routine duty.

Now you know how to use your passive vocabulary so that words from it become part of everyday speech.

Subject. Active and passive vocabulary

Lesson Objectives:

Educational: to acquaint students with the active and passive vocabulary of the Russian language, to give the concept of neologisms, historicisms, archaisms, common vocabulary, to teach to distinguish native Russian words from borrowed ones, to teach them to find them in the text, to understand the appropriateness of their use; improve language skills and abilities.

Developing: develop the ability to apply knowledge in practice.

Educational: education of a respectful attitude to the language, responsibility for one's teaching.

During the classes

Organizational stage

Checking homework

Conversation.

What is called common vocabulary and vocabulary that has a limited scope of use?

What, in your opinion, can limit the scope of the use of the word?

What layers are included in the vocabulary that has a limited scope of use? Briefly describe each of them.

How to explain that some words are out of circulation, while others

appear in the language?

What words are called dialects?

What are professionalisms and terms?

2. Practical work

Make a dictionary of professional words (in rows):

a) builders: excavator, bulldozer, concrete ...;

b) musicians: soloist, aria, concert, ...;

c) clerk: ... .

Work on the topic of the lesson

Teacher's explanation

Active and passive Russian vocabulary literary language

The dictionary of the language includes active vocabulary, i.e. words that are used in a given period of time by all speakers or some part of the population, and passive vocabulary, i.e. words that people either stop using or are just starting to use.

Passive vocabulary is divided into two groups: obsolete words and new words.

The division of the language into active and passive vocabulary is justified only in a strictly defined historical time: each era has its own active and passive vocabulary.

obsolete words

Words leave the language for various reasons. Some of them are forgotten as soon as some phenomenon or object disappears from life. For example, in the late nineteenth and earlyXXcentury, before the advent of the tram, there was a city Railway with horse traction. This road, as well as the wagon of such a road, was calledkonka . With the advent of the tram, and then other modes of transport, the need for horse traction disappeared, and the wordkonka outdated. Such obsolete words are called historicisms.

Other words are forgotten if new words appear to name that object, sign, action. For example, in the Old Russian language there was a wordknock - "fat". Over time, the word began to be used in this sense.fat , originally meaning "food, food", and the wordknock ceased to be used. Such obsolete words (the subject remains, but the word becomes obsolete) are called archaisms.

In addition to words, separate meanings of polysemantic words became obsolete. Yes, the wordmap has five meanings, and two of them are obsolete: 1) "a sheet with a list of foods and drinks in a restaurant" (now this sheet is calledmenu ); 2) "postcard".

Athistoricism in modern Russian there are no synonyms, but archaisms have; for example, now we are talkingeye , and in the Old Russian language the wordeye .

Obsolete, some words do not leave a trace in the language, others are preserved either in the form of non-derivative stems in words (for example,rope in a wordrope ; circle - "mockery" in the wordscold ; beef - "cattle" in the wordbeef ; thin - "skillful" in the wordartist ), or in the form of independent words in the composition phraseological units, For example:falcon - "an old wall-beater" in a phraseological unitnaked as a falcon ; zga - "road" -nothing is visible ; count - "small piece of land" - no stake, no yard .

Sometimes obsolete words begin to live a new life, acquiring a new lexical meaning. For example, new life in some of the words denoting military ranks, began when new military ranks were introduced in the Red Army. obsolete wordssoldier, corporal, lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, general, admiral etc. acquired a new meaning and became common words. In 1946 they got new life the previously obsolete words minister, ministry due to the change in the name of the government of the USSR (the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers of the USSR).

Obsolete words most commonly used in works of art, are placed in explanatory dictionaries with a noteoutdated . (obsolete). From the words found in the written monuments of the past, scientists compile historical dictionaries, for example, “The Dictionary of the Russian Language XI-XVII centuries, ed. S. G. Barkhudarova.

The use of obsolete words in works of art

Obsolete words are used in works of art that tell about the past. Historicisms and archaisms help the writer create the flavor of the era he is talking about. To stylize the past, obsolete words were widely used, for example, by A. S. Pushkin in the novel “Arap of Peter the Great”, A. K. Tolstoy: in the novel “Prince Silver” (about the era of Ivan the Terrible), A. N. Tolstoy in the novel “ Peter the Great”, A. Chapygin in the novel “Stepan Razin” and other writers.

Sometimes obsolete words in works of art are used to create mockery, irony. The humorous effect is created by including historicisms or archaisms (especially highly solemn ones) in a context where modern common vocabulary prevails.

literary works live long life, therefore, in them we can meet obsolete words that have gone out of use both before they were written (they serve the writer to create the color of the past), and after they were written. For example, A. S. Pushkin, describing in the story "The Captain's Daughter" the events of the second half of XVII century, to create the color of time, he used words that were obsolete in his timeprime major, stirrup, fortecia, corporal, soul jacket . Common in the first third of the nineteenth century. wordscaptain, recruit, tavern, coachman, second and others used in this story are now obsolete.

Neologisms

New words (neologisms) appear in the language for two reasons: firstly, to designate new objects (features, actions), secondly, to improve the lexical system (this is how many synonyms appear; for example, in the serieshotel, hotel, rooms word appearedmotel - "hotel on the highway for autotourists").

Existing words often acquire new meanings, for example, the wordwindow - "forced break in something", the wordcomet - "a small passenger hydrofoil", the wordwalrus - winter swimmer

Neologisms appear in language in three ways.

First, they are formed on the basis of existing words using different ways word production (for example, addition:blood substitute - “substance, drug that replaces blood”, suffix:decoration - "the art of decorative design, work on decorative design", prefix:react and so on.).

Secondly, new words are borrowed from other languages ​​(for example,stole - oversized scarfdesigner - "an artist-designer, a specialist in the artistic design of objects produced by industry", etc.).

Thirdly, separate lexical meanings words available in the language are transformed into independent homonyms (for example,key (at the castle) andkey (spring), etc.).

Neologisms are usually the fruit of the creativity of the entire people of the language creator, but new words are known, introduced into circulation by specific people - writers, scientists, public figures. Yes, the wordsatmosphere, attraction first used by M. V. Lomonosov;humanity, industry - N. M. Karamzin; wordfade away - F. M. Dostoevsky.

Most neologisms appear during periods of significant historical changes in society. So, at the beginning of XV3rd century Peter's reforms in Russia opened the way for many new words in the administrative, military, scientific and cultural fields.

Great October socialist revolution many new words of social and political significance have been born, for example:Komsomol member, Sunday, five-year plan, drummer, reading hut, health resort, Octobrist, subbotnik, collective farm, competition.

Neologisms also appear in the language of writers who are always looking for new, fresh words to express existing concepts. Such neologisms are called author's neologisms, in contrast to language neologisms, which are called linguistic. Only a few of the author's neologisms become commonly used. Most of them remain "eternal" neologisms, understandable and usable only in this context. Author's neologisms perform individual stylistic tasks in this or that work. Many author's neologisms were created by V. Mayakovsky, for example:huge, thousand-headed (book),to clutter up, to disengage (occasionalisms: incident - an accident, an opportunity - by chance).

Appearing in speech, neologisms bear the imprint of unusualness, novelty. The need to name a new object (feature, action) with a word makes us increasingly use this or that neologism, and it, losing the impression of novelty, becomes a commonly used word. So, relatively new wordsland on the moon, splash down, lunar rover, lunar are still perceived as neologisms, but they are already firmly established in our everyday life.

There are no special dictionaries of neologisms. New words fall into explanatory dictionaries, having already become commonly used. In 1971, the book New Words and Meanings was published. Dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s, ed. N. Z. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin (2nd ed. - M., 1973). It contains 3,500 new words, expressions and meanings of words that are actively used in newspapers, magazines, and the latest works of art. In 1984, the second book was published - “New Words and Meanings. Dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 70s, ed. N. Z. Kotelova. It includes about 5500 new words.

Recording a summary diagram on a topic

VOCABULARY

Active - Passive -

words that people use words that people have either stopped

during this period of time, everyone either begins to use:

speakers: hotel, eyes1. Obsolete words:

A) historicisms - denote events, objects,

disappeared from life:king, horse

b) Archaisms - the old name of the existing

phenomena, objects:eye - eye,lanita - cheek,

2. Neologisms - appear as names

new phenomena, objects:tablet, smartphone

as new names for existing items:motel.

III. Fixing the material

Practical work

Exercise 1. Distributive dictation. Divide the words into groups: commonly used, historicisms, archaisms, neologisms.

Words:road, sky, wind, sun, moon, tree, flower, cloud, veche, oprichnik, armyak, barber archers, eyes, bed, cheeks, broker, broker, computer, manager, tsar, inheritance, military, dragie, lyakh, right hand - right hand.

Task 2. You are given obsolete words that have been used in office work for a very long time. Find modern synonyms for them.

Outdated words:if, without delay, therefore, this (case), it is necessary.

Job check: if, urgent, therefore, this, necessary

Task 3. Correct the errors in the sentences by replacing obsolete words with their modern synonyms. Write down the corrected version.

This case caused a lot of talk at the plant.

It is necessary to urgently give an order to the director of the personnel department.

Checking the job.

This case caused a lot of talk at the plant.

It is urgent to give an order to the director of the personnel department.

Summarizing

What words are in the active vocabulary?

What groups of words does passive vocabulary consist of? Name.

What words are considered obsolete?

What words are called archaisms? Give examples.

Homework

Run ex. 40 (V.F. Grekov. Manual for classes in the Russian language).

Individual tasks - prepare messages:

"Phraseology as a branch of the science of language";

Phraseologism and its features;

"The origin of phraseological units of the Russian language";

"Sources of Russian phraseological units";

"The use of phraseological units in speech".

Language as an evolving phenomenon

Language is a means by which people communicate with each other, exchange thoughts and achieve mutual understanding.

The Russian language is constantly evolving: the vocabulary, pronunciation norms, and the grammatical structure of the language are changing. The development of the language is influenced by changes taking place in society, as well as the actual language features.

Vocabulary is the most subject to change. It is the vocabulary of the language that instantly reacts to everything new that appears in the surrounding reality. The most large group words of the Russian language refersto common Slavic vocabulary, which has been preserved in the language since the time of the Slavic linguistic community: earth, water, mother, daughter, hand, leg, will, freedom, spruce, owl, magpie, be able to, call, etc.

In the Russian language there are a number of words that have fallen into disuse, since the concepts and objects denoted by them have disappeared:plow, kombed, zemshchina, gendarme and etc.These are historicisms . They are found in scientific and artistic literature.

There are also words in the language that are not currently used, but have in modern language synonyms:a boy is a young man, food is food, a child is a child, to see is to look. These are archaisms.

In connection with changes in the life of society, some words have acquired new meanings. Wordcitizen in its original meaning, "resident of the city" was widely used in literature until the end of the 18th century.

In the era of Peter the Great, when Russia becomes one of the most powerful European states, increases public consciousness people, there is a desire to influence public life of their country. It was at this time that the wordcitizen acquires a new meaning: it is no longer only a "resident of the city", but also a member of the "society"

Based on this value in the XIX century. Another developed: the word citizen was meant to denote a person who benefits society, subordinating his personal interests to the public:

Be a citizen! Serving art, live for the good of your neighbor... (N.A. Nekrasov.)

In modern Russian, the main meaning of the word citizen is as follows: "a person belonging to the permanent population of a given state and performing all the duties established by the law of this state" in this meaning the former meanings were combined.

Changes in the life of society explain the formation of new words in the language -neologisms . They arise to designate new objects, phenomena, etc.

New words are born in every historical period.

By the 19th century includes the appearance of many words:activity, aeronautics, natural science, locomotive, steamer, cattle breeding, vote and others. In the XX century. The development of the lexical composition of the Russian language was greatly influenced by the October Revolution of 1917. In the 1920s, words such ascollective farm, councils, workday, five-year plan, party card, new building and etc.

The poet A. Bezymensky, in a poem written in the 1930s, assesses the appearance of neologisms as a reflection of the "spirit" of that time:

Cities, cities, cities.

Electricity, oil, ore.

No bragging. No mystery of secrets.

Excavator. Motor. Combine.

Hard derrick. Turbine. Cable.

Caterpillar. State farm. Kolkhoz.

Counter plan. FZU. Avtodor.

Selmashstroy. Dneprostroy. Rabselcor.

Five-year plan. Surf communes.

Plan. Drummers. Steel. Cast iron.

What could be more beautiful than this?

And all this is ours!

After the Great Patriotic War, in the 40-60s, thanks to scientific and technological progress, a large group of words, reflecting discoveries in various fields of science and technology, entered the vocabulary of the language:nuclear-powered ship, kapron, space, lunar rover, nylon, programming, launch vehicle, thermonuclear, spaceship and etc.

In the last decades of the XX century. Russian vocabulary has been replenished with many words borrowed from other languages:hamburger, management, chips, etc.

The active and passive composition of the vocabulary is part of the vocabulary of the modern language: active [from lat. aktivus ‘effective’] vocabulary is the central, “nuclear” part of the entire vocabulary of the language and consists of words that are understandable to all speakers of this language and are often used by them in speech; passive [from lat. passivus ‘inactive’] vocabulary is a peripheral part of the vocabulary of the language.

Such a division of vocabulary was proposed by L. V. Shcherba, who drew attention to the fact that there are quite a lot of words in the language that are no longer used or rarely used in live speech, although they remain quite understandable.

According to one (more traditional and widespread) point of view, the passive vocabulary should include little-used words that have either ceased to be relevant or have not yet entered into active speech usage: obsolete - that is, historicisms and archaisms; obsolete and, on the contrary, only recently appeared in the language - that is, neologisms. At the same time, the stylistic stratification of vocabulary is not taken into account - the active composition of the vocabulary can include not only commonly used stylistically neutral words with a developed system of meanings and wide compatibility, but also words that are limited in their use to a certain area (for example, special terms and professionalisms) , functional style of speech (for example, book or colloquial words) or their inherent emotional and expressive coloring.

Proponents of a different point of view, on the contrary, base the division of vocabulary into active and passive on the stylistic principle: in their opinion, the passive vocabulary of a language includes words that are not stylistically neutral, limited in use or features of the phenomena they designate (names of rare realities, historicisms, terms), or stylistic coloring.

In connection with this ambiguity, some scientists propose to abandon the terms "active and passive vocabulary" and talk about different degrees of word activity. Moreover, the boundaries between the active and passive vocabulary are mobile - the language is sensitive to changes in the life of society, and the result of its reactions is not only the creation of new words to denote previously non-existent objects, recently emerging phenomena and newly formed concepts, but also a constant the movement of some lexical units that have lost their relevance to the periphery of the language, and sometimes the return to active use of already, it would seem, completely forgotten words. Thus, in recent times, the words philanthropist, Duma, patriarch, gymnasium, croupier, mission and others (some of these returned words even become a symbol of a new historical era, as happened with the word publicity), while the words nationwide, class, collectivism and others, on the contrary, have become part of the passive language stock. Such changes in the lexical composition of the language are reflected in special dictionaries - for example, in the one published under the editorship of G. N. Sklyarevskaya " explanatory dictionary Russian language at the end of the 20th century. Language Changes” (St. Petersburg, 1998; and other editions) developed a special system of labels to indicate that a particular word in the described era moved from one part of the vocabulary to another or was updated.

The statistics of the use of lexical units, which is one of the characteristics of whether a word belongs to the active or passive composition of the vocabulary, is noted in frequency dictionaries. It's comparatively new type lexicographic publications, the emergence of which is associated with the development of computer technology. Frequency dictionaries are compiled on the basis of computer processing of texts, which allows you to determine the numerical characteristic of the frequency of occurrence of a particular word in them. There are common frequency dictionaries made on various speech material. For example, "Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. L. N. Zasorina (M., 1977) includes about 40,000 items and covers fiction, journalistic and business texts; "Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language (based on the materials of the National Corpus of the Russian Language)" by O. N. Lyashevskaya and S. A. Sharov (M., 2009; electronic version) includes over 50,000 words. There are frequency dictionaries associated with a particular area of ​​language use (for example, “Frequency Dictionary of General Scientific Vocabulary” (M., 1970), “2380 words most commonly used in Russian colloquial speech” (M., 1968), etc.) , as well as dictionaries that statistically represent the vocabulary of a particular era (“Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language of the Second Half of the 16th - Early 17th Centuries” by A. A. Gruzberg (Perm, 1974), etc.), the language of a particular writer or individual work (for example, compiled by A. O. Grebennikov "Frequency Dictionary of A. P. Chekhov's stories" (St. Petersburg, 1999)). Such dictionaries help to penetrate deeper into art world writer.

The terms "active and passive vocabulary", "active and passive vocabulary" are applicable not only to the language as a whole, but also to its individual speaker. At the same time, the active and passive composition of the vocabulary of a language does not coincide with the active and passive vocabulary of a particular person who speaks a given language: the composition of modern Russian vocabulary amounts to tens of thousands of language units (the set of normative lexical units is most fully presented in the two-volume "Consolidated Dictionary of Modern Russian Vocabulary" ed. R. P. Rogozhnikova (M., 1991), and the active stock of a person is from 300 to 2000 words.The number of language units actively used by one or another native speaker depends on the general cultural level speaker. To a large extent, the composition of the active and passive vocabulary of a linguistic personality is determined by the age, place of residence, profession, personal tastes and interests of a particular person. So, in the early and mid-2000s. words used to refer to a mobile phone: mobile, cellular, a tube and others. All these words belonged to the active vocabulary of the Russian language and were understandable to all speakers, but for a particular person (depending on the region of Russia, age, social and professional status), this or that word could be on the periphery of a personal dictionary. the word is handy (handy), familiar to the Russian-speaking population of Europe, in particular Germany, was alien to the inhabitants of Russia.

The limits of my language are the limits of my world. (L. Wittgenstein).

To expand the boundaries of your vocabulary in many ways means to expand the horizons of your ideas about the world.

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Vocabulary is the set of all the words that a person owns. It is generally accepted that a wide vocabulary is inherent in the most educated people, as well as writers.

Active and passive vocabulary

Active vocabulary is those words that a person uses in when he speaks or writes. For different people, this indicator can vary greatly. Nobody knows and does not use all the words of the language.

Student's active vocabulary lower grades is approximately two thousand words, by the end of the institute this figure increases at least five times! "Pushkin's Language Dictionary", which includes all the words used by the great poet in his works, contains about 20 thousand words.

Passive vocabulary is those words that a person does not use himself, but understands if he sees or hears them. As a rule, there are many times more of them than the words included in the active vocabulary. This includes various terms, words of limited use (jargonisms, archaisms or neologisms), just quite rare and unusual words.

It's funny that, with the vocabulary of the Russian language of about half a million words, we all actively use no more than 6 thousand, which is about 90% of human speech, and only 10% are rarely used.

The concept of active and passive vocabulary is used in linguistics and literary criticism, as well as in pedagogical and clinical psychology. Teachers also use it. At school, they teach that vocabulary needs to be replenished, and for this, read more. This is true. Reading is the best way to build up your passive vocabulary. Moreover, the most pleasant, because a person follows the twists and turns of the plot, while the words themselves are remembered. But not every book is suitable for this. We must take good literature, you can use the classics, otherwise there is a risk of running into the author, who has the lowest vocabulary: there is nothing to learn from him, you can teach him yourself!

Another way is to look up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. In principle, it is not necessary to rush through the Ozhegov dictionary in search of the right word - there are corresponding resources on the Internet, which are very convenient to use. But, although you will learn the meaning of the word anyway, you are more likely to remember it when using a paper dictionary. The search itself, which will take more time and effort, will more firmly fix the word in, because it will be constantly repeated mentally while a person is in search.

Active and passive vocabulary

obsolete words

2.1. historicisms

2.2. Archaisms

Neologisms

3.1. Linguistic neologisms and occasionalisms

3.2. Sources of neologisms

Literature

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Active and passive vocabulary

The vocabulary of the language is almost continuously updated new words, the emergence of which is associated with changes in the life of society, the development of production, science and culture.

At the same time, the opposite process takes place in the vocabulary - the disappearance from its composition obsolete words and meanings.

Since the consolidation of new words and meanings in the language, and especially the departure from the outdated language - gradual process And long, in the language there are always two layers of vocabulary at the same time:

active lexicon,

passive lexicon.

to active vocabulary language refers to all vocabulary that is used daily in a particular area of ​​communication.

To the passive vocabulary language includes words that are rarely used, have not yet become or have ceased to be necessary, familiar in a particular area of ​​communication, i.e.

words that leave the language obsolete words),

words that have not yet finally entered general literary use or have just appeared in it ( neologisms).

Border between active and passive dictionaries a) fuzzy (in synchrony) and b) mobile (in diachrony).

a) words active in one area of ​​life or in one style of speech, less active or passive in other areas of life and styles of speech. For example, active words in everyday life can be passive scientific or business speech and vice versa.

b) Active dictionary units under certain conditions, they can easily go into a passive reserve:

drummer(socialist labor),

pager.

A liability units can easily become an asset [Girutsky, p. 147–148]:

neologisms: make-up artist, flash drive...

former historicisms: mayor, think...

Distinguish between active and passive vocabulary language and individual native speakers.

Active dictionary of a native speaker- a set of lexical units that the speaker freely uses in spontaneous speech.

Passive vocabulary of a native speaker- a set of LEs that are understandable to a native speaker, but are not used by him in spontaneous speech.

It's obvious that

specific carrier language differ significantly(quantitatively and qualitatively) from active and passive dictionaries language;

active and passive dictionaries different carriers language differ significantly volume and composition depending on

age,

level of education,

spheres of activity [ERYA, p. 21].

obsolete words

The loss of a word or one or another of its meanings is the result of a long process archaic. The word or meaning begins to be used less frequently and moves from an active vocabulary to a passive one, and then it can gradually be forgotten and disappear from the language.

Obsolete words form complex system. They are inconsistent in terms of

degree of obsolescence

reasons for archaization

possibilities and nature of their use.

Degree of obsolete some scholars highlight necroticisms and obsolete words.

Necroticisms(< греч.necros‘dead’) are words that are currently completely unknown to ordinary native speakers:

stern‘paternal uncle’,

circle‘mockery’ (cf. circle at),

zga‘road’ (cf.: path,neitherzgi can not see).

These words are not even included in the passive stock of the language [SRYA-1, p. 56].

Obsolete words - actual language units having

limited scope

and specific stylistic properties:

verst(old Russian measure of length ≈ 1.06 km),

policeman(the lowest rank of the city police in pre-revolutionary Russia),

speak(speak).

Many words that have disappeared from the active dictionary literary language, are actively used in dialects:

vered (a), vologa, put, right'wash', cod‘bed, bed’…

Words that are obsolete and even gone from a given language can be stored in an active vocabulary other languages, first of all related. Wed:

velmy'Very' (velmi - in white, velmy in Ukrainian),

knock'fat' – in white (cf. Russian. fat),

the whole‘village, village’ – in Bel. weighty, in Polish. wieś .

Words can be stored in unrelated languages, if they were borrowed [SRYASH, p. 294]

Depending on the reasons for archaization There are two types of obsolete words:

historicisms,

archaisms.

2.1. historicisms- these are words that have gone out of active use, because. became irrelevant or the objects or phenomena they denoted disappeared.

Those. appearance historicism caused extralinguistic reasons: the development of society, science, culture, changing the customs and way of life of the people.

historicisms Dont Havesynonyms in modern language and are used when necessary to name the disappeared realities:

boyar, coachman, altyn(coin of 3 kopecks) , chain mail[ERYA, p. 159].

Depending on whether it's outdated whole word or only its meaning, distinguish 2 types of historicisms:

lexical (full),

semantic (partial).

Lexical(full) historicisms- words (single- and multi-valued) that have gone out of active use as sound complexes along with meanings:

caftan;mayor(in Russia until the middle of the 19th century, the head of a county town): the names of old positions are considered historicisms.

Semantic(partial) historicisms– obsolete values polysemantic words of the active dictionary:

mace: 1) a short rod with a spherical heavy head, a symbol of the power of a military leader, in the old days - a shock weapon;

2) a gymnastic hand-held apparatus in the form of a bottle with a thickening at the narrow end.

1 LSV - semantic historicism, in the 2nd sense it is a word of the active dictionary.

Special category make up historicisms that name realities that have disappeared from the life of native speakers of a given language, but are relevant in the lives of other modern peoples, therefore exoticisms(on exoticisms, see the lecture "Vocabulary from the point of view of origin"):

chancellor, burgomaster...

Historicisms are used

How neutral words- if necessary, name the realities indicated by them (for example, in historical works);

How stylistic device:

to create a solemn style (for example, in journalism and poetry) [ERYa, p. 160].

2.2. Archaisms(gr. archaios‘ancient’) – words displaced by synonymous lexical units [ERY, p. 37].

Archaisms in the modern language necessarily there are synonyms:

fishing'hunting', voyage'journey', koi'which', piit'poet', Baltic 'Baltic', complacency'complacency'.

If causes turning words into historicisms quite clear, then the clarification of the causes of the appearance archaisms- enough difficult problem. For example, it is not so easy to answer the question why the words:

finger, this, hitherto, will pushed out of active use by words finger, this one, so far, if.

Depending on whether it's out of date phonographic shell words or one of values, distinguish:

lexical archaisms (outdated phonographic shell) And

semantic archaisms (obsolete one of the values words).

Lexicalarchaisms may differ from the modern synonymous word in different ways. Depending on this, several groups are distinguished.

Proper lexical archaisms - words that are displaced from the active stock by words with another root:

Victoria'victory', sispeech'that is', shuytsa'left hand', actor'actor', ever'constantly', velmy'Very', dennitsa‘morning dawn’.

Lexical and derivational archaisms differ from modern equivalents in a derivational element:

fishar 'fisherman', murdererec 'murderer', answerstems be'reply';

from veta'slander', is in a hurry‘hurried up’.

Lexico-phonetic archaisms are somewhat different from the modern synonym in sound appearance:

piit'poet', mirror'mirror', smooth'hunger', voxal'railway station', iroism 'heroism', Guishpanese 'Spanish'.

In addition to lexical ones, there are grammaticalarchaisms are obsolete forms of words:

A) not existing in modern language, for example,

vocative forms of nouns: devo! father! king!

wherewent to eat Russian land (old perfect).

b) grammatical forms, which in the modern language formed differently.:

to the balle , give me('give!') , performAnd , diee (‘died’ – old aorist), Russianago , equalsYu .

Semantic archaism- it's outdated meaning polysemantic word of the active dictionary, expressed in the modern language by another word.

By the fact that the meaning, obsolete for one sound complex, is expressed by another sound complex, semantic archaism differs from semantic historicism.

Otherwise, semantic archaisms are defined as words, used earlier in a different meaning than now:

stomach‘life’ (cf.: not to life, but to death),thief‘any state criminal’, language'people', a shame,disgrace'spectacle'.

Archaisms can only be used with certain stylistic goal:

to recreate the historical situation and speech coloring of the era;

to create a solemn style (for example, in journalism and poetry).

The process of archaization of vocabulary not always straight forward: it often happens that under the influence of extralinguistic factors, obsolete words are returning to active stock. In this case, their meaning, as a rule, changes:

historicisms: decree, ministry, duma, governor, mayor...

archaisms: tavern(V tsarist Russia- drinking establishment of the lowest category) - in modern youth jargon "restaurant, cafe where you can drink."

Often words that are obsolete in direct meaning, in metaphorical meanings of the word are not perceived by speakers as obsolete:

master‘a person who does not like to work himself’,

footman‘fawn’

serf‘servant, henchman’ [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 154].

Neologisms

Neologisms(gr. neos'new', logos‘word’) - words, word meanings or combinations of words that appeared in the language in a certain period and are perceived by native speakers as new.

These are words that have not yet entered the active vocabulary.

Neologisms are also defined as words that arose in the memory of the generation using them.

The belonging of words to neologisms is a relative and historical property. They remain neologisms only as long as they retain a shade of freshness, unusualness [LES, p. 331]. For example, the word astronaut appeared in 1957 and has not felt like new for a long time.

In 1996, the words were perceived as neologisms:

lawlessness,broker,GKChP, gekachepist, digestest'print overview', OMON, riot police, teenager,thriller, phytodesign,voucher,video cassette,clip,sponsor,supermarket,shaping, shop-tour,charter(flight).

It happens that neologisms, without becoming facts of an active dictionary, quickly pass into the category of obsolete words. Wed:

virgin lands (originated in 1954), gekachepist,Dudaevites,pager.

In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year is tens of thousands. First of all, these are words created from native language material. However, they are less noticeable than borrowings, so it often seems that there are more borrowings among neologisms.

The appearance of neologisms is explained

extralinguistic reasons: the social need to name everything new,

intralingual reasons: tendencies towards economy, unification, systematic language means, variation of nominations with different internal forms; tasks of expressive-emotional, stylistic expressiveness [LES, p. 331].

Depending on whether the old word differs from new plan of expression or content plan, distinguish

lexical neologisms (new words): shadow worker, security officer, horror story, mobile phone, cabal, taxing, nanotechnologies…

semantic neologisms (new values existing words):

walrus‘winter swimmer’ (this meaning was a semantic neologism for some time after its origin),

truck‘cargo spaceship’,

disk‘gramophone record’ (cf. figurative meanings of words: throw, put on, run over, arrow, roof, negative),

nanotechnology -(transl.) ‘projects that require large expenses, but give an insignificant result’, a way of obtaining money by fraudulent means’;

in addition, allocate phraseological neologisms:

The White house- about Russian realities, credit of trust,unpopular measures,constitutional state,living wage,Funny price…