Modern anthropoids. Why apes should be classified in the genus Homo

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Introduction

Apes, a group of great apes, the most highly developed among the Old World monkeys; includes gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas. Together with humans, apes make up the superfamily Hominoidea, which is combined with the superfamily Apes into the section Old World monkeys. ape anatomical

Apes are also called anthropoids, although modern classifications This term usually refers to the suborder of higher primates, which includes both the higher (anthropoid) and lower (marmoset and capuchin) monkeys of the Old and New Worlds.

Purpose of the work: to characterize the family of great apes.

Job objectives:

Give a general description of the family of great apes;

Consider individual representatives of the family: morphology, lifestyle;

Consider the similarities and differences between the family of anthropoids with humans and apes.

1. general characteristics family of great apes

Apes first appeared in the Old World towards the end of the Oligocene - about 30 million years ago. Among their ancestors, the most famous are propliopithecus - primitive gibbon-like monkeys from tropical forests Fayyum (Egypt), which gave rise to pliopithecus, gibbon and dryopithecine. The Miocene saw a dramatic increase in the number and diversity of ape species. This was the era of the heyday of Dryopithecus and other hominoids, which began to widely spread from Africa to Europe and Asia about 20-16 million years ago. Among the Asian hominoids were Sivapithecus - the ancestors of orangutans, whose line separated about 16-13 million years ago. According to molecular biology, the separation of chimpanzees and gorillas from a common trunk with humans most likely occurred 8-6 million years ago.

Anthropomorphic or great apes constitute the highest group of primates and are closest to humans. These include the largest species - the gorilla and chimpanzee living in African forests, the orangutan - a large monkey from the island of Kalimantan, and several forms of gibbons from Indochina and from the islands of Kalimantan and Sumatra. They have the same number of teeth as humans, and just like humans, they lack a tail. Mentally, they are more gifted than other monkeys, and the chimpanzee especially stands out in this regard.

In 1957, the great ape bonobo was singled out into a special genus - a form that until then was considered only a dwarf variety of chimpanzees.

All great apes live in forests, climb trees easily, and are very imperfectly adapted for moving on land. Unlike true quadrupeds and bipedal humans, they have an inverse relationship between the length of the limbs of the first and second pair: their legs are relatively short and weak, while the tenacious upper limbs are significantly elongated in length, especially in the most skilled tree climbers - gibbons and orangutans .

When walking, great apes rest on the ground not with the entire sole of their feet, but only with the outer edge of the foot; with such an unsteady gait, the necessary help for the animal is provided by its long arms, with which it either grabs tree branches or rests on the ground with the back of its bent fingers, thereby partially unloading lower limbs. Smaller gibbons, when descending from trees and walking across open ground, move on their hind legs, and with their unusually long arms they balance like a person walking on a narrow pole.

Thus, apes do not have the upright gait of humans, but they also do not walk on all fours in the manner that most other mammals do. Therefore, in their skeleton we find a combination of some features of a bipedal person with animal characteristics of four-legged mammals. Due to the elevated position of the body, the pelvis in apes is closer in shape to that of a human, where it truly lives up to its name and supports the abdominal innards from below. In four-legged animals, the pelvis does not have to perform such a task, and its shape is different there - this is easy to see on the skeleton of a cat, dog and other four-legged mammals, including monkeys. The tail of apes is underdeveloped, and its skeleton is represented in them, as in humans, only by a small rudiment - the coccygeal bone, which is closely fused to the pelvis.

On the contrary, the inclined position of cabbage soup and the stronger development of the facial bones, pulling the skull forward, bring apes closer to four-legged animals. To support the head, strong muscles are required, and this is associated with the development of long spinous processes on the cervical vertebrae and bony ridges on the skull; both serve to attach muscles.

Large jaws also correspond to strong chewing muscles. They say that a gorilla is able to gnaw through a gun taken from a hunter with its teeth. For attachment of the chewing muscles in the gorilla and orangutan, there is also a longitudinal ridge on the crown. Due to the strong development of the facial bones and ridges on the skull, the cranium itself turns out to be more compressed laterally and less capacious than that of a person, and this, of course, is reflected in both the size and development of the cerebral hemispheres: a gorilla is almost the same in height as a person, and the mass of its brain is three times less than the mass of the human brain (430 g for a gorilla and 1350 g for a human).

All modern anthropoids are inhabitants of tropical forests, but their adaptability to life among arboreal vegetation is not expressed to the same degree. Gibbons are natural tree climbers. Orangutans also constantly stay in the trees; there they make their nests, and their adaptability to climbing is clearly expressed in the structure of their long arms, the hands of which, with four long fingers and a shortened thumb, have a characteristic monkey shape, allowing them to cling tightly to branches and branches of trees.

In contrast to orangutans, gorillas mainly lead a terrestrial lifestyle in forests and climb trees only for food or for safety, and as for chimpanzees - monkeys that are smaller and heavier, they occupy an intermediate place in this regard.

Despite differences in size and morphology, all great apes have much in common. These monkeys do not have a tail, the structure of the hands is similar to that of a human, the volume of the brain is very large, and its surface is dotted with grooves and convolutions, which indicates the high intelligence of these animals. In apes, like in humans, 4 blood types, and bonobo blood can even be transfused to a person with the appropriate blood type - this indicates their “blood” relationship with people.

2. Gibbons

According to a number of characteristics (thick hair, small calluses, size and structure of the brain), gibbons occupy an intermediate position between apes and large apes. They are usually considered a separate family of small apes, or gibbons (Hylobatidae), while orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas are grouped into the family of great apes, or pongidae. Gibbons include two genera: gibbons proper (Hylobates, 6 species) and siamangs (Symphalangus), represented by only one species, which is often included in the genus of gibbons. These monkeys live in the dense tropical forests of Southeast Asia and the Sunda Islands (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Java). Gibbons are small monkeys (body length up to 1 m, weight rarely exceeding 10 kg), leading an almost exclusively arboreal lifestyle. With the help of their long, strong arms, they are able to fly from branch to branch over a distance of 10 m or more. This method of movement, called brachiation (from the Greek brachion - shoulder, arm), is to one degree or another characteristic of other apes. Some gibbons have the ability to sing melodiously at a full octave (“singing monkeys”). They live in small family groups led by a male leader. Puberty is reached at 5-7 years.

3. Orangutans

Another Asian great ape is the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) - an inhabitant of the swampy forests of Kalimantan and Sumatra. It is also arboreal and rarely comes down to the ground. This is a genus with extremely high variability; perhaps it consists of two subspecies. Unlike the slender, gracile gibbons, the orangutan has a massive, dense build and highly developed muscles. The height of the male reaches 1.5 and even 1.8 m, weight up to 200 kg, the female is much smaller. Possessing long arms and short legs, this monkey differs more than others from humans in body proportions, but its skull and face are the most human-like. The face of an adult male is especially distinctive, with a high forehead, small close eyes, mustache and beard.

Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans rarely form groups, preferring to live alone or in pairs (female - male, mother - cubs), but sometimes a pair of adult animals and several cubs of different ages form a family group.

A female orangutan gives birth to one baby, which the mother takes care of for almost 7 years until it becomes an adult. Until 3 years old, a small orangutan eats almost exclusively mother's milk, and only then the mother begins to accustom him to solid food. Chewing the leaves, she makes vegetable puree for her child. Preparing the baby for adult life, his mother teaches him to climb trees and build nests. Baby orangutans are very affectionate and playful, and they perceive the entire learning process as an entertaining game. Orangutans are very smart; in captivity they learn to use tools and even make them themselves. But in nature, these monkeys rarely use their abilities: the constant search for food does not leave them time to develop natural intelligence.

4. Gorillas

The closest to humans are chimpanzees and gorillas, living in some areas of Western and Central Equatorial Africa. Unlike the reddish-brown orangutan, they have black hair. The gorilla is the largest living primate, including humans. The height of a male is up to 2 m, weight is up to 200-250 kg, females are almost half that size. The brain volume is on average about 500 cubic meters. cm, sometimes up to 752 cc. cm. Compared to orangutans, gorillas lead a more terrestrial lifestyle and are less long-armed.

Females are much lighter and smaller than males. The body of gorillas is massive, with a large belly; broad shoulders; the head is large, conical in adult males (due to the presence of a sagittal crest on the skull); the eyes are widely spaced and set deep under the eyebrows; the nose is wide, the nostrils are surrounded by ridges; the upper lip, unlike chimpanzees, is short; the ears are small and pressed to the head; the face is naked, black. The gorilla's arms are long, with wide hands, the first finger is short, but can be opposed to the rest. The brush is used in collecting food, in various kinds of manipulation and for building nests (similar to humans). The legs are short, the foot has a long heel, the big toe is well set to the side; the remaining fingers are connected by membranes almost to the nail phalanges. The coat is short, thick, black; adult males have a silver stripe on the back and a small beard.

The gorilla genus is represented by a single species - the common gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) - with three subspecies, of which the coast and lowland gorillas live in the damp rain forests of the Congo Basin, and the mountain gorilla lives in the volcanic Virunga Mountains north of Lake Kivu (Congo (Zaire). Gorillas are vegetarians, rather calm and peaceful animals, but when threatened, they take on a terrifying appearance, stand on their hind limbs and, hitting their chests with their fists, emit a loud roar. They live in small herds led by a male leader. Sexual maturity occurs at 6-7 years in females and at 8-10 years and even later in males.

Public life. The eldest of the silverback males becomes the head of the family group, and the care of all its members falls on his powerful shoulders. The leader gives signals for waking up in the morning and going to bed in the evening, chooses a path in the forest that the whole group will follow in search of food, and maintains order and peace in the family. He protects his charges from all the dangers that the tropical forest conceals.

The cubs in the group are raised by females - their mothers. But, if suddenly the kids become orphaned, it is the silver-backed patriarch who will take them under his protection, carry them on himself, sleep next to them and watch their games. While protecting the cubs, the leader can enter into a duel with a leopard and even with armed poachers.

Often the capture of a baby gorilla costs not only the life of its mother, but also the life of the leader of the group. Having lost their leader and deprived of protection and care, helpless females and young animals may well die if some single male does not take care of the orphaned family.

The life routine of gorillas is very similar to that of humans. At sunrise, at a signal from the leader, the entire group wakes up and begins to search for food. After lunch, the family rests, digesting what they have eaten. Young males sleep at a distance, females with cubs are closer to the leader, juveniles frolic next to them - each has its own place. At night, gorillas build nest-beds from branches and leaves. Nests are usually located on the ground. Only light young animals can afford to climb low into a tree and make a bed there.

Cubs enjoy special love in the family. The kids spend most of their time with their mother, but the whole group participates in their upbringing, and adults are patient with the pranks of young people. Gorillas grow up slowly, only twice as fast as human children. Newborns are completely helpless and need maternal care; only by 4-5 months they can move on four legs, and by eight months they can walk upright. Then they grow up faster; surrounded by relatives, young gorillas quickly learn everything. At the age of 7, females become fully grown, males mature by 10-12 years, and at 14 years their back becomes silver. The silverback male often leaves the group and lives alone for a long time until he manages to create a new family.

5. Chimpanzee

The chimpanzee genus (Pan) includes two species - the common chimpanzee (P. troglodytes) with three subspecies and the pygmy chimpanzee, or bonobo (P. panicus). The chimpanzee can to a certain extent be considered a smaller version of the gorilla, with which it shares many characteristics. Height is about 1.5 m, weight is 50-60 kg, brain volume is 350-400 cm3. They live in forests and more open landscapes from about 14° N. w. up to 10° south sh., east of lakes Victoria and Tanganyika. They lead a semi-terrestrial lifestyle. The pygmy chimpanzee is found only in the jungle. Some scientists consider it the prototype of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. Chimpanzees live in herds, usually of several dozen individuals, led by a male leader who is often replaced. They are herbivores, but cases of hunting small animals have been described. Sexual maturity occurs at 8-10 years in females and 10-12 in males. Maximum life expectancy is about 50-60 years.

The closeness of chimpanzees to humans is evidenced by data from comparative anatomy, embryology, physiology, genetics (the chromosome set in humans consists of 46 chromosomes, in chimpanzees - of 48), ethology (behavior) and especially biochemistry and molecular biology. The similarity of humans and chimpanzees in blood groups, the structure of molecules of a number of proteins, including hemoglobin, and genes (over 90%) has been established.

The arms are much longer than the legs. Hands with long fingers, but the first finger is small. On the feet, the first toe is large, and there are skin membranes between the remaining toes. The ears are large, similar to human ones, the upper lip is high, the nose is small. The skin of the face, as well as the back surfaces of the hands and feet, is wrinkled. The coat is black, and both sexes have white hair on the chin. The body skin is light, but on the face different types its color varies. average temperature body 37.2 °C.

Chimpanzees, like gorillas, exhibit exceptional learning abilities. For example, the gorilla Koko mastered about 500 signs, used designations such as “I” and “mine”; The pygmy chimpanzee Kindi identified 150 lexigrams and even understood monotonous synthetic speech.

Social life of chimpanzees. Chimpanzees live in groups of an average of 20 individuals. The group, led by one male leader, includes males and females of all ages. A group of chimpanzees lives in a territory, which the males protect from incursions by neighbors.

In places where there is plenty of food, chimpanzees lead a sedentary lifestyle, but if food is scarce, they wander widely in search of food. It happens that the living space of several groups intersects, then they temporarily unite, and in all disputes the group that has more males and is therefore stronger has an advantage. Chimpanzees do not form permanent married couples, and all adult males can freely choose a girlfriend from among the adult females of both their own and the neighboring group that has joined.

After an 8-month pregnancy, a female chimpanzee gives birth to one completely helpless baby. The mother carries the baby on her stomach for up to a year, then the baby independently moves onto her back. For 9 years, mother and child are almost inseparable. Mothers teach their cubs everything they know, introducing them to the world around them and to other members of the group. Sometimes older children are sent to " kindergarten", where they frolic with their peers under the supervision of several adult females. By the age of 13, chimpanzees become adults, independent members of the group, and young males gradually become involved in the struggle for leadership.

Chimpanzees are quite aggressive animals. Quarrels often occur within the group, escalating into bloody fights, sometimes with fatal consequences. A wide range of gestures, facial expressions and sounds help monkeys establish relationships with each other, with the help of which they show dissatisfaction or approval. Monkeys express friendly feelings by picking each other's fur.

Chimpanzees get food both on the ground and in the trees, feeling quite confident everywhere. In addition to plant foods, their diet includes insects and small animals. Moreover, hungry monkeys as a whole community can go hunting and get, for example, a gazelle.

Chimpanzees are very smart and know how to use tools, and they specially select the most suitable ones. handy tool and can even improve it. So, in order to climb into an anthill, a chimpanzee takes a twig and tears off all the leaves on it. They use a stick to knock down a tall fruit or hit an opponent during a fight. Getting to the core of the nut, the monkey can place it on a specially selected flat stone, and use another sharp one to break the shell. To get a drink, the chimpanzee uses a large leaf as a scoop or makes a sponge from a chewed leaf, dips it in a stream and squeezes the water into his mouth.

During a hunt, monkeys are able to throw stones at their prey; a hail of stones awaits a predator, such as a leopard, who dares to hunt monkeys. To avoid getting wet when crossing a stream, chimpanzees can make a bridge out of sticks; they use leaves as umbrellas, fly swatters, fans, and even as toilet paper.

The Ape family occupies an intermediate position between humans and the apes. It consists of 4 genera: gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas.

Among the characteristic features of apes that distinguish them from apes are the absence of an external tail, cheek pouches, ischial calluses (except for gibbons), a shortened body and very long arms, sparse body hair, a high level of brain development, expressive facial expressions, complex behavior .

In terms of the combination of features of the anatomical structure and a number of physiological indicators, pongidae are most similar to humans, especially gorilla and chimpanzee. This is confirmed by data from molecular biology and biochemical genetics. The immunological similarity of protein molecules was noted; homology of most of the chromosomes of pongidae and humans has been revealed, which is manifested in the same pattern of chromosome striations (the same arrangement of genes). The percentage of gene similarity in humans and chimpanzees reaches 91, and in humans and apes - 66. Chimpanzees are the most complete model human body in biological and medical research. Pongidae are close to humans in terms of pregnancy duration, puberty, and life expectancy. The common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans is considered to be the poorly specialized semi-terrestrial, semi-arboreal monkey Dryopithecus, who lived in the Miocene. The divergence of branches to these African anthropoids and to humans probably took place in the Middle Miocene.

Thus, apes have a number of common characteristics that make it possible to classify humans as members of this superfamily. These are the following signs:

· large body size;

· absence long tail;

· similar shape of the auricle;

· large brain with developed grooves and convolutions;

· similar structure of the teeth, especially the chewing surface (“Dryopithecus pattern”);

· structure internal organs;

presence of an appendix;

· similar blood types;

· similarities in the course of diseases, especially infectious ones.

References

1. BES Biology. - M.: Russian Encyclopedia. - 2004.

2. Zhedenov V.N. Comparative anatomy of primates. - M.: Higher school. - 1982.

3. Schaller J.B. A year under the sign of the gorilla. - M. - 1968.

4. Yakhontov A.A. Zoology for teachers: Chordates. - M.: Enlightenment. - 1985.

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common chimpanzee

Chimpanzee social life

Chimpanzees usually live in groups, with an average of 15-20 individuals. The group, which is headed by one male leader, also includes females and males of all ages. Groups of chimpanzees occupy territories, which the males themselves protect from incursions by neighbors.

In places where there is enough food for a group to live comfortably, chimpanzees lead a sedentary lifestyle. However, if there is not enough food for the entire group, then they wander over fairly long distances in search of food. It happens that the territories of residence of several groups overlap. In this case, they unite for some time. It is interesting that in all conflicts the advantage goes to the group that contains more males and which, therefore, turns out to be stronger. Chimpanzees do not create permanent families. This means that any adult male has the right to freely choose his next girlfriend from among the adult females, both from his own group and from the group that has joined.

After an 8-month gestation period, a female chimpanzee gives birth to one absolutely helpless baby. Up to a year of life, the female carries the baby on her stomach, after which the baby independently transfers to her back. For as long as 9-9.5 years, the female and the cub are practically inseparable. His mother teaches him everything she can do, shows him the world and other group members. There are cases when teenagers are sent to their own “kindergarten”. there they frolic with peers under the supervision of several adults, usually females. When the baby turns 13 years old, the chimpanzee enters adulthood and begins to be considered independent members of the pack. At the same time, young males begin to fight for leadership,

Chimpanzees are quite aggressive animals. Conflicts often occur in the group, which even escalate into bloody fights, which often end in death. Apes are able to establish relationships with each other through a wide range of facial expressions, gestures and sounds with which they convey their approval. These animals express friendly feelings through picking each other's fur.

Chimpanzees get their food in the trees and on the ground, feeling in their place in both places. Their food includes:

plant food,
insects,
small living creatures.

In addition, hungry chimpanzees as a whole group can go out hunting and capture, for example, a gazelle for shared food.

Skillful hands and a smart head

Chimpanzees are extremely smart, they are able to use tools, deliberately selecting the most convenient tool. They are even capable of improving it. For example, to climb into an anthill, an ape uses a twig: it selects a twig of appropriate size and optimizes it by tearing off the leaves on it. Or, for example, they use a stick to knock down a tall growing fruit. Or to hit an opponent with it during a fight.

To break a nut, the monkey places it on a flat stone specially selected for this purpose, and uses another sharp stone to break the shell.

To quench their thirst, the chimpanzee uses a large leaf and uses it as a scoop. Or he makes a sponge from a pre-chewed leaf, dips it in a stream and squeezes the water into his mouth.

When hunting, great apes can stone a victim to death; a hail of cobblestones will await a predator, for example, a leopard, who dares to hunt these animals.

In order not to get wet when crossing a pond, chimpanzees are able to build a bridge from sticks, and they will use wide leaves as an umbrella, fly swatter, fan and as toilet paper.

Gorilla

Good giants or monsters?

It’s easy to imagine the feelings of the person who first saw a gorilla in front of him - a humanoid giant, frightening aliens with menacing screams, beating his chest with his fists, breaking and uprooting young trees. Such encounters with forest monsters gave birth to horror stories and tales about the fiends of hell, whose superhuman strength poses a mortal danger, if not for the human race, then for its psyche.

Unfortunately, this is not an exaggeration. Such legends, which pushed the public to the fact that these humanoid creatures began to be treated too incorrectly, at one time caused an almost uncontrolled, panicky extermination of gorillas. The species was threatened with complete extinction if it were not for the work and efforts of scientists who took under their protection these giants, about whom in those years people knew almost nothing at all.

As it turned out, it seemed these creepy monsters are the most peaceful herbivores who eat only plant foods. Besides they are almost completely non-aggressive, but demonstrate their strength and, even more so, use it only when there is real danger and if someone comes to their territory.

Moreover, to avoid unnecessary bloodshed, gorillas try to scare off offenders, it doesn’t matter whether it’s another male, a ruler of another species, or a human. That's when everything comes into play possible means to intimidate:

screams,
pounding your chest with your fists,
breaking down trees, etc.

Features of the life of a gorilla

Gorillas, like chimpanzees, live in small groups, but their numbers are usually smaller - 5-10 individuals. Among them there is usually the head of the group - the eldest male, several females with cubs of different ages and 1-2 young males. The leader is easy to recognize: It has silver-gray fur on its back.

By the age of 14, the male gorilla becomes sexually mature, and instead of black fur, a light stripe appears on his back.

An already mature male is enormous: he is 180 cm tall and sometimes weighs 300 kg. The one of the silver-backed males who turns out to be the eldest becomes the leader of the group. The care of all family members is entrusted to his powerful shoulders.

The main male in the group gives signals to wake up at sunrise and to sleep at sunset, he himself chooses the path in the thickets along which the rest of the group will go in search of food, regulates order and peace in the group. He also protects all of his people from impending dangers, of which there are many in the rainforest.

The younger generation in the group is raised by their own mothers. However, if the baby suddenly becomes orphaned, then it is the leader of the pack who takes them under his wing. He will carry them on his back, sleep next to them and make sure that their games are not dangerous.

When protecting orphan cubs, the leader may even fight with a leopard or even with armed people.

Often the capture of a baby gorilla entails not only the death of its mother, but also the death of the leader of the group. The remaining members of the group, deprived of protection and care, young animals and helpless females also stand on the edge of the abyss if one of the single males does not take responsibility for the orphaned family.

Orangutans

Orangutan: features of life

"Orangutan" is translated from Malay as "man of the forest." This name refers to large apes that live in the jungles of the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Orangutans are from amazing creatures on earth. They differ in many ways from other apes.

Orangutans are arboreal. Even though their weight is quite significant, 65-100 kg, they climb trees remarkably well even at a height of 15-20 m. They prefer not to go down to the ground.

Of course, due to the weight of their body, they cannot jump from branch to branch, but at the same time they are able to confidently and quickly climb trees.

Orangutans eat almost around the clock, eating

fruit,
foliage,
bird eggs,
chicks.

In the evenings, orangutans build their homes, and each one has his own place, where they settle down for the night. They sleep holding a branch with one of their paws so as not to fall down in their sleep.

Every night, orangutans settle down in a new place, for which they again build a “bed” for themselves. These animals practically do not form groups, preferring a solitary life or life in pairs (mother - cubs, female - male), although there are cases when a pair of adults and several cubs of different ages form almost a family.

The female of these animals gives birth to 1 cub. His mother takes care of him for about 7 years, until he is old enough to live independently.

Until the age of 3, a baby orangutan feeds only on its mother’s milk, and only after this period does the mother begin to give it solid food. She chews the leaves for him, thus making a vegetable puree for him.

She prepares the baby for adult life, teaching him to climb trees correctly and build a place to sleep. Baby orangutans are very playful and affectionate, and they perceive the entire process of education and training as an entertaining game.

Orangutans are very savvy animals. In captivity, they learn to use tools and are even able to make them themselves. But in conditions of free life, these apes rarely use their abilities: the incessant search for food does not give them time to develop their natural intelligence.

Bonobos

The bonobo, or pygmy chimpanzee, is our closest relative

Few people know about the existence of our closest relative, the bonobo. Although the set of genes in the dwarf chimpanzee coincides with the set of human genes by as much as 98%! They are also very close to us in the basics of social-emotional behavior.

They live in Central Africa, northeast and northwest Congo. They never leave tree branches and move on the ground very rarely.

Characteristic behavioral features of this species are joint hunting.. They can wage war among themselves, then the presence of power politics is revealed.

Bonobos have no sign language, so characteristic of other creatures. They give each other vocal signals and they are very different from the signals of the second type of chimpanzee.

The bonobo's voice consists of high, harsh and barking sounds. For hunting they use various primitive objects: stones, sticks. In captivity, their intellect gets the opportunity to grow and express itself. There, they become real masters in mastering objects and inventing new ones.

Bonobos do not have a leader like other primates. A distinctive and characteristic feature of pygmy chimpanzees is that at the head of their group or the whole community is a female.

Females stay in groups. They also include cubs and juveniles up to 6 years of age. The males stay away, but not nearby.

It is interesting that almost all aggressive outbursts in bonobos are replaced by elements of mating behavior.

The fact that females dominate among them was revealed by scientists in an experiment when combined with groups of monkeys of both species. In bonobo groups, females are the first to eat. If the male does not agree, then the females join forces and expel the male. Fights never occur during eating, but mating always occurs just before eating.

Conclusion

As many wise books claim, animals are our smaller brothers. And we can say with confidence that apes are our brothers - our neighbors.

MOSCOW, 17 Oct— RIA Novosti, Anna Urmantseva. When paleoanthropologists are asked at what point the genus Homo diverged from the great apes and what might be considered the defining moment in this process, they usually begin to talk long and vaguely about a variety of concepts.

An orangutan was able to imitate human speech for the first timeScientists managed to get a primate to repeat sounds using the simulation game “Do as I do.” The orangutan imitated more than 500 vowel sounds, indicating its ability to control its voice.

The idea that “labor made a man out of a monkey”, it turns out, has long been questioned, since in this case the answer to the main question must be sought at the moment of the appearance of the first tools of labor. And then it turns out that those whom we arrogantly call “humanoids” have them at a certain point in time, like two peas in a pod, like the tools of our ancestors. And if there are no biological remains of a creature next to the chipped stone, it is almost impossible to establish who was the owner of the “product” - an ape or a representative of the genus Homo.

The divergence begins with the Australopithecus. Some scientists believe that they were direct ancestors modern man, others believe that it was a sister dead-end branch of evolution.

Monkeys have been discovered that can make stone toolsBrazilian capuchin monkeys are able to “accidentally” create stone tools by knocking stones against each other and obtaining sharp fragments of pebbles, similar to the most primitive tools of ancient people.

But, according to general data, six to seven million years ago there were certain animals that in all respects resembled modern apes. Then some of the animals from this group separated into the sapient line. It is not entirely clear whether Australopithecines (this can be called a large evolutionary group of hominids, whose chronological period (as a genus) is determined from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago) walked upright and could use tools. Some believe that the first primitive pebble-type tools appeared among Australopithecines approximately 3,300,000 years ago. Other scientists insist that this is already a product of the Homo genus. Further fate Homo sapiens is even more blurred.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, scientific director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the SB RAS Anatoly Derevyanko explains: “Australopithecines are our predecessors, but not yet people. Homo habilis, Homo erectus and other species came from them, but no one knows who exactly was our direct ancestor. Most scientists assume that erectus. However, at some stage, modern humans and apes were at the same stage of development. Therefore, I advocate that apes be included in the genus Homo. On the other hand, I understand perfectly well that tools, ", which were made by both apes and humans, are the same in form, but not in essence. Chimpanzees, cracking nuts with a stone, can get a pinch. But they never use this pinch for their own purposes. These are rather actions on an intuitive level."

In the 19th century, people were transfused with the blood of bonobo chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) without prior preparation - this was quite possible from a medical point of view, since our blood types are the same.

Scientists: the beginnings of human speech appeared 25 million years agoBaboons use the same five basic vowel sounds found in all human languages, suggesting common roots between ape calls and human speech that have existed for about 25 million years.

There have been several attempts to teach sign language to apes. Successful experiments are again associated with chimpanzees: Washoe was the first to be trained - she learned 350 signs from Amslen - American Sign Language. One of the most notorious was the Nim project - the chimpanzee got its name as a pun on the name of Noam Chomsky, an outstanding linguist who argued that language is unique to humans. However, here the opinions of scientists differ. Animal psychologist Herbert Terres, who raised Nim, claimed that at various points in his training lexicon reached a thousand words. Other researchers have talked about 125 words. Critics pointed to the obvious inability of monkeys to remember words and construct sentences, lagging behind human children, who by the age of five already know up to two thousand symbols.

And yet, the number of identical features inherent in both humans and our parallel branch, the apes, is quite large: facial expressions, social behavior, binocular vision, color discrimination, body structure, the ability to maintain it in an upright position and others. Therefore, some paleoanthropologists have long been talking about the expansion of the genus Homo.

“This is more of a humanistic act, rather than a scientific one,” explains Anatoly Derevyanko. Opponents of this idea quite rightly believe that an abyss separates us humans from great apes. From the point of view of modern opinion, indeed. But seven million years ago we were very similar. Nowadays, great apes are being actively destroyed, since they are classified as predators. However, if we equate them with the genus Homo, from the point of view of all international laws, killing them will be prohibited. The extension of human laws to our closest relatives will contribute to their survival in natural conditions ".

Apes

Human skeleton (1) and gorilla (2)

Apes, hominoids or anthropoids(lat. Hominoidea or Anthropomorphidae) - a superfamily of narrow-nosed monkeys (Catarrhini), having a body structure similar to that of humans.

According to the latest anthropological data and the generally accepted theory of the origin of species, all monkeys of the Old World (narrow-nosed monkeys) are divided into two large superfamilies: apes and apes. Many anatomical features distinguish the first and second. Apes are characterized by a larger body, lack of a tail, cheek pouches and ischial calluses (gibbons have them, but they are small). Apes have a fundamentally different way of moving through trees: instead of running along branches on all four limbs, they predominantly move on their hands, under the branches. This method of transportation is called brachiation. Adaptation to it caused a number of anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a mobile shoulder joint, and a chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction.

All apes have a similar dental structure and a larger brain compared to apes. In addition, their brain is more complex, with highly developed sections responsible for the movements of the hand and tongue, and the organs of vision.

Leader gorilla on a tree

Classification

Female gorilla.

Traditionally, three families of apes have been recognized: gibbons, pongids (orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees) and hominids (man and his ancestors). However, modern biochemical studies show that this division is unfounded, since the relationship between humans and pongids is very close. Therefore, the pongidae family is now included in the hominid family.

The modern classification of great apes is as follows (the word “genus” is not specified):

Gibbon family or great apes (Hylobatidae)
- Gibbons, Hylobates: gibbons and siamangs, 12-14 species
Family hominids ( Hominidae)
- Subfamily Ponginae
  - Orangutans, Pongo: 2 types
- Subfamily Homininae
  - Gorillas, Gorilla: 2 types
  - Chimpanzee, Pan: 2 types
  - People , Homo: the only one modern look- a reasonable person

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See what “Humanoids” are in other dictionaries:

- (Anthropoidea), suborder of PRIMATES, including monkeys and humans. Apes have flatter human-like faces, larger brain volumes, and larger body sizes than lower primates... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

Apes ... Wikipedia

Representatives of two families of primates Hylobatidae (gibbons, or small apes) and Pongidae (great apes, or actually apes: orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees). Both groups, together with humans, are included in the superfamily... ... Collier's Encyclopedia

Same as pongids... Big encyclopedic Dictionary

Hominoids, anthropoids (Hominoidea, Anthropomorphidae), superfamily of narrow-nosed monkeys. It is believed that the origins of the development of Ch. o. was a parapithecus from the Oligocene of Egypt. Numerous in the Miocene. and various C. o. inhabited Europe, India, Africa. 3rd semester:… … Biological encyclopedic dictionary

Same as pongids. * * * APEES Apes, a group of higher narrow-nosed monkeys (see NARROW-NOSED MONKEYS), the most highly developed among the monkeys of the Old World; includes gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Great apes- the same as pongids, large apes, a family of narrow-nosed monkeys of the primate order, includes three genera: gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee ... The beginnings of modern natural science

apes- žmoginės beždžionės statusas T sritis zoologija | vardynas taksono rangas šeima apibrėžtis Šeimoje 4 gentys. Kūno masė – 5,300 kg, kūno ilgis – 45,180 cm. atitikmenys: lot. Pongidae English anthropoid apes vok. Menschenaffen rus. higher narrow-nosed... ... Žinduolių pavadinimų žodynas

Or anthropoids (Anthropomorphidae), a group of higher primates. Together with the family hominids, they form the superfamily of anthropoid primates (Hominoidea). According to the most common system, Ch. include 2 families: Gibbons, or... ... Big Soviet encyclopedia

- (characteristics see Narrow-nosed monkeys) embrace three living genera: orangutan (Simia), chimpanzee (Troglodytes s. Anthropopithecus) and gorilla (Gorilla). Some also include gibbons (see Narrow-nosed monkeys). Orang living on... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Books

Great apes, . Long-term study of monkeys made it possible to learn a lot about their life, developed intelligence, and ability to speak. Scientists learned about the origin of aesthetic feeling by seeing how they draw...

Great apes

Apes (orangutan, gorilla, chimpanzee) are the most highly organized primates. The brain is large, especially the large hemispheres of its anterior section with numerous grooves and convolutions.

The forelimbs are longer than the hind limbs. They move along the ground on their hind limbs, resting on the back of their hands. The body is covered with hair, but there is none on the face, palms and soles of the feet. There are no cheek pouches or ischial calluses. Like humans, they have four blood types.

Orangutan

Orangutan- a large monkey, the height of males reaches 150 cm, weight 150–200 kg, females are smaller, height 130–140 cm, weight 81 kg. Hands with underdevelopment thumb, the remaining fingers are long and hook-shaped. The legs are relatively short, the toes are long, the foot is usually held in a flexed position and is capable of prehension. Body covered long hair. The color of the coat is reddish-red, less often brownish-red; on the back and surface of the chest the coat is darker, and on the sides it is lighter (see textbook illustration, p. 229).

The orangutan is common on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. The animal gets its name from the Malay word “orangutan”, which means “man of the forest”.

The animals live in swampy tropical forests, preferring tall trees, where they spend most of the day. They move well along the branches, hanging on their arms and feeling for support with their feet. In this case, the body is in a vertical position. Orangutans rarely descend to the ground; they walk on all fours, resting on the backs of their fingers. At night they build nests in trees.

They feed on buds, young shoots, leaves and fruits of plants. Having picked the fruit, they open it with their teeth and hands, and then with their fingers they extract the white pulp and eat it. Monkeys live in small groups: male and female with cubs of different ages. The female gives birth to one cub weighing 1.2–1.6 kg, feeds it with milk for 3–4 years, teaches it to climb trees and build nests.

Gorilla - the largest monkey, male height 180–200 cm, body weight 250 kg. She has a short and thick neck, her eyes lie deep under the brow ridges, a wide and flat nose, and thick lips. The body is covered with long shaggy hair. The coat color ranges from gray to brownish-reddish.

They live in dense, impenetrable equatorial forests West and Central Africa, live in herd groups. Each herd contains about 30 individuals of different sexes and ages. At the head of the herd is an old male leader with a silver stripe on his back. Gorillas often descend to the ground, looking for food: young shoots of bamboo, bushes, fruits and fruits.

They always spend the night in trees, first making nests in their forks. Despite their formidable appearance, gorillas are peaceful animals; they communicate with each other using various sound signals, postures, facial expressions and gestures (see textbook illustration, p. 233).

The gorilla is listed in the IUCN Red List.

Chimpanzee

Chimpanzee - a large monkey, but smaller than a gorilla, male height up to 170 cm, weight 50 kg, sometimes reaching 80 kg, females are somewhat smaller, height 130 cm. They live in Equatorial Africa. They live in herds with a male leader. The lifestyle is semi-terrestrial. They build elaborate nests on the tops of trees and often cover them with a thick roof of branches to protect them from rain.

In trees they move very quickly, alternately using their arms and legs, and can deftly jump from one tree to another over a very long distance. They move along the ground, leaning on the back of their fingers. They feed on buds, leaves, flowers, fruits of plants, eat small insects, and sometimes bird eggs and chicks. To obtain food, they can use various objects: pebbles, sticks, branches. Very smart, easy to learn. In captivity, they get used to a person and begin to imitate him, learning to eat from a plate, drink from a cup and even draw.

Homo sapiens

The species Homo sapiens belongs to the suborder of apes. This is evidenced by the similarity of its structure and behavior with animals. At the same time, a person differs from them in a number of characteristics related to upright posture, the development of thinking, speech and work activity.

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