Kleiberg yu and social psychology of deviant behavior. Psychology of deviant behavior
IN last years in connection with the social crisis of our society, interest in the problem of deviant behavior has objectively increased, which necessitated a more thorough study of the causes, forms, dynamics deviant behavior, methods of correction, prevention and rehabilitation. All this also stimulated the development of the theory of the psychology of deviant behavior and the need to familiarize a wider range of specialists with its basics: psychologists, teachers, lawyers, managers, physicians, social workers and etc.
Psychology of deviant behavior is an interdisciplinary field of scientific knowledge that studies the mechanisms of occurrence, formation, dynamics and outcomes of those deviating from various norms, as well as methods and methods for their correction and therapy.
Deviant behavior, according to the American psychologist A. Cohen, is “... such behavior that runs counter to institutionalized expectations, i.e. with expectations shared and recognized as legitimate within social system».
Deviant behavior is always associated with some discrepancy between human actions, actions, norms, rules of conduct, ideas, expectations, values common in society.
As you know, the system of norms depends on the level of socio-economic, political, spiritual development of society, as well as on industrial and social relations. and rules perform various functions: orientational, regulatory, sanctioning, educational, informational, etc. In accordance with the norms, individuals build and evaluate their activities, direct and regulate their behavior. It is in the regulation of consciousness and behavior that the essence of social norms. Regulation takes place in accordance with the dominant system of values, needs, interests, and ideology. Thus, social norms turn out to be a tool for goal-setting, forecasting, social control and correction of deviant behavior in the social environment, as well as for stimulating and.
Social norms are effective if they become a component of individual consciousness. It is then that they act as factors and regulators of behavior and self-control.
The properties of social norms are:
- objectivity of reflection of reality;
- uniqueness (consistency);
- historicity (continuity);
- obligatory reproduction;
- relative stability (stability);
- dynamism (variability);
- optimality;
- organizing, regulating ability;
- correctional and educational ability, etc.
However, not all deviations from the "norm" can be destructive, there are non-destructive options; in any case, the growth of deviant behavior indicates social unhappiness in society and can be expressed both in negative forms and reflect the emergence of new social thinking, new behavioral stereotypes.
Since behavior that does not correspond to social norms and expectations is recognized as deviant, and norms and expectations are different not only in different societies and at different times, but also among different groups in the same society at the same time (legal norms and "thieves' law”, norms of adults and youth, rules of behavior of “bohemians”, etc.), insofar as the concept of “generally accepted norm” is very relative, and, consequently, deviant behavior is also relative. Based on the most general ideas, deviant behavior is defined as:
- deed, person
is a social phenomenon.
Normative harmonious behavior implies: balance of mental processes (at the level of properties), adaptability and self-actualization (at the level of characterological features), spirituality, responsibility, conscientiousness (at the personal level). Just as the norm of behavior is based on these three components of individuality, so anomalies and deviations are based on their changes, deviations and violations. Thus, a person can be defined as a system of actions (or individual actions) that contradict the norms accepted in society and manifest themselves in the form of imbalance, a violation of the process of self-actualization, or in the form of evasion from moral and aesthetic control over own behavior.
The problem of deviance was first considered in sociological and criminological works, of which the works of such authors as M. Weber, R. Merton, R Mills, T. Parsons, E. Fomm and others deserve special attention; among domestic scientists, B.S. Bratusya, L.I. Bozhovich, L.S. , ME AND. Gilinsky, I.S. Kona, Yu.A. Kleiberg, M.G. Broshevsky and other scientists.
At the origins of the study of deviant behavior was E. Durkheim, who introduced the concept of "anomie" (work "", 1912) - this is a state of destruction or weakening of the normative system of society, i.e. social disorganization.
The interpretation of the causes of deviant behavior is closely related to understanding the very nature of this socio-psychological phenomenon. There are several approaches to the problem of deviant behavior.
1. Biological approach.
C. Lombroso (Italian psychiatrist) substantiated the relationship between the anatomical structure of a person and criminal behavior. W. Sheldon substantiated the relationship between the types of human physical structure and forms of behavior. W. Pierce as a result (60s) came to the conclusion that the presence of an extra Y-chromosome in men causes a predisposition to criminal violence.
2. Sociological approach.
J. Quetelet, E. Durkheim, D. Dewey and others have revealed the relationship of deviant behavior with the social conditions of people's existence.
1) Interactionist direction (I. Hoffman, G. Becker). The main provision here is the thesis according to which deviance is a consequence of social assessment (the theory of "stigmatization").
2) Structural analysis. So, S. Selin, O. Turk see the causes of deviations in between the norms of the subculture and the dominant culture on the basis of the fact that individuals simultaneously belong to different ethnic, cultural, social and other groups with mismatched or conflicting values.
Other researchers believe that the main cause of all social deviations is social inequality.
3. Psychological approach
As a standard criterion mental development the subject's ability to adapt stands out (M. Gerber, 1974). Self-doubt and low
are considered as sources of adaptation disorders and developmental anomalies.
The main source of deviations is usually considered to be a constant conflict between the unconscious, forming in its repressed and repressed form the structure of "It" and the social restrictions on the natural activity of the child. The normal development of the personality presupposes the presence of optimal protective mechanisms that balance the spheres of the conscious and the unconscious. In the case of neurotic defense, the formation takes on an abnormal character (). , D. Bowlby, G. Sullivan see the causes of deviations in the lack of emotional contact, warm treatment of the mother with the child in the first years of life. The negative role of the lack of a sense of security and trust in the first years of life is also noted in the etiology of relationships by E. Erickson. he sees the roots of deviations in the inability of the individual to establish adequate contact with environment. As an important factor in the formation of personality, A. Adler highlights the structure of the family. The different position of the child in this structure and the corresponding type of upbringing have a significant and often decisive influence on the occurrence of deviant behavior. For example, overprotection, according to A. Adler, leads to suspiciousness, infantilism, and an inferiority complex.
The behavioral approach to understanding deviant behavior is very popular in the USA and Canada. The emphasis here shifts to inadequate social learning (E. Mash, E. Terdal, 1981).
The ecological approach interprets deviations in behavior as the result of an unfavorable interaction between the child and the social environment. Representatives of the psychodidactic approach emphasize the role of a child's learning failures in the development of deviations (D. Halagan, J. Kaufman, 1978).
The humanistic approach considers deviations in behavior as a consequence of the child's loss of agreement with his own feelings and the inability to find meaning and self-realization in the prevailing conditions of education.
The empirical approach consists in a phenomenological classification, where each behaviorally distinguishable stable symptom complex gets its name (, etc.). This approach is an attempt to bring psychiatry and psychology closer together. D. Halagan and J. Kaufman identified four types of syndromes (anomalies):
1) violation of behavior;
2) personality disorder;
3) immaturity;
4) antisocial tendencies.
Thus, there are interrelated factors that determine the genesis deviant behavior:
1) an individual factor acting at the level of psychobiological prerequisites for deviant behavior that complicate the social and psychological of the individual;
2) the pedagogical factor, which manifests itself in defects in school and family education;
3) a psychological factor that reveals the unfavorable characteristics of an individual with his immediate environment in, on the street, in a team and manifests itself primarily in the active-selective attitude of the individual to his preferred environment, to the norms and values of his environment, self-regulation of his environment;
4) the social factor, which is determined by the social, economic, political and other conditions of the existence of society.
The subject of study of the psychology of deviant behavior is the causes of deviant behavior, situational reactions, as well as personality development, leading to a person's maladjustment in society, a violation of self-actualization, etc.
A wide area of scientific knowledge covers abnormal, deviant human behavior. An essential parameter of such behavior is a deviation in one direction or another with varying intensity and for various reasons from behavior that is recognized as normal and not deviating. Deviant human behavior can be defined as a system of actions or individual actions that contradict the norms accepted in society and manifest themselves in the form of an imbalance in mental processes, non-adaptation, a violation of the process of self-actualization, or in the form of evasion from moral and aesthetic control over one's own behavior.
It is believed that an adult individual initially has a desire for an “internal goal”, in accordance with which all manifestations of his activity are produced without exception (“the postulate of conformity” according to V.A. Petrovsky). We are talking about the original adaptive orientation of any mental processes and behavioral acts. There are various variants of the "consistency postulate": homeostatic, hedonic, pragmatic. In the homeostatic variant, the postulate of conformity appears in the form of a requirement to eliminate conflict in relationships with the environment, eliminate "tensions", and establish "balance". Under the hedonistic variant, human actions are determined by two primary affects: pleasure and pain, and all behavior is interpreted as maximizing pleasure and pain. The pragmagical version uses the principle of optimization, when the narrowly practical side of behavior (benefit, benefit, success) is put at the forefront.
The basis for assessing a person's deviant behavior is the analysis of his interactions with reality, since the dominant principle of the norm - adaptability - comes from adaptation (adaptation) in relation to something and someone, i.e. the real environment of the individual. The interactions between the individual and reality can be represented in six ways.
Interaction of the individual with reality
When confronting reality, the individual actively tries to destroy the hated reality, to change it in accordance with his own attitudes and values. He is convinced that all the problems he faces are caused by factors of reality, and the only way to achieve his goals is to fight reality, to try to remake reality for himself or to benefit as much as possible from behavior that violates the norms of society. Confrontation of reality occurs in criminal and delinquent behavior.
Painful opposition to reality is due to signs of mental pathology and psychopathological disorders (in particular, neurotic), in which the world perceived as hostile due to the subjective distortion of its perception and understanding. The symptoms of mental illness impair the ability to adequately assess the motives of the actions of others, and as a result, effective interaction with the environment becomes difficult.
A way of interacting with reality in the form of avoiding reality is consciously or unconsciously chosen by people who regard reality negatively and oppositionally, considering themselves incapable of adapting to it. They may also be guided by the unwillingness to adapt to a reality that “does not deserve to be adapted to it” due to imperfection, conservatism, uniformity, suppression of existential values, or outright inhumane activity.
Ignoring reality is manifested by the autonomy of a person's life and activity, when he does not take into account the requirements and norms of reality, existing in his own narrowly professional world. In this case, there is no collision, no opposition, no escape from reality. Each one exists on its own. This kind of interaction with reality is quite rare and occurs only in a small number of highly gifted, talented people with hyperabilities in any one area.
A harmonious person chooses to adapt to reality.
In order to assess the types of deviant (deviant) behavior, it is necessary to imagine from which particular norms of society they can deviate. A norm is a phenomenon of group consciousness in the form of ideas shared by a group and the most private judgments of group members about the requirements for behavior, taking into account their social roles, creating optimal conditions for being, with which these norms interact and, reflecting, form it (K.K. Platonov ). There are the following norms that people follow:
* legal regulations
* moral standards
* aesthetic standards
Deviant behavior is one in which there are deviations from at least one of the social norms.
Depending on the ways of interacting with reality and violating certain norms of society, deviant behavior is divided into five types:
A variety of criminal (criminal) behavior of a person is delinquent behavior - deviant behavior in its extreme manifestations representing a criminally punishable act. The differences between delinquent and criminal behavior are rooted in the severity of offenses, the severity of their antisocial nature. Offenses are divided into crimes and misdemeanors. The essence of a misdemeanor lies not only in the fact that it does not pose a significant social danger, but also in that it differs from a crime by the motives for committing an unlawful act.
Delinquent behavior can manifest itself, for example, in mischief and a desire to have fun. A teenager, out of curiosity and for company, can throw heavy objects (or food) from the balcony at passers-by, getting satisfaction from the accuracy of hitting the “victim”. In the form of a prank, a person can call the airport control room and warn about a bomb allegedly planted in the plane. In order to draw attention to his own person (“on a dare”), a young man may try to climb a television tower or steal a notebook from a teacher from a bag.
Addictive behavior is one of the forms of deviant (deviant) behavior with the formation of a desire to escape from reality by artificially changing one's mental state by taking certain substances or by constantly fixing attention on certain types of activity, which is aimed at developing and maintaining intense emotions (C. P.Korolenko, T.A.Donskikh).
The following psychological features persons with addictive forms of behavior (B. Segal):
1. Reduced tolerance for difficulties Everyday life, along with good tolerance to crisis situations.
2. Hidden inferiority complex, combined with externally shown superiority.
3. External sociability, combined with fear of persistent emotional contacts.
4. The desire to tell lies.
5. The desire to blame others, knowing that they are innocent.
6. The desire to avoid responsibility in decision-making.
7. Stereotyping, repeatability of behavior.
8. Addiction.
9. Anxiety.
An addictive personality has the phenomenon of “thirst-seeking” (V.A. Petrovsky), which is characterized by an impulse to take risks, due to the experience of overcoming danger.
According to E.Vern, a person has six types of hunger:
* hunger for sensory stimulation
*hunger for recognition
* hunger for contact and physical stroking
* sexual hunger
* structural hunger, or hunger for structuring time
* incident hunger
Within the framework of the addictive type of behavior, each of the listed types of hunger is exacerbated. A person does not find the satisfaction of hunger in real life and seeks to relieve discomfort and dissatisfaction with reality by stimulating certain types of activity. He tries to achieve an increased level of sensory stimulation (gives priority to intense influences, loud sound, pungent odors, bright images), recognition of the extraordinary actions (including sexual ones), the filling of time with events.
According to the concept of N.Peseschkian, there are four types of “escape” from reality: “escape to the body”, “escape to work”, “escape to contacts or loneliness” and “flight to fantasy”
When choosing to escape from reality in the form of "escape to the body", there is a replacement of traditional life activities aimed at the family, career growth or hobbies, a change in the hierarchy of values of everyday life, a reorientation to activities aimed only at one's own physical or mental improvement. At the same time, passion for health-improving activities (the so-called "health paranoia"), sexual interactions (the so-called "search and catching orgasm"), one's own appearance, the quality of rest and ways of relaxation become hypercompensatory.
"Escape to work" is characterized by a disharmonious fixation on official affairs, to which a person begins to devote exorbitant time in comparison with other areas of life, becoming a workaholic. The tendency to think, project, in the absence of a desire to bring something to life, to perform some action, to show some real activity is called "flight into fantasy
The pathocharacterological type of deviant behavior is understood as behavior due to pathological changes in character that have formed in the process of education. These include the so-called. personality disorders (psychopathy) and obvious and pronounced character accentuations. The disharmony of character traits leads to the fact that the whole structure of a person's mental activity changes. In choosing his actions, he is often guided not by realistic and adequately conditioned motives, but by significantly modified "motives of psychopathic: self-actualization." The pathocharacterological deviations also include the so-called. neurotic personality development - pathological forms of behavior and response, formed in the process of neurogenesis on the basis of neurotic symptoms and syndromes. To a greater extent, they are represented by obsessional symptoms within the framework of obsessional development (according to N.D. Lakosina). Deviations manifest themselves in the form of neurotic obsessions and rituals that permeate all human life. A similar paramorbid pathocharacterological condition includes behavior in the form of behavior based on symbolism and superstitious rituals. In such cases, a person's actions depend on his mythological and mystical perception of reality. The choice of actions is based on the symbolic interpretation of external events. A person, for example, may refuse the need to commit any act (get married, take an exam, and even go out) in connection with the “inappropriate location of the heavenly bodies” or other pseudoscientific interpretations of reality and superstitions.
The psychopathological type of deviant behavior is based on psychopathological symptoms and syndromes that are manifestations of certain mental illnesses. A variety of pathocharacterological, psychopathological and addictive types of deviant behavior is self-destructive (self-destructive) behavior. Its essence lies in the fact that the system of human actions is not aimed at development and personal growth, and not at harmonious interaction with reality, but at the destruction of the personality. Aggression is directed at oneself (auto-aggression), inside the person himself, while reality is seen as something oppositional, not giving the possibility of a full life and satisfaction of vital needs. Autodestruction manifests itself in the form of suicidal behavior, drug and alcohol addiction, and some other types of deviations. The motives for self-destructive behavior are addictions and the inability to cope with everyday life, pathological changes in character, as well as psychopathological symptoms and syndromes.
Deviations due to human hyperabilities are considered a special type of deviant behavior (K. K. Platonov). Going beyond the ordinary, normal, they consider a person whose abilities significantly and significantly exceed the average abilities. In such cases, they speak of manifestations of giftedness, talent, genius in any one of the human activities. Deviation towards giftedness in one area is often accompanied by deviations in everyday life. Such a person often turns out to be unadapted to a “everyday, mundane” life. He is unable to correctly understand and evaluate the actions and behavior of other people, turns out to be naive, dependent and unprepared for the difficulties of everyday life. With behavior associated with hyperabilities - ignoring reality. Forced contacts are perceived by a person with hyperabilities as optional, temporary and are not perceived as significant for him. personal development. Outwardly, in everyday life, the actions of such a person can be eccentric. For example, he may not know how household appliances are used, how everyday actions are performed. All his interest is focused on activities related to extraordinary abilities (musical, mathematical, artistic, and others).
Deviant (deviant) behavior has the following clinical forms:
* aggression
* auto-aggression (suicidal behavior)
*substance abuse, causing states altered mental activity (alcoholization, drug addiction, smoking, etc.)
* eating disorders (overeating, starvation)
* anomalies of sexual behavior (deviations and perversions)
* overvalued psychological hobbies ("workaholism", gambling, collecting, "health paranoia", religious fanaticism, sports, music, etc.)
* overvalued psychopathological hobbies ("philosophical intoxication", litigation and querulianism, varieties of mania - kleptomania, dromania, etc.)
*characterological and pathocharacterological reactions (emancipations, groupings, oppositions, etc.)
*communicative deviations (autization, hypersociality, conformism, pseudology, narcissistic behavior, etc.)
* immoral and immoral behavior
* unaesthetic behavior
Aggressive behavior
Aggression is physical or verbal behavior aimed at harming someone. There are the following types of aggressive actions (Base, Darki): 1) physical aggression (attack); 2) indirect aggression (evil gossip, jokes, outbursts of rage, manifested in screaming, stamping feet, etc.); 3) a tendency to irritation (readiness for the manifestation of negative feelings at the slightest arousal); 4) negativism (oppositional behavior from passive resistance to active struggle); 5) resentment (envy and hatred of others for real and fictitious information); 6) suspiciousness ranging from distrust and caution to the belief that all other people are doing harm or planning it; 7) verbal aggression (expression of negative feelings both through the form - a quarrel, screaming, screeching, and through the content of verbal responses - a threat, curses, swearing).
Mostly so-called. constructive aggressiveness occurs in such psychopathological syndromes as asthenic (cerebrosthenic, neurasthenic) and hysterical. Within the framework of asthenic and hysterical symptom complexes, aggressiveness is manifested by irritability, resentment, outbursts of anger, as well as verbal aggression. Especially often verbal aggression and irritability are found in hysterical syndrome within the framework of hysterical personality disorder. A person with such disorders emotionally reacts negatively to attempts by others to convict him of lying, pretense, breaking the hysterical mask, holding him accountable for his own actions, i.e. on situations in which there is a blockade of satisfaction of the basic need of the hysteric - to be in the center of attention and be significant to others. Actions that lead to the impossibility of an individual with hysterical character traits to be "noticeable", "be in sight", "control the attention of others" contribute to violent affective reactions with elements of aggression. Especially colorful are the verbal manifestations of the aggressiveness of the hysteric. By virtue of a well-developed ability. Speaking, he tends to show virtuoso speech abilities in a conflict, use colorful comparisons with negative literary images or animal behavior, clothe it in the form of profanity and use threats and blackmail, resort to overgeneralization and extreme degrees of insults. As a rule, aggression in hysterical syndrome does not go beyond the verbal. There is only beating of dishes, throwing away and destruction of things, damage to furniture, but not direct aggression with violence.
Unconstructive aggressiveness is a sign of either criminal behavior or psychopathological. In the first case, the aggressiveness of a person is mediated by his conscious destructive attitude towards reality and the people around him, oppositional strategy and tactics of interaction with reality, which is regarded as hostile. In the second, it is caused by psychopathological symptoms and syndromes, more often than others, affecting the sphere of perception, thinking, consciousness and will.
Most often, aggressiveness of a significant degree of severity (often not amenable to volitional correction) is included in the structure of such psychopathological syndromes as: explosive, psychoorganic, dementia, catatonic, hebephrenic, paranoid (hallucinatory-paranoid), paranoid, paraphrenic, mental automatism, delirious, twilight disorder of consciousness .
Auto-aggressive behavior
Augo-aggressive behavior, unlike aggressive behavior, is aimed at causing harm to the person himself, and not to his environment (although there is an infantile variety of auto-aggression, combined with the desire to have a harmful effect on the close environment in such an unconventional way).
Auto-aggressive behavior manifests itself in two forms: suicide (suicidal behavior) and self-harm (parasuicidal behavior). Their differences lie in the ultimate goal (death or self-mutilation) and the likelihood of achieving it. Suicidal behavior refers to the intentional desire of a person to die. It may be due to the formation of an intrapersonal conflict under the influence of external situational factors or in connection with the emergence of psychopathological disorders that cause a desire to take one's own life without a real impact of external situational factors. If with the first option the urge to commit suicide is most often realized, comprehended and arbitrarily, then with the second option there may be a violation of awareness and understanding of the meaning of one's own intentions and actions, as well as the loss of arbitrariness. So, in the syndrome of mental automatism within the framework of schizophrenia, suicidal behavior may be due to the feeling of the impact of an uncontrolled force that pushes a person to one or another violent action against himself.
There are (Durkeheim) three types of suicidal behavior: 1) "anomic", associated with crisis situations in life, personal tragedies; 2) “altruistic”, committed for the benefit of other people and 3) “egoistic”, caused by a conflict that is formed in connection with the unacceptability for a particular individual of social requirements, norms of behavior imposed by society on a person.
Anemic suicidal behavior most often occurs in mentally healthy people as a reaction of the personality to insurmountable life difficulties and frustrating events. It should be borne in mind that the suicidal act itself cannot indicate the presence or absence of mental disorders. This type behavior should be considered as a way of psychological response, chosen by a person, depending on the value and significance of the event. An adequate response is possible in conditions of a severe and super-significant stimulus - an event that is difficult or impossible for a person to overcome due to moral attitudes, some physical manifestations, and an inadequate response, in which the chosen suicidal reaction clearly does not correspond to the stimulus.
IN clinical psychology anemic suicidal attempts of persons with chronic somatic diseases, accompanied by severe pain syndrome, are the most frequent. Thus, suicides are predominantly found in the oncology clinic in the diagnosis of cancer. The anemic type of suicidal behavior is also possible in cases when life confronts a person with an ideological or moral problem of choosing one or another act, which he is unable to resolve by choosing to die. A person can be placed in the conditions of choosing to commit an immoral act or an action that is disgusting to him due to aesthetic priorities, and depriving himself of life. Altruistic type of suicidal behavior also follows from the personal structure of the individual, when the good of people, society and the state is placed by him above his own good and even life. This type is found in people oriented to high ideas, living in public interests and not considering own life away from the surrounding people and society. Altruistic suicides are committed both by mentally healthy people who are aware of the real meaning of what is happening, and by mentally ill people who are, for example, in a state of religious frenzy or who die due to delusional motives of the “common good”.
Selfish type of suicidal behavior arises as a response to excessive demands on the part of others, made to the behavior of the individual. For such a person, realistic standards and coercion to choose the appropriate type of behavior begin to be perceived as a threat to independence and existentiality. He decides to part with his life because of the inappropriateness of his existence under pressure and control from both relatives and society as a whole. Often it occurs in people with character pathology (accentuations and personality disorders), who feel loneliness, alienation, misunderstanding and their lack of demand.
Individual, group and mass forms of suicides are possible. With an individual, a significant role is assigned to the individual psychological characteristics of a person and the parameters of the situation. Within the framework of group and mass suicides, the pressure of the environment and the situation becomes dominant, while the individual properties and qualities of a person fade into the background. Targeted or non-targeted pressure from others on the individual contributes to the fact that he chooses suicidal behavior on the principle of imitation, compliance with the requirements of the reference group.
Parasuicidal attempts are made, as a rule, in order to bring oneself out of a state of insensibility, joylessness, unemotionality by experiencing acute affective-shock experiences. For this, any risky and life-threatening actions are used: suffocation to the degree of the appearance of the first signs of an altered state of consciousness; walking over a cliff or along the edge of an abyss, balcony, window sill, bridge railing; game with a pistol loaded with live and blank cartridges for a "test of fate"; cauterization or incision of the skin and other painful effects; demonstrating to others the determination to commit a suicidal act with sadomasochistic aspirations and obtaining satisfaction when bringing others to a state of frenzy.
Similar behavior is also found in the pathocharacterological type of deviant behavior. However, the motives of behavior are fundamentally different: within the framework of addictive behavior, the motive is the phenomenon of “thirst sensations”, while in pathocharacterological it is outrageous, confrontation with others. Persons with hysterical personality disorders are more likely to choose parasuicidal demonstrative behavior, in which they try to achieve the desired result with the help of blackmail and provocations.
A special group of auto-aggressive behavior is made up of mentally ill patients, whose choice of behavior is determined by the psychopathological features of the existing disorders. The most dangerous in terms of suicidal and parasuicidal behavior are the following psychopathological syndromes: depressive, hypochondriacal, dysmorphomanic, verbal hallucinosis, paranoid and paranoid.
A specific group consists of persons committing auto-aggressive group and mass acts for religious reasons. Their motive dissolves into the group-wide motive - to sacrifice themselves, to commit suicide for the sake of some common goal and lofty idea. Such behavior is observed, as a rule, with addictive behavior in the form of religious fanaticism and is carried out under the influence of increased suggestibility of people involved in emotionally significant group and collective interactions.
Abuse of Substances Causing Altered Mental Conditions
Deviant behavior in the form of use and abuse of substances that cause states of altered mental activity, mental and physical dependence on them is one of the most common types of deviant behavior. The essence of such behavior is a significant change in the hierarchy of human values, withdrawal into illusory-compensatory activities and significant personal deformation.
When using intoxicants that change the perception of the world and self-esteem of a person, there is a gradual deviation of behavior towards the formation of a pathological dependence on the substance, fetishization of himself and the process of use, as well as a distortion of a person’s ties with society.
According to B.S. Bratus, an intoxicant (alcohol, drug, toxic agent) reflects the projection of psychological expectations, actual needs and motives on the psychophysiological background of intoxication, creating an internal picture that a person attributes to the effect of the drink, making it psychologically attractive. The motivation for the use of alcohol and drugs has several forms (Ts.P. Korolenko, T.A. Donskikh):
Ataractic motivation consists in the desire to use substances in order to mitigate or eliminate the phenomena of emotional discomfort. As a rule, the use of various intoxicating and tranquilizing substances occurs with such symptoms and syndromes as: anxiety, obsessive-phobic, depressive, dysphoric, asthenic, psychoorganic, hypochondriacal and some others. Often, the use of substances is aimed at stopping intrapersonal conflict in the so-called. psychopathic syndromes (explosive and emotionally unstable, hysterical, anancaste). With other types of deviant behavior, ataractic motivation is less common.
Hedonistic motivation acts, as it were, as a continuation and development of ataractic, but strikingly different in quality. Ataractic brings the emotional state back to normal from a reduced one, and hedonistic contributes to an increase in a normal (not reduced) mood. The hedonic orientation is manifested in obtaining satisfaction, experiencing a feeling of joy from taking substances (alcohol, drugs) against the background of a normal even mood.
At the same time, he chooses from a rich arsenal of narcotic substances or alcoholic beverages only those that have a euphoric effect that contributes to a quick and sharp increase in mood, the appearance of laughter, complacency, joy, abundance of love, easy achievement of sexual orgasm. It is also important to search for an unusual (unearthly) effect of substances that sharply turns the “gray existence” into an interesting, full of surprises “flight into the unknown”. Substances used in the addictive type of deviant behavior include substances such as marijuana, opium, morphine, codeine, cocaine, LSD, cyclodol, ether, and some others.
The greatest changes in mental activity, exceeding the purely euphoric effect and accompanied by other psychopathological disorders, are observed with the use of LSD (lysergin, lysergic acid diethylamide), codeine, marijuana (hashish) and cocaine. Distinctive feature The action of LSD is to join the euphoric hallucinogenic effect, in which there are unusually bright color visual hallucinations (flashes of light, a kaleidoscopic change of images that take on a stage character), disorientation in place and time (time seems to have stopped or rapidly flying).
When smoking or chewing marijuana (anasha, hashish) there is unbridled talkativeness, laughter, an influx of fantasies, a stream of random associations. The perception of the outside world changes dramatically.
It becomes much brighter, more colorful. A person in this state develops a dream-like syndrome in which reality is mixed with fiction. Sometimes there is a feeling of weightlessness, flying, floating in the air. Typical and hilarious are the symptoms of body schema disorder: sensations of elongation or shortening of the limbs, modifications of the whole body. Often, the surrounding world changes in size, color, consistency.
Motivation with hyperactivation of behavior is close to hedonistic, but is based not on the euphoric, but on the activating effect of the substance. Often both effects act together, but often a person is separated. With this form of motivation, the need to get oneself out of the state of passivity, indifference, apathy and inaction with the help of substances that provoke an unusual, transcendent liveliness of reaction and activity becomes basic. Of particular importance is the stimulation of sexual activity and the achievement of "record results" in the intimate sphere. Of the narcotic substances with activating properties, marijuana, ephedrine and its derivatives are distinguished, combining hyperactivation and hypersexuality, as well as codeine, nicotine and caffeine, causing activity without hypersexuality. The submissive motivation for the use of substances reflects the inability of a person to refuse the intake of alcohol or drugs offered by others. Pseudocultural motivation is based on the worldview and aesthetic preferences of the individual. A person considers the use of alcohol or narcotic substances through the prism of "refinement of taste", involvement in the circle of the elite - connoisseurs.
There are three mechanisms for the dominance of alcohol and drug needs and the formation of dependence with a complex of clinical symptoms and syndromes (E.E. Bechtel):
1. evolutionary mechanism. As the intensity of the euphoric effect increases, the need grows, which from a secondary, additional (addictive, pathocharacteristic) becomes at first competing, and then dominant.
2. destructive mechanism. The destruction of the personal structure, caused by some traumatic factors, the collapse of the personality, is accompanied by a change in its value orientation. The value of previously dominant needs is reduced. Secondary need for substances that change mental condition, can unexpectedly become the dominant, main meaning-forming motive of activity.
3. The mechanism associated with the original personality anomaly. It differs from the destructive one in that the anomaly is a long-term one, and not a result of a psycho-traumatic effect on a person. There are three options for anomalies: a) with an amorphous personality structure with weakly expressed hierarchical relationships in the system of needs and motives, any need that is any significant quickly becomes dominant; b) with insufficient internal control, incomplete internalization of group norms does not allow the development of internal forms of control; c) with an anomaly in the microenvironment, distorted group norms form abnormal attitudes towards the use of substances that change the mental state.
Eating disorders
Eating behavior is understood as a value attitude to food and its intake, a stereotype of nutrition in everyday conditions and in a situation of stress, an orientation towards the image of one's own body and activities for its formation.
The main eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Common to them are parameters such as:
*preoccupation with controlling one's own body weight
* Distortion of your body image
* change in the value of nutrition in the hierarchy of values
Anorexia nervosa is a disorder characterized by deliberate weight loss caused and maintained by the individual. Refusal of food is associated, as a rule, with dissatisfaction with one's appearance, excessive, according to the person himself, fullness. Often the basis of anorexia nervosa is a distorted perception of oneself and a false interpretation of a change in the attitude of others, based on a pathological change in appearance. This syndrome is called dysmorphomanic syndrome. However, the formation of anorexia nervosa is possible outside of this syndrome.
There are (M.V. Korkina) four stages of anorexia nervosa:
1) initial; 2) active correction, 3) cachexia and 4) reduction of the syndrome. Diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa are:
a) decrease by 15% and maintain a reduced level of body weight or achieve a Quetelet body mass index of 17.5 points (the index is determined by the ratio of body weight in kilograms to the square of height in meters).
b) distortion of the image of one's body in the form of fear of obesity.
c) the intention to avoid food that can cause weight gain.
An eating disorder in the form of anorexia nervosa syndrome occurs. Anorexia nervosa syndrome is formed on the basis of other psychopathological disorders (dysmorphomanic, hypochondriacal, symptomatic complexes) in the structure of schizophrenic or other psychotic disorders.
Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent bouts of overeating, an inability to go without food for even short periods of time, and an excessive preoccupation with controlling body weight that leads the person to take extreme measures to mitigate the "fat" effects of food eaten. The individual is food-oriented, he plans his own life, based on the ability to take food at the right time and in the amount necessary for him. The value of this side of life comes to the fore, subordinating all other values to itself. At the same time, an ambivalent attitude to food intake is noted: the desire to eat a large number of food is combined with a negative, self-deprecating attitude towards oneself and one's "weakness".
There are several diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa:
a) constant preoccupation with food and an irresistible craving for food even when feeling full.
b) attempts to counteract the effect of obesity from the food eaten with the help of such techniques as: inducing vomiting, abuse of laxatives, alternative fasting periods, use of appetite suppressants.
c) obsessive fear of obesity.
Another type of eating disorder is the desire to eat inedible objects. As a rule, this type of behavior occurs only in cases of mental illness or gross pathology of character, although it is possible that it appears as part of delinquent behavior in order to simulate a somatic illness and achieve some goal. With a psychopathological type of deviant behavior, for example, eating feces (coprophagia), nails (onychophagia) is noted, and in the case of delinquent behavior, swallowing metal objects (coins, pins, nails).
Taste perversion as a violation of eating behavior occurs in many physiological conditions of a person. In particular, during pregnancy, a woman develops a craving for spicy, salty foods or a certain specific dish. A change in attitude to a number of products with the formation of altered eating behavior is possible with brain diseases.
Within the framework of the pathocharacterological type of deviant behavior, changes in eating behavior may be unaesthetic in nature. A person, for example, can eat unaesthetically (slurp, slurp, smack while eating), be sloppy and unclean (eat unwashed food, drink dirty water) or, conversely, be extremely squeamish even in relation to close relatives (categorically refuse to eat up or finish drinking for a child in cases of hunger and lack of other food or liquid), not be able to use or ignore the use of cutlery. The stereotypes of deviant eating behavior also include the speed of eating. There are two extremes: very slow ingestion and superfast hasty ingestion of food, which may be due to family traditions or temperament.
Sexual deviations and perversions
Sexual deviations are understood as any quantitative or qualitative deviation from the sexual norm, and the concept of the norm includes behavior that corresponds to the age and sex-role ontogenetic patterns of a given population, carried out as a result of free choice and does not limit the free choice of a partner (AA. Tkachenko).
Hypersexuality is one of the basic characteristics that contribute to the formation of the vast majority of sexual deviations and perversions. It is characterized by a significant increase in the value of sexual life for a person and the displacement of other values.
The opposite of hypersexuality is asexual deviant behavior, in which a person reduces the significance and value of sexual life or denies its significance completely and excludes actions aimed at sexual contacts from his life. He can justify this with moral or ideological considerations, lack of interest or other motives. Asexuality is often combined with character traits in the form of accentuations and pathological variants of a schizoid or dependent (asthenic) orientation.
Pedophilia is the direction of the sexual and erotic attraction of an adult to a child. A person with a pedophilic orientation does not find complete sexual satisfaction in contacts with peers and is able to experience an orgasm only when interacting with children. Forms of pedophilic contacts are different - from the rare actual coital, to exhibitionist acts and petting. This type of sexual deviation can be represented both within the pathocharacterological and psychopathological types of deviant behavior, and in the addictive type. If in the first cases the motives are psychopathological symptoms and syndromes (dementia, personality changes, accentuations of character), then in the second - an attempt to experience special, unusual, vivid and new experiences for the individual when in contact with the child.
A variety of sexual orientation of an adult towards younger people is ephebophilia - an attraction to adolescents. The motive for the behavior of a person who is inclined to choose a partner as a teenager is, in his words, the search for "purity", lack of sexual experience and embarrassment in intimate life teenager. The style of sexual attraction to teenage girls is described in combination with fetishism: the object must be, for example, “in school uniform with an apron." With ephebophilia, compared with pedophilia, the number of actual coital contacts between an adult and a teenager increases. Ephebophilia can be included in the structure of delinquent, addictive, pathocharacterological and psychopathological types of deviant behavior.
Gerontophilia consists in sexual attraction to a partner of senile age, while the senile body plays the role of a kind of fetish (K. Imielinski). As a rule, it occurs only in men. It is believed that gerontophilia is based on psychopathological symptoms and syndromes, in particular personality changes (organic, alcoholic origin), dementia of various origins, psychopathic manifestations.
Bestiality is a sexual deviation within the vector of attraction. Bestiality is the sexual desire to perform sexual acts with an animal. In this case, the animal is considered by a person with a zoophilic orientation as a substitute sexual object. Most often, with this type of deviant behavior, coital genital-anal contact is used. Bestiality is considered as addictive, pathocharacterological or psychopathological deviant behavior. Of the painful signs on the basis of which zoophilia is formed, oligophrenia, dementia and personality changes are more often than others. various diseases brain. From pathological characterological radicals - schizoid and dependent. Addictive behavior in the form of bestiality is rare.
Fetishism, or sexual symbolism - one of the most common sexual deviations is characterized by the replacement of the object or subject of sexual attraction with some symbol (part of his clothing, personal items), which is sufficient to achieve sexual arousal and orgasm. Almost any part of the human body of the desired object (chest, hair, shin, buttocks, etc.) can act as a fetish. Differential diagnostic criteria for delimiting the signs of fetishism within the framework of the norm and with deviation can lead to the appearance of self-sufficiency and preference for the fetish to the object itself. There are such varieties of fetishism as: pygmalionism (pictures, photographs, figurines are fetishes), heterochromia (a partner’s skin color becomes a fetish), retiphism (shoes become a fetish), deformation fetishism (a person’s ugliness becomes a fetish), necrophilia (a dead body is a fetish) . Fetishism occurs in the pathocharacterological and psychopathological type of deviant behavior, especially often in the presence of schizoid or psychasthenic features in the clinical picture of the disease or in the character structure.
Narcissism (augoeroticism) refers to the direction of sexual attraction to oneself. It is manifested by narcissism, high self-esteem, increased interest in one's own appearance, genitals, sex appeal. Often narcissism is combined with hysterical character traits and so-called. narcissistic personality disorder, identified in the American classification of behavioral disorders.
Sadism, masochism and sadomasochism are sexual deviations close to each other, since they arise from hyper-role behavior (masculine or feminine) and include the conjugation of sexual satisfaction with violence and aggression directed either at oneself or at a partner, or at both . Exhibitionism is called sexual deviation in the form of achieving sexual satisfaction by demonstrating one's own genitals or one's sexual life to others. The essence of exhibitionism is a hypercompensatory overcoming of shame in connection with exposure in order to relieve emotional and sexual tension. It is known that exhibitionism is more common in individuals with anankastic character traits or in various mental disorders, in particular in the structure of a manic syndrome. There is an opinion that exhibitionistic acts are related to epileptic paroxysms.
Voyeurism is a form of deviant sexual behavior, which consists in obtaining sexual satisfaction from peeping, peeping (or eavesdropping) on the nakedness or sex life of people.
The most well-known non-traditional behavioral sexual stereotype for society is homosexual behavior. Homosexuality is understood as the sexual orientation of a person directed at persons of the same sex without a significant change in the identification of one's own sex.
According to Brautigam, homosexuality is divided into four groups:
A) pseudo-homosexuality, in which the choice of a homosexual partner is made on the basis of non-sexual motives (material benefits, the desire to humiliate a person, etc.).
b) developmental homosexuality.
V) homosexuality due to various mental retardations, and included in the structure of mental disorders.
G) true homosexuality, driven by homosexual tendencies.
In homosexuality, there is no violation of gender identity. A person is aware of belonging to the sex in which he exists and is not aimed at changing the sex, in contrast to the behavior of transsexualism. There are no significant deviations in the structure of true or addictive homosexuality. A person is critical of the fact that his sexual orientation is non-traditional and is perceived in opposition by the majority of members of society, including close relatives and acquaintances. Secondarily, other behavioral disorders may arise in connection with the formation of an intrapersonal conflict in a person due to the multidirectionality of internal aspirations and external requirements for the manifestations of sexuality. This type of homosexuality is called ego-dystonic. If a person reveals a cohesion of the personality with an unconventional sexual desire, escape from reality, ignoring the opinion and attitude of society, a gradual simplification of attitude towards oneself, one speaks of an ego-syntonic type of homosexuality. The characteristic external manifestations of the latter are: shocking the surrounding people with deliberate sexual behavior, the use of manners, clothing and external signs persons of the opposite sex, the erection of their own non-traditional sexual orientation in a cult, the subordination of all other values of life to it. It is the ego-syntonic type of homosexuality that can be attributed to addictive deviant behavior.
A sexual deviation called dual role transvestism is characterized by wearing clothes of the opposite sex in order to obtain sexual satisfaction from a temporary sense of belonging to the opposite sex, but without the desire for a more permanent change of sex or the surgical correction associated with it.
In transsexualism, in contrast to dual-role transvestism, gender identification is violated, and a person realizes himself as a representative of the opposite sex, as a result of which he chooses the appropriate way and manners of behavior. It is actively aimed at surgical gender reassignment in order to remove intrapersonal conflict and discomfort caused by the discrepancy between the awareness of the gender role and the stereotypes of behavior externally imposed on him. Transvestism and transsexualism are not signs of an addictive type of deviant behavior, more often entering the structure of pathocharacterological or psychopathological types. However, the mechanisms of their formation may go beyond those listed.
Overvalued psychological hobbies
With an overvalued hobby, all the characteristics of an ordinary hobby are amplified to the grotesque, the object of passion or activity becomes the defining vector of human behavior, pushing into the background or completely blocking any other activity. A classic example of paroxysmal infatuation and “hyper-infatuation” is the state of falling in love, when a person can be completely focused on the object and subject of emotional experience, lose control over the time devoted to him, and ignore any other aspects of life. Significant signs of overvalued psychological hobbies are:
* deep and long-term focus on the object of passion
* biased, emotionally rich attitude towards the object of passion
* loss of sense of control over the time spent on hobbies
* ignoring any other activity or hobby
With overvalued passion gambling a person tends to devote himself entirely to the game, to the exclusion of any other activity. The game becomes an end in itself, and not a means to achieve material well-being. The passion for gambling is called gambling.
A special kind of overvalued psychological hobbies is the so-called. "health paranoia" - enthusiasm for recreational activities. At the same time, a person, to the detriment of other spheres of life (work, family), begins to actively engage in one or another way of healing - running, special gymnastics, breathing exercises, winter swimming, dousing with ice water, washing the nostrils and mouth with salt water, etc. Passion for any activity reaching an extreme degree of severity with the formation of a cult and the creation of idols with the complete subordination of a person and the dissolution of individuality is called fanaticism. Fanatic attitudes are most often formed in areas such as religion (religious fanaticism), sports (sports fanaticism) and music (music fanaticism).
Overvalued psychopathological hobbies
For example, it can manifest itself by collecting one's own "bugs" or clipped nails, discharge from juvenile acne, hobbies in the form of writing down the numbers of passing cars or counting the number of windows in houses.
The syndrome of "philosophical intoxication" occurs, as a rule, in adolescents with schizophrenia. As a kind of hobby, there is an increased interest in philosophical, theosophical and psychological literature with an urgent need to analyze the events taking place around the individual, as well as his own inner world. The patient begins to analyze the mechanisms of automated actions, the motives of the actions of the people around him, his own reactions, using philosophical and psychological terminology, neologisms. Overvalued psychopathological hobbies can be in the nature of dominant (overvalued) or delusional ideas, such as, for example, ideas of high origin, alien parents, erotic attitudes, reformism and invention, which can significantly change human behavior. A special kind of deviant behavior can be called a person's pathological passion for litigious activities, querulism. Characteristic is an irresistible desire to complain to various authorities and for any reason.
The following grouping of drive disorders is described (V.A. Guryeva, V.Ya. Semke, V.Ya. Gindikin):
The difference between the concepts of "passion" and "drive" lies in the fact that passion is characterized by awareness of the goal and motive, intellectualized emotions, their dynamics are continuous, and not paroxysmal, they are not carried out impulsively, but appear only after a hard struggle of motives.
Grouping of impulse disorders
Inclinations have opposite characteristics, however, with an increase in the pathological nature of hobbies, signs may appear that bring hobbies closer to drives.
Disorders of desires, which are manifested by pronounced deviations in behavior, traditionally include: kleptomania, pyromania, dromomania, dipsomania. The group of deviations under consideration includes obsessions in the form of ritual actions, which are a kind of protection against neurotic symptoms (anxiety, fear, restlessness). Obsessive rituals are formidable motor acts performed against the will and internal resistance of the individual, symbolically expressing the hope to prevent the alleged misfortune. Deviant behavior in case of an impulse disorder can be manifested by specific motor habits (pathological habitual actions): jactation (swaying the head or the whole body), onychophagy (biting or chewing nails), thumb sucking, nose picking, mannered finger snapping, hair curling, etc.
Characterological and pathocharacterological reactions
The following types of reactions are described: refusal, opposition, imitation, compensation, hypercompensation, emancipation, grouping with peers, etc. The refusal reaction is manifested by the absence or decrease in the desire for contacts with others. Such people are not very sociable, afraid of the new, striving for solitude. The reaction of refusal often occurs in children when they are separated from their parents, the familiar environment. The reaction of the opposition is divided into active and passive opposition. The active one is characterized by rudeness, disobedience, disobedience, defiant behavior and outrageous behavior of others and the "culprits" of the reaction. It can be accompanied by aggressive actions in the form of physical pressure, obscene language, threats and other verbal manifestations of aggression. Passive is manifested by negativism, mutism, refusal to fulfill requirements and instructions, isolation in the absence of aggressive actions. Imitation reactions are characterized by the desire to imitate a certain person or image in everything. Most often, an authoritative or famous person, literary hero. The reaction of compensation is reflected in the desire to hide or make up for one's own failure in one area of activity with success in another. known fact is a higher average level of intellectual development of children suffering from some minor ailments or having defects. The reaction of hypercompensation is manifested in the desire to achieve the highest results in the very area where the person turned out to be insolvent. The emancipation reaction is based on the need for independence and self-reliance, refusal of guardianship, protest against established rules and procedures. In adults, it can manifest itself in the form of joining the movement for the rights of national or sexual minorities, feminists fighting for equal rights for men and women, etc. The grouping reaction is often instinctive in nature, but it is also possible on the basis of psychological factors, in particular, in a group a person seeks protection, removal of responsibility, etc.
Communicative deviations
The most famous communicative deviations are considered to be such as: autistic behavior (choice of loneliness, asceticism), conformal behavior, hypersociality, verbal behavior with a predominance of pseudology, etc.
In the field of communication, such a phenomenon as the unction of behavior stands out. This type of deviant behavior is often found in epileptic personality changes, as well as within the framework of epileptoid character traits. Unctuousness is understood as sweetness, tenderness and obsequiousness in dealing with others, which is perceived as unnatural and deliberate, especially since true feelings and empathy rarely stand behind such external behavior.
Immoral and immoral behavior
Deviant behavior may violate the norms of ethics and morality, which are enshrined in the concept of universal human values. They are understood as a voluntary refusal from a number of actions that could harm others. They are established by custom. Common to them is the commandment: "Do towards others as you would like them to do towards you."
Deviant behavior is called immoral, in the form of actions and activities, the results of which objectively contradict moral standards, regardless of the assessment by the person who performs them.
Immoral behavior is immoral deviant behavior that is assessed by a person as immoral.
The sins described as immoral behavior include: greed, pride, despondency, gluttony, adultery (lust), vanity, envy, etc. Moral laws are often soldered with spirituality and religiosity, but there are also confessional discrepancies in moral laws.
Unaesthetic behavior
Unaesthetic behavior includes the rejection of the rules and principles of aesthetics in various areas: nutrition, clothing, statements, etc. The basis for evaluating human behavior as unaesthetic are the principles of harmony, proportionality, symmetry, beauty, beauty and sublimity, perfection.
In the clinic, unaesthetic behavior is manifested, for example, by carelessness, untidiness or uncleanliness of a person, lack of good manners when eating, talking, or tasting clothes, and not understanding lofty feelings.
Current page: 1 (total book has 7 pages) [accessible reading excerpt: 2 pages]
Gileva N. S.
Psychology of deviant behavior. Teaching aid
INTRODUCTION
In the proposed study guide the views and approaches that have emerged in domestic psychological science in recent years have been reflected, since psychological practice has made demands for the creation of a reasonable platform for comprehending the mechanisms for the formation of behavioral deviations and creating effective methods for their correction.
The ambiguity of the situation in the field of assessing deviant behavior of a person, determining its boundaries, manifestations, in classifying it as a pathology or a conditional norm has led to the fact that this side of the mental life of an individual and the corresponding scientific and practical field of psychology long time remained neglected and neglected.
Deviant forms of behavior, which were previously regarded as insignificant and insignificant, began to be considered as important in terms of predisposition to severe mental illness and were called prenosological (premorbid) forms of mental disorders. People with deviant behavior may have mental disorders and be mentally ill, or they may be mentally healthy.
The problem of studying the mechanisms of behavioral deviations becomes significant, since such behavior is clearly classified as deviant, its clinical signs are determined, and the individual psychological characteristics of the deviant are studied. Therefore, experts consider the phenomenological approach to the study of the psychology of a person with deviant behavior to be scientifically sound.
Purpose of the course- to identify the problems of a special direction in psychology - the psychology of deviant behavior.
Tasks:
- to identify cause-and-effect relationships and the specifics of the manifestation of deviant behavior in adolescence;
- to give a typology and models of deviant behavior;
- present methods for diagnosing deviant behavior in adolescents.
CHAPTER 1
PSYCHOLOGY OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR: BASIC CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES
1. 1. Basic concepts of deviant behavior
In foreign science, the psychology of deviant behavior has developed as an independent scientific and academic discipline. In Russia, this science does not yet have such a theoretical empirical experience: it is on the way of formation and development.
Psychology of deviant behavior is an interdisciplinary field of scientific knowledge that studies the mechanisms of occurrence, formation, dynamics and outcomes of behavior deviating from various norms, as well as methods and methods for their correction and therapy. This discipline is located at the intersection of clinical psychology and psychiatry, and its development requires knowledge and skills from these scientific fields.
The psychology of deviant behavior in this context is not a typical example of a scientific field in which the knowledge gained by scientists of various specialties has not yet led to the formation of a separate scientific discipline. The reason for this is the clash of orthodox psychological and orthodox psychiatric views on deviant behavior. Questions remain not rhetorical about whether behavioral deviations should be attributed to pathology (that is, signs of mental disorders and diseases referred to as symptoms, syndromes), or whether they should be recognized as extreme variants of the norm; whether behavioral deviations are stages of psychopathological disorders or there is an abyss between behavioral painful disorders and deviant forms of behavior; what are the causes (psychogenesis) of deviant forms of behavior: disturbances in brain activity, adaptive behavior skills or social expectations; what measures are needed to restore adequate behavior: psychological correction or psychopharmacological therapy. However, neither foreign nor domestic scientists have a common point of view on the term "deviant behavior".
A. Cohen considers deviant behavior as behavior that goes against the expectations shared and recognized as legitimate within the social system.
I. S. Kon believes that deviant behavior is a system of actions that deviate from the generally accepted or implied norm of mental health, law, culture or morality.
V. D. Mendelevich deviant behavior- a system of actions or individual actions that contradict the norms accepted in society and manifest themselves in the imbalance of mental processes, non-adaptation, disruption of the process of self-actualization and evasion of moral and aesthetic control over one's own behavior.
Thus, in all definitions, deviant behavior is associated with any discrepancy between human actions, actions, activities, norms, rules of conduct, ideas, stereotypes, attitudes, values and expectations common in society or groups.
At the same time, some scientists prefer to use as a reference point (norm) expectations(expectations) of appropriate behavior, while others attitudes(standards, samples) of behavior. Some believe that not only actions can be deviant, but also ideas (views).
Yu. A. Kleiberg claims that deviant behavior is a specific way of changing social norms and expectations by demonstrating a value attitude towards them.
1. 2. Classification of the causes of deviant behavior
The interpretation of the causes of deviant behavior is closely related to understanding the very nature of this socio-psychological phenomenon. Human behavior combines components different levels biological, psychological and social. Depending on which of them, within the framework of this or that theory, is given the main importance, the main causes of this behavior are also determined.
There are concepts that pay primary or exclusive attention to biological determinants (causes); concepts that emphasize psychological factors; sociological concepts that explain deviant behavior exclusively social reasons. Let's consider these approaches.
biological approach. In the 20th century, attempts were made to explain deviant behavior by biological factors. In particular, W. Sheldon substantiated the relationship between the types of human physical structure and forms of behavior. W. Pierce, as a result of genetic research in the mid-60s, came to the conclusion that the presence of an extra chromosome in men causes a predisposition to criminal violence. H. Eysenck, studying prisoners, came to the conclusion that extroverts are more likely to commit crimes than introverts, which is determined at the genetic level. However, in general, the biological concepts of deviant behavior are not very popular in the modern scientific world.
sociological approach. Studies of sociologists of the late XIX beginning. XX century J. Quetelet, E. Durkheim, D. Dewey, P. Dupaty. L. Levy-Bruhl and others have revealed the relationship of deviant behavior with the social conditions of people's existence. A solid statistical analysis of various anomalous manifestations over a certain historical period of time showed that the number of anomalies in people's behavior each time inevitably increased during periods of wars, economic crises, social upheavals, which refuted the theory of an "innate" criminal, pointing to the social roots of this phenomenon. For the first time, a sociological explanation of deviation was proposed in the theory of anomie by E. Durkheim, who used it in his classical study of the essence of suicide.
Within the framework of the sociological approach followed by F. Tannenbaum, I. Hoffman, E. Lemert, G. Becker, one can single out the interactionist direction and structural analysis. The main position here is the thesis according to which deviance is not a property inherent in any social behavior, but a consequence of social assessment (stigmatization, “stigmatization”) of certain behavior as deviant. Deviation is due to the ability of influential groups in society to impose certain standards on other layers.
The analysis of the causes of deviant behavior is aimed in this case at studying the processes, phenomena and factors that determine or influence the attribution of the status of behavior deviance and deviant status to individuals, i.e., the study of how people are treated as deviants.
Structural analysis offers three explanations for the deviation:
1. Culturological - the cause of deviation is conflicts between the norms of the subculture and the dominant culture, based on the fact that individuals simultaneously belong to different ethnic, cultural, political, social and other groups with mismatched or conflicting values.
2. Deviation acts as a result of opposition to the norms of capitalist society and is due to the socio-economic nature of capitalism.
3. In the theory of "social anomie" by R. Merton, deviant behavior is determined by anomie as a mismatch between the goals proclaimed by a given culture and the institutionalized means of achieving them.
Within the framework of domestic research, the problems of deviant behavior are mainly explained by two reasons: the discrepancy between the requirements of the norm and the requirements of life, on the one hand, and the discrepancy between the requirements of life and the interests of this person, on the other.
This is due to the contradictory development of society. The main thing here is the contradiction between the stability and mobility of society as a system. On the one hand, society directs the individual towards conformal behavior, which is a condition for social stability, and on the other hand, it objectively requires initiative from him, i.e., going beyond the generally accepted standards. Therefore, the socialization of the individual always includes both conformal and non-conformal behavior.
Psychological approach. For Western psychology and psychotherapy, the criterion of the norm of mental development is the ability of the subject to adapt. Domestic psychology considers adaptation as one of the aspects of mental development, sometimes losing its leading significance for a person. This understanding presupposes the inclusion in the range of norm criteria not only successful adaptation to the social environment, but also progressive, albeit uneven development. creativity primarily related to the process of personality formation. Naturally, with such an approach, qualitative neoplasms should be distinguished.
The “self-concept” is recognized as the organizing “core” of the personality, a certain quality of which is considered as the key to normal adaptation. This concept includes both a “good” integration of the personality (in the spirit of G. Allport) - a harmonious “I-concept” (with a minimum internal contradictions and a single outlook on life), as well as relative autonomy (in the sense of the ability for independent, independent behavior).
Autonomy is associated with the formation of communication skills and self-confidence (positive self-esteem) based on them. Self-doubt and low self-esteem, for example, are considered by M. Herbert as sources of impaired adaptation and developmental anomalies.
This idea, formed in line with humanistic psychology, is consistent with a number of ideas of domestic psychology about the important role of attitude towards oneself and self-consciousness in general in the process of personality formation.
The main source of deviations in psychoanalysis is usually considered to be the constant conflict between unconscious drives, which in their repressed and repressed form form the structure of the "It", and the social restrictions on the natural activity of the child, which form in the internalized form the structure of the "I" and "superego".
The normal development of the personality presupposes the presence of optimal protective mechanisms that balance the spheres of the conscious and the unconscious. Therefore, in the case of neurotic defense, the formation of personality takes on an abnormal character. K. Horney, D. Bowlby, G. Sullivan see the causes of deviations in the lack of emotional contact, warm communication with the mother in the first years of life. The negative role of the lack of a sense of security and trust in the first years of life is also noted in the etiology of deviations by E. Erickson.
A. Adler, as an important factor in the formation of personality, singles out the structure of the family, the different position in which the child and the corresponding type of upbringing have a significant, and often decisive, influence on the occurrence of deviant behavior. For example, overprotection, according to A. Adler, leads to the development of suspiciousness, infantilism, and an inferiority complex.
Behavioral Approach to understanding deviant behavior is very popular in the US and Canada. The emphasis on the origin of deviant behavior is here shifted to inadequate social learning. This approach is emphatically empirical in nature and focuses on the possibility of correcting inappropriate behavior by organizing positive reinforcement and correcting the consequences of deviant behavior.
Ecological approach interprets deviations in behavior as the result of an unfavorable interaction between the child and the social environment. The child is considered as the subject of violations to the extent that he is the object of violating influences from the social microenvironment. Correction here is understood as the optimization of this interaction by mutually changing the positions of teaching the child the skills of cooperation. Representatives of this direction emphasize the importance of an individual approach to learning and the possibility of self-expression of the individual in educational activities.
Humanistic approach considers deviations in behavior as a consequence of the child's loss of agreement with his own feelings and the inability to find meaning and self-realization in the prevailing conditions of education. Representatives of this trend see the possibility of correcting deviations in creating a contact between the teacher and the child specific to this approach, which allows in a warm and trusting atmosphere to introduce the child into learning situations in a new way without the traditional didactic convergence (divergence) of positions and ignoring the interests of the child.
Empirical approach to the definition and diagnosis of deviations has become widespread in Western psychology. The essence of this approach lies in a purely empirical, phenomenological classification, where each behaviorally distinguishable and stable symptom complex receives a name (autism, depression, victimization, etc.). This approach is an attempt to bring psychiatry and psychology closer together, and therefore uses the concept of a syndrome as some kind of stable formation in the personality structure to describe the types of deviations.
Thus, there are various interrelated factors that determine the genesis of deviant behavior:
– individual factor, acting at the level of psychobiological prerequisites for deviant behavior, which impede the social and psychological adaptation of the individual;
– pedagogical factor manifested in defects in school and family education;
– psychological factor, revealing the unfavorable features of the interaction of an individual with his immediate environment in the family, on the street, in a team, manifested in the active-selective attitude of the individual to the preferred environment of communication, to the norms and values of his environment, the psychological and pedagogical influences of the family, school, the public to self-regulation of his behavior;
– social factor determined by social, economic, political and other conditions of society existence.
Security questions for chapter 1
1. Who was at the origins of the study of deviant behavior and introduced the concept of anomie?
3. What types of stigma stand out?
4. What are the problems of deviant behavior in the domestic psychological and pedagogical literature?
5. Expand the causes of deviant behavior?
6. What approaches to the analysis of the causes of deviant behavior exist?
CHAPTER 2
SOCIAL NORMS: GENESIS, ESSENCE, CLASSIFICATION
2. 1. The concept of the norm
Each society has its own specific system of norms (values), which depends on the level of socio-economic, political, spiritual development of society, on production and social relations. Social norms are formed as a result of communication and cooperation of people and are a fundamental component of any form of human socialization. There is not a single society or group of people without a system of norms that determine their behavior.
Social norms in society perform a variety of functions: orientational, regulatory, sanctioning, informational, corrective, educational, etc. The norms contain certain methods of action, in accordance with which individuals build and evaluate their activities, direct and regulate behavior. Norms may contain requirements regarding the use of means to achieve them.
The concept of "social norm" is quite broad and in the scientific literature there are a large number of works analyzing this concept. However, a systematic methodological analysis of the norms still does not exist today. Nevertheless, there are as many definitions of this phenomenon in science as there are authors involved in the development of this problem.
These are foreign scientists E. Durkheim, M. Weber, W. Sumner, T. Parsons, R. Merton, R. Mills. From Russian scientists - M. I. Bobneva, S. A. Dashtamirov, Yu. A. Kleiberg, V. M. Penkov, V. D. Plakhov, A. A. Ruchka. V. A. Yadov and others.
In order to assess the types, forms and structure of deviant behavior, it is necessary to imagine from which particular norms of society they can deviate.
Consider various definitions of the norm. M. I. Bobneva believes that “social norms are means of social regulation of the behavior of individuals and groups”, A. A. Ruchka that “social norms are a set of requirements and expectations that a social community (group, organization, class, society) imposes on to its members for the purpose of carrying out activities (behavior) of the established pattern. Yu. A. Kleiberg argues that "the social norm is a socio-cultural tool for regulating relations in the specific historical conditions of society, conditioned by social practice." K. K. Platonov believes that “a norm is a phenomenon of group consciousness in the form of ideas shared by a group and the most frequent judgments of group members about the requirements for behavior, taking into account their social roles, creating optimal conditions for being, with which these norms interact and, reflecting, form his".
From the above definitions, it can be seen that they are polyfunctional and permeate literally all aspects of our life. The essence of social norms is to regulate the consciousness and behavior of people in accordance with the dominant system of values, needs, interests, and ideology. Thus, social norms turn out to be a tool for setting goals, designing current management and educational decisions. And they also become a tool for predicting, social control and correction of deviant behavior in the social environment, stimulating the creative and social activity of a person.
The following rules are distinguished:
1) legal;
2) moral;
3) aesthetic.
Legal norms are designed in the form of a set of laws and imply punishment for their violation, moral and aesthetic norms are not regulated so strictly, and if they are not observed, only public censure is possible.
2. 2. Genesis and mechanism for the development of norms
The study of social norms is fraught with difficulties, due to the fact that neither epistemology, nor psychology, nor medicine, nor sociology separately can give an answer to the question of the genesis and mechanisms of the emergence of a norm. Therefore, it is necessary to rely on a number of scientific disciplines, since the problem of the norm is borderline, since the norm is the intersection point of many social processes, therefore, its study is of interdisciplinary importance.
As you know, the development of man and consciousness occurs according to objective laws; the relationship of man, society and nature today is not controversial, since it has been proven by numerous works of naturalists and social scientists of different times and directions (Plato, Hugo Grotius, Leonardo da Vinci, etc.).
Nature historically precedes man, therefore, laws are the result of his social life. Being a product and continuation of nature, a person has a natural predisposition to an organized existence, a natural tendency to order, therefore it appears as a natural historical prerequisite for the emergence of individual social norms.
The entire history of mankind testifies that people use patterns created by nature for their existence and development, learn from it, adopt the methods and principles of self-regulation, adapt and transform them taking into account their social conditions and needs. Mastering nature, learning its laws, people rely on the property of stability, which is a necessary condition for the existence of organic and inorganic objects and the social world.
The laws of nature are diverse and do not have a direct direct regulatory effect on social processes, people's behavior. This impact is mediated, indirect, but not local - holistic, universal.
On the one hand, the ordering that takes place in society has a prototype of self-regulation in nature, and on the other hand, society itself and man are part of organic world and man's own nature creates similar patterns. The results of self-regulation of nature are inorganic and organic elements (the norm of nature), and the results of social ordering are social norms.
The genesis and functioning of the laws (norms) of nature is a natural and objective process, the emergence and operation of social norms expresses subjective activity, people's creativity, a reflection of social relations and needs.
The study of the relationship between social norms and social needs is of particular importance in present stage development of society. With an in-depth analysis of the determination of norms by needs, it turns out that the need is a potential basis, the reason for the emergence of the norm.
Loading...
