Scientific theory of management. Classical control theories

TOPIC 2. MAIN SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT THEORY

2.1.Theory of scientific management

2.2. Administrative theory of A. Fayol

2.3. Bureaucratic theory of M. Weber

2.4. Human Relations Theory

2.5.School of Behavioral Sciences

2.6.School social systems

2.7.New (quantitative) school

2.8.Modern management paradigm

Currently, it is possible to approach the classification of scientific schools of management. Here we will focus on the main classical and modern management theories, without resorting to any typology. In particular, the following will be presented scientific theories:

1. Theory of scientific management (F.W. Taylor (1856-1915), F. Gilbrett (1868 - 1924), L. Gilbrett (1878 - 1972), G. Gantt (1861 - 1919), G. Ford (1863 - 1947), G. Emerson (1853 - 1931), which laid the foundations for the scientific organization of labor.

2. Administrative theory (A. Fayol (1841 - 1925), L. Urwick) whose goal was to create universal principles of management.

3. Bureaucratic theory (M. Weber (1864 - 1920)), which examines the problems of leadership and power structure in an organization.

4. The theory of human relations (M.-P. Follett (1868-1933), E. Mayo (1880-1949), etc.) substantiates the importance of relationships within work groups and with managers.

5. School of behavioral sciences (D. MacGregor (1906 - 1964), R. Likert, W. Ouchi) whose authors argued that the correct application of behavioral science will always help improve the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole.

6. The school of social systems (G. Simon, T. Peters, R. Waterman, R. Pascal, E. Athos) considers organization from the perspective of a systems approach.

7. The new (quantitative) school is based on the application of mathematical methods to the study of operations in the organization and the activities of the leader (R. Falk. add

The founder of the theory, Frederick Taylor (American engineer) and his associates, proceeded from the postulate that there is a “single best” way of doing work and the task is to use scientific methods open this path. The process of finding the "single best" path has become known as scientific method management" or simply scientific management.

2.1.1. F. Taylor - founder of scientific management

The essence of the method F.U. Taylor was to analyze the labor process, divide it into individual operations and techniques, and select the best (in the sense of minimum time) way to perform the operation and the entire labor process. In particular, Taylor scrupulously measured the amount iron ore and coal that a man can lift with shovels of various sizes (from 4 to 30 pounds) and found that when using a shovel with a load of 21 pounds, the number of tons handled by one worker per day increases from 16 to 59. A scientific study of the work in this case included a definition optimal size load that a “first-class” worker can shovel in one go, figuring out the best shovel size to move a given load, developing various types shovels for different materials. Workers must have shovels of various sizes and know which one to use for which load.

Taylor's system was built on strict regulation of labor processes - every movement and method of labor was timed, standardized and assigned to the worker, who underwent the necessary training and instruction, while monitoring the mandatory performance of standardized operations was carried out. Taylor's main attention was aimed at increasing labor productivity, which, in his opinion, should enrich both owners and workers, while the total amount of benefits will be greater and the share of each participant in the labor process can increase without reducing the share of others.

Taylor formulated the fundamental principles of management, which can be presented in the form of theses:

1. “Science instead of traditional skills.” The administration takes upon itself the development of a scientific foundation that replaces the old traditional and purely practical methods for each individual type of labor used in the enterprise, i.e. instead of strong-willed decisions, it is necessary to scientifically substantiate and plan each element of the work.

2. “Harmony instead of contradictions”, i.e. the contradictions between wage labor and capital are eliminated due to increased labor productivity, thereby increasing the profitability of the enterprise while simultaneously increasing wages. According to this thesis, all participants in the labor process - both the capitalist and the worker - are equally interested in the rational organization of labor.

3. “Maximum productivity instead of limiting productivity”, i.e. through training of each individual employee, it is possible to achieve maximum use of his individual capabilities (to achieve maximum labor productivity). This thesis stipulates that management carefully selects workers based on scientifically established characteristics, and then trains and develops the abilities of each individual worker. The thesis also provides for “maximum encouragement” for the best work.

4. “Collaboration instead of individual work.” The administration cooperates in trust with workers in order to achieve compliance of the work performed with the scientific principles that were developed by it.

5. “Equal distribution of responsibility between management and workers.” Managers do all the work for which they are better prepared than workers. Previously, before Taylor, all labor and most of the responsibility were entrusted to the workers.

6. “Separation of administrative work from production work.” Managers perform the planning function, and workers perform the execution function. “It is obvious that one type of person must first plan the work, and a completely different type of person must carry it out.”

These theses express main idea scientific management: for each type of worker activity, a theoretical justification is developed, and then training is carried out to perform the work in accordance with the approved regulations.

Taylor proceeded from the fact that the organization of labor involves the development of numerous rules, patterns, and formulas that replace the personal judgments of the worker. The experiments carried out provided the necessary data for formalizing the labor process. To make it more rigid, they introduced cards - instructions, specific tasks - instructions (“lessons”) for each employee. The “lesson” must be given to the worker not only in the form of the final result, but also described in detail technologically, and the instructional map for the lesson should not contain any questions from the performer, and be clear, understandable and understandable to the performer.

The elimination of sabotage was facilitated by the classical theory of motivation formulated by Taylor. He entered differential wage system: those lagging behind are fined, those at the forefront are rewarded, and those in the middle receive their quota.

To achieve close cooperation between management and workers, Taylor proposed concluding a contract between them regarding production standards. A contract is a legal document that sets out the result of a trade transaction between a worker regarding the price of his labor and an entrepreneur regarding payment and working conditions.

Taylor classified all types of work according to content, complexity and nature of work, setting a premium for each group. Before being hired and given a difficult task, people must be thoroughly tested, their physical and psychological characteristics studied. This is how it appeared idea of ​​professional selection.

The idea of ​​professional selection was supplemented by the concept vocational training . It consisted of a system of pedagogical techniques: teaching skills, expanding knowledge, training and independent study of one’s work.

In his organizational principles, Taylor also took into account the social interests of workers - the possibility of short rest and inevitable interruptions in production was provided for, so that the amount of time allocated to perform certain tasks was realistic and fairly established. Moreover, the application “whistle technology”(12 minutes of work - whistle - 3 minutes of rest - whistle) to change the work and rest regime for loading pig iron onto railway platforms made it possible to increase the daily loading rate from 12.5 to 47 tons. By introducing his system of "more pay for more productivity" and establishing rest breaks for workers, Taylor was able to achieve his first management goal: combining high wages with low labor costs.

Taylor's main merit is that he demonstrated how enormous the loss of working time could be when implementing the old approach to management, when the management remained a passive observer of the flow of the production process, placing full responsibility on the workers both for the implementation of the general plan and for the applied their methods of work, and, in addition, also for the tools they use. Taylor was also the first to solve the problem of repeatedly increasing production not by expanding production itself, but by improving labor incentives and increasing its intensity. According to Taylor, high wages and low production costs- the basis of good management.

To summarize, we can note the basics of F. Taylor's system:

· ability to analyze work, study the sequence of its implementation;

· selection of workers to perform this type of work;

· education and training of workers;

· cooperation between management and workers.

The practical implementation of the system included:

· determination and accurate recording of working hours and rationing of operations;

· selection of functional foremen;

· standardization of tools, tools, work operations and movements;

· introduction of instructional cards – “lessons”;

· differential (progressive) wages.

The classical school of scientific management emerged in the late 1890s. and is one of the leading management approaches until the middle of the 20th century. At the nervous stage of development (until the end of the 1920s), representatives of the classical school developed three key directions - scientific management, the theory of administration and the theory of bureaucracy; at the second stage (1930-1950s) these theories converged and were combined into within the framework of the so-called synthetic theories, which substantiate a number of universal principles for the formation and functioning of an effective organization.

Acknowledged father scientific management is F. Taylor. He was convinced that management would transform industrial relations into relations of mutual benefit and mutual assistance and, thanks to increased labor productivity, would ensure the prosperity of not only the enterprise, but also the entire society. The principles of production organization proposed by Taylor can be divided into general (or resulting) and specific principles of labor organization.

The most important of general principles are the following:

• a combination of economic feasibility with the “achieving worker” program, thanks to which the process is possible: maximum productivity of the worker - his high well-being and prosperity of the enterprise - prosperity of the national economy;
• organizational harmony: cooperation between managers and workers based on an equal and fair distribution of duties and responsibilities;
• division of managerial (top management, shop managers, functional supervisors, foremen (foremen)) and performing labor (hard and light work).

Following general principles involves implementation specific principles:

• division of labor operations into work movements, their timing, rationalization and regulation;
• labor planning: establishing production standards and tariffs, standards for material support for jobs and coordinating all work;
• implementation of a system of instruction cards with daily work tasks - difficult, but doable;
• motivation of workers in accordance with the principle of reasonable selfishness: individual responsibility (incentives and penalties) for meeting production standards with a guaranteed stable level of prices (tariffs);
• taking into account individual abilities: selection of managers and workers and their training in accordance with advanced scientific achievements;
• taking into account individual opinions and suggestions of workers to improve the organization of the labor process.

A great contribution to the theory and practice of scientific management was made by F. Taylor's main associate G. Gantt, who developed methods of bonus wages, diagrams or charts (Gantt charts) for production planning, and laid the foundations of the theory of production leadership. The theory of leadership, as well as the theory of industrial conflicts, was also developed by M. Follett. In general, it can be argued that at the first stage, scientific management develops “in breadth” and “in depth”. Development “in depth” in this case means the experimental substantiation of the psychophysiological foundations of labor organization and the psychological foundations of management (F. and L. Gilbreth), development “in breadth” means the creation of a philosophy of management (S. Sheldon), as well as the development of a managerialist view of human history, identification of historical types of organization - “military-destructive” and “economically-creative” (functional) (G. Emerson).

IN Soviet Russia under the influence of Taylor’s ideas, the movement of scientific organization of labor or abbreviated as NOT (the concept was introduced by the theorist of scientific management O. Yermansky) arose. The most prominent representative of NOT was the director of the Central Labor Institute (CIT) A. Gastev. Unlike Taylor, whose production structure was based on the rationalization of individual operations, Gastev, in accordance with his “narrow base” concept, believed that the basis for enterprise design is the organization of the workplace as a whole, or rather, workplaces from an ordinary worker to a director. Gastev paid great attention to the motivation of workers, which should be based on their understanding of the labor process, material incentives and career growth, self-discipline and the enthusiasm of “liberated labor”.

In general, a production organization in accordance with the principles of scientific management is an organization created as a result of scientific (technical, technological and psychophysiological) analysis and maximum rationalization of labor processes. This rationalization determines “from below” the configuration of all organizational (managerial and executive) structures, and also ensures the objective determinism and interdependence of all organizational relations.

Administration theory A. Fayol extends management knowledge beyond the boundaries of an industrial enterprise - to government and other non-profit organizations. In the enterprise management system, administration is one of the types of operations (types of management activities) along with technical (production), commercial (purchase, sale), financial (raising funds and disposing of them), insurance (insurance and property protection) and accounting (accounting and statistics) operations. But the higher the level of management, the more in demand administrative science becomes, and the role of special knowledge decreases.

The structural-functional approach to administration, applied by Fayol, gives the manager answers to the questions “What to do?” and "How to do it?". The answer to the first question lies in identifying the functions of foresight, organization, management, coordination and control, invariant to any management process. The answer to the second question is to highlight the principles, the specific implementation of which varies in different situations and includes an element of art. Here are 14 famous ones principles of management by A. Fayol.

• 1. Division of labor (specialization).
• 2. Power and responsibility (the latter is a consequence of the first).
• 3. Discipline (respect for agreements and personal example of the leader).
• 4. Unity of command (unity of point of view, action and management).
• 5. Unity of direction (achievement of each goal according to a single plan under the leadership of one leader).
• 6. Subordination of private interests to the general.
• 7. Staff remuneration (objectively and subjectively fair).
• 8. Centralization (optimal balance between concentration and dispersal of power).
• 9. Scalar chain (hierarchy).
• 10. Order (everyone has his place and everyone in his place).
• 11. Fairness (loyalty and dedication of staff - respectful and fair attitude of the administration towards subordinates).
• 12. Stability of the workplace for staff.
• 13. Initiative (of subordinates).
• 14. Corporate spirit (“in unity there is strength”).

According to Fayol, an administrator is first and foremost a functionary. But despite this, following managerial principles presupposes a combination of official and personal power. In general, an administrator needs intelligence and organizational skills, good general education and special competence, mastery of the art of dealing with people, as well as independence, energy, perseverance and a sense of duty.

A. Fayol, unlike F. Taylor, proposed building an organization not “from the bottom up”, but “from the top down” by detailing the main goal of the organization. Because this is the only way to justify the number of management levels, the composition of management and horizontal structures and create an organization as a single integral system. At the same time, Fayol repeatedly emphasized that there are no contradictions between Taylorism and his theory, they simply consider different levels organization of production: in the first case - workshop, and in the second - higher administrative. Thus, in addition to expanding the "horizon" organizational management, A. Fayol’s great contribution to science and practice is his development of the foundations of system theories of organization.

In the 1920s our compatriot N. Vitke, in general being a follower of A. Fayol, in his theory tried to separate NOT and administration in the management of an organization. According to N. Vitka, NOT includes:

• a) management of things - the connection of a person with tools, carried out by psychophysiological methods;
• b) managing people - coordinating their work actions using socio-psychological methods.

Administration is associated with making management decisions and includes: general management, based on intuition and foresight; planned management based on scientifically based recommendations; and management - solving actual problems that arise, which requires art based on knowledge of psychology. In addition, N. Witke formulated the functions of administration, which are still recognized today as the main functions of management - calculation (planning), installation (organization), processing (coordination) and control.

The basic principles of administration theory were subsequently used in many management and organizational approaches. For example, in the middle of the last century, G. Simon, the author of the theory of bounded rationality, exploring the phenomena of administrative workers and administrative behavior, established a connection between the content of the organization’s goals and the rationality of the decisions made in it and the actions taken.

M. Weber in his theories of power identifies three ideal types of legitimate (recognized by people) domination. The charismatic type of dominance is based on the exceptional and situationally necessary personal qualities of the leader, which allow him to lead people. The traditional type of domination is based on custom, according to which the ruler is “God’s anointed”, vested with sacred power. Finally, the legal type of domination is based on law, which is rational, i.e. created to solve specific problems, concerns everyone equally, is impersonal and is implemented by multi-level authorities on a professional basis.

In modern society, the purest form of organization of legal power is bureaucracy. The main features of bureaucracy are that the officials who make it up:

• are personally free and are subjects of power, performing formal official duties;
• organized into a hierarchy;
• have an officially assigned area of ​​competence determined by their hierarchical position;
• are freely selected;
• assigned according to qualification criteria;
• have the opportunity for promotion;
• have a fixed salary;
• engage in management as their main activity;
• separated from the property being controlled;
• subject to strict discipline and control.

According to Weber, these characteristics allow the bureaucracy to exercise control, the procedural grounds of which are:

• maximum division of activity (labor) into elementary operations;
• each operation is performed by a specific group of specialists who are responsible for it;
• unity of command ("scalar" principle);
• accountability of each employee to a superior official and responsibility to him for decisions made and actions of subordinates;
• control using abstract rules that apply equally in all cases;
• formal-impersonal (unemotional) behavior;
• loyalty to the organization and corporate spirit.

Thus, the theory of bureaucratic organization, in many provisions consistent with the theories of scientific management and administration, is the broadest in terms of the scale of the problems considered, since in Weber’s understanding, the historically formed bureaucracy represents the modern and most advanced mechanism for the rationalization of any collective activity. A bureaucratic organization is based on a system of formal and fairly strict rules and responsibilities, which guarantees a given predictability of the behavior of each manager and performer, and also ensures the necessary speed, accuracy and continuity of organizational activities.

Subsequently, the theory of bureaucracy was developed in the functional and situational approaches (the essence of which will be discussed below). So, in the early 1970s. A group of scientists from Astana University in Birmingham (England) created a situational model in which three types of bureaucracy were identified.

Since the model primarily considers large organizations, the formation of various types of bureaucracy is determined by medium and high levels of centralization and standardization of organizational activities (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1.

In accordance with the Aston model, for large independent organizations, primarily industrial and commercial (industrial-commercial), production bureaucracy is most acceptable; for subsidiaries, branches and departments dependent on their headquarters - absolute, for political and public organizations– personal.

In addition, the theory of bureaucracy was supplemented by a description of organizational dysfunctions. For example, R. Merton drew attention to the fact that strict adherence to organizational regulations leads to routinization of organizational activities, as a result of which organizational development is hampered and the connection of the organization with the environment is weakened. A. Gouldner came to the conclusion that the system of formal regulations reduces the tension of relations in the organization, but at the same time reduces the efforts of staff to the minimum level established by these regulations. The manager evaluates the latter negatively, and therefore entails increased control. The same thing happens when organizational equilibrium is disturbed: special rules begin to apply in the organization aimed at restoring balance, but at the same time organizational control increases significantly. Tight control leads to increased tension, which again upsets the balance of the system.

Attempts to unite various areas of the classical school were made back in the 1920s. For example, G. Holf proposed doing this within the framework of “optimology” - the study of the optimal relationship between various business factors (its size, production costs, human abilities, etc.). In the middle of the last century, synthesizing theories were developed, among which we should highlight theory of formal organization J. Mooney and A. Reilly, in which management is carried out in accordance with the triad principle - process - result, as well as synthetic control theory L. Gyulik and L. Urvik, who formulated seven functions and twenty-nine (!) principles of management, which, however, added almost nothing fundamentally new to the achievements of the classical school of management.

In general, within the framework of the classical school, an instrumental-rationalistic version of the organization as a closed system was developed, and the methodology of the school can be considered in the logic of quantities, time and hierarchy (D. Bell). Its main principles: division of managerial and executive labor, operational standardization of labor processes, departmentalization (building an organization) from the bottom up or top down, rationalism ( job responsibilities are objective and reflect the characteristics of the labor process or the tasks being solved), formalism (people are considered as functions), unity of command (prevailing hierarchical authoritarianism), executive individualism (the principle of personal responsibility), cooperation between managers and performers. It is important to note that the classical school complements the classical hierarchy (line structure), in which each boss has specific subordinates, with functional administration. At Taylor, it is implemented by supervisors, each of whom is responsible for the quality of performance of a certain group of labor operations. G. Emerson specifically substantiated the functional or staff principle of managing an organization (by analogy with the activities of the headquarters of a military unit).

In the philosophy of the classical school of management, the organization as a system is more important than a specific person. Moreover, in an organization as a designed instrument created to achieve a specific purpose, people are a programmable social resource. External prescription and external control of the implementation of rights and obligations and individual responsibility for the results of work make the organization a system of interconnected job statuses with a minimum number of degrees of freedom for the employees occupying them. At the same time, the broader (more abstract) the concept, the less space there is left for a person in it. Yes, cl). Taylor writes about the harmonization of relations between managers and workers, A. Gastev - about nurturing the worker’s working culture and labor enthusiasm. G. Gantt directly emphasizes the leading role of the human factor in the organization in connection with the problem of employee satisfaction, as well as the need to humanize management processes through the development of industrial democracy. In Weber's concept of organization, in which rules and procedures determine all types of organizational activities and specific management decisions, a specific person is practically absent. Indeed, in essence, in a formally rational organization, the “notorious human factor” must be eliminated as much as possible, since only it can be the cause of dysfunction in deeply thought-out and scientifically substantiated organizational activities.

-Theory of scientific management F.U. Taylor (1856–1915), which laid the foundations for the scientific organization of labor.

A. Fayol (1841–1925), whose goal was to create universal principles of management.

The starting point for the development of modern management is considered to be 1886, when businessman G. Towne (1844–1924) made a report “The Engineer as Economist” at a meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in which he spoke about the need for management as a professional specialization and scientific discipline. It was he who first proclaimed that “factory management is no less important than technology.” The meeting was attended by mechanical engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor, an employee of the Midvale Steel company in the American city of Philadelphia. It was he who, in the late 80s of the XIX century. began the scientific development of management problems. Taylor's theory gained more or less clear outline in 1903, when he published a report entitled “Cycle Control.” It was further developed in the book “Principles and Methods of Scientific Management,” which was published in 1911. This work laid the foundations of classical organization theory.

The ideas and concepts covered by classical organization theory are the result of the work of many people who, based on their practical activities as engineers and administrators in industrial enterprises, empirically tested their principles and came to the creation of a theory.

Theories that claim that there is “one best way” to structure an organization are called universal theories, while theories that suggest that the optimal structure may vary from situation to situation depending on differences in environmental conditions ( external environment) and technologies are called situational.

The bottom line: – each element of the work must be based on scientific justification and not on a volitional decision;

Using certain criteria, select and then train, educate, and develop the workforce;

Work closely with staff while ensuring work is performed in accordance with established scientific principles;

Ensure division of labor and responsibility between managers and employees.

Principles of scientific management according to Taylor:

The principle of division, planning and execution of work;

The principle of functional group management;

The principle of researching the content of work

Bonus principle

Principle of selection and training

Bureaucratic theory

Bureaucratic theory by M. Weber (1864–1920), which examines the problems of leadership and power structure in an organization.

Basic principles:

All tasks necessary to achieve the goal must be divided into specialized types of work

In order to guarantee the coordination of work, each task must be carried out with a well-defined, constant system of rules

Each employee and division of the organization must be responsible for their actions to their leader, managers for the actions of their subordinates

Every official of the organization must maintain social distance between himself and his subordinates

Hiring must be based on the employee's business acumen and technical qualifications and must include protection against arbitrary dismissal

Promotion should be based on the employee's length of service and personal achievements

Glassier theory

The Glacier theory is a universal theory of the formation of organizations, included in the scientific literature under the name of the place of its creation - the Glacier Metal company, Great Britain.

4 subsystems, partially overlapping and interacting with each other:

Executive (structure formed as a result of labor and forming a chain of command)

Appeal (subsystem for responding to personnel complaints)

Representative (structure formed by electing representatives to the works council together with managers)

Legislative (a structure that solves the problems of developing organizational policies with the participation of elected representatives of the work council.)

The undoubted advantages of using Glacier's theory are:

• increasing productivity through the introduction of accountability principles (a clear understanding by each employee of their goals, areas of accountability, subordination and authority), accelerating the decision-making process;
• increasing the efficiency of the company by optimizing the organizational structure and aligning the ability levels of employees with the tasks they solve;
• creating a comfortable working atmosphere - increasing the level of trust between employees of the organization by clarifying and agreeing on working relationships and authority.

Glacier's theory was adopted by the Soviet Union. In particular, the idea of ​​a representative subsystem was used in organizing trade unions.

Business process analysis

Topic 1.Evolution of management thought

The main schools that are usually identified in management theory are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Stages of development of management science

Direction contribution	Representatives
Empirical school (since 1885) Management is an art, not a science. Only practical experience and intuition can suggest effective ways.	P. Drucker Simons Ford
"One-Dimensional" Management Teachings
School of Scientific Management (1885-1920) 1. Creation of a scientific foundation to replace the old purely practical methods of work. 2. Scientific research of each individual type of work activity. 3. Using scientific analysis to determine the best way to complete a task. 4. Providing workers with the resources required to perform tasks effectively. 5. Approval of management as an independent form of activity and science. 6. Rational enterprise management from below. 7. Systematic use of material incentives. 8. Selection of employees and their training. 9. Separation of planning, coordination and control from the work itself.	F. Taylor F. Gilbert G. Gantt Weber G. Emerson G. Ford G. Grant O.A. Yermansky
Classical (administrative) school of management (1920-1950) 1. Development of management principles. 2. Development of management functions. 3. A systematic approach to managing the entire organization.	A. Fayol L. Urwick D. Mooney A. Sloan A.Ginsburg A. G a stev
School of Human Relations and School of Behavioral Sciences (1930-1950) 1. Using techniques for managing interpersonal relationships. 2. Application of the sciences of human behavior.	M. Follett E. Mayo Mac Gregor Likert
Quantitative approach 1. Development and application of mathematical models in management. 2. Development of quantitative methods in decision making.	S. Forrest E. Rife S. Simon
Synthetic teachings about management
Process approach (1920 to present) Consideration of management as a process, i.e. a series of continuous interrelated actions (control functions)	F. Taylor R. Churchman V. Woodforth
Systems approach (1950 to present) Consideration of organizations as a certain integrity, consisting of interconnected parts, each of which contributes to the development of the whole. The systems approach emphasizes that managers must consider organization as a collection of interdependent elements such as people, structure, goals, objectives and technology, which are focused on achieving various goals in a changing external environment.	A. Sloan P. Dupont R. Scott
Situational approach (1960 to present) Linking specific management techniques and concepts to specific specific situations to achieve organizational goals in the most effective ways. This approach focuses on the fact that the suitability of various management methods is determined by the situation. Because there are so many factors in both the organization itself and the environment, there is no single “best” way to manage an organization. The most effective method in a particular situation is the method that is most appropriate for that situation.	P. Drucker W. March R. Thompson
Globalization of processes (from 1990 to the present) Innovation and international processes - synthesis of human activity and high technology (development of telecommunications and Internet technologies; emergence of network organizations, etc.), liberalization of management, participation of workers in the profit on capital; strengthening the international nature of governance.

School of Scientific Administration (1885 -1920)

Despite the ancient history of the emergence and development of management practice, management theory is a relatively young phenomenon. After all, before the start XX century, even the pragmatic manifestation of the benefits of effective management did not arouse the true interest of researchers in studying the ways and means of leadership.

For example, back in the beginning XIX century, Robert Owen created a factory in Scotland that used revolutionary methods for motivating workers at that time ( provision of housing, good working conditions, flexible system of material incentives). However, although the factory was extremely profitable, none of the other businessmen followed his example.

At the beginning of XX century only in the United States could a person overcome the difficulties associated with his origin by demonstrating personal competence. Millions of Europeans, seeking to improve their lot, immigrated to America, creating a huge labor market made up of hardworking people. Almost from the very beginning of its existence The US supported the idea of ​​education for all, What contributed to the growth of the number of people intellectually capable of managing business.

Transcontinental railway lines built at the end of XIX centuries, turned America into the largest single market in the world. The non-intervention of the state allowed successful entrepreneurs to create large monopolies with a complex management structure.

These and other factors made possible the emergence of formalized methods of management and the first major theoretical developments in this area.

In 1911 Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) published his book "Principles of Scientific Management"", traditionally considered the beginning of the recognition of science management and an independent field of study.

Frederick Taylor is the founder of the first school of management, called the “school of scientific management” . He is rightfully considered the father of modern management.

Taylor proposed strict scientific system knowledge about the laws of rational labor organization.

The main idea of ​​his research: the work of performers should be studied using scientific methods.

Taylor's main innovations :

1. Differentiated wage system (piecework wages).

This gave management the opportunity to set production standards that were achievable and to pay extra for those who exceeded the minimum. The key element in this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more.

2. Time and motion method (timing), development of production standards.

Taylor and his followers believed that by using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved, making them more efficient. The first phase of the scientific management methodology was the analysis of the content of the work and the identification of its main components.

Example1. Taylor, for example, meticulously measured the amount of iron ore and coal that a man could lift with shovels of various sizes. Taylor, for example, discovered that the maximum amount of iron ore and coal could be moved if workers used a shovel with a capacity of up to 21 pounds. Compared to the earlier system, this provided a truly phenomenal gain.

3. Professional selection of people, their training. Writers of scientific management also recognized the importance of selecting people who were physically and intellectually suited to the work they were doing, and they also emphasized the importance of training.

4. Stimulation methods and rest . Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. An important contribution of this school was the systematic use of incentives to motivate workers to increase productivity and output. The possibility of short rest and inevitable interruptions in production was also provided for.

5. Instruction cards (rules for performing work) and much more, which later became part of the so-called mechanism of scientific management.

6. A method of dividing and rationalizing labor techniques, departments of management functions organization and planning from the actual execution of work. Taylor and his contemporaries essentially recognized that management work was a specialty, and that the organization as a whole would benefit if each group of workers focused on what it did best. This approach was in stark contrast to the old system, in which workers planned their own work.

Taylor believed that traditional management functions were limited to planning and control activities.

Taylor system effective for lower management And appropriate when transitioning to large-scale and mass production. A at the upper levels of government the principle of combining power and responsibility is recommended.

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth invented a device and called it a microchronometer. They used it in conjunction with a movie camera to determine exactly what movements were performed in certain operations and how long each one took. Using still images, the Gilbreths were able to identify and describe 17 basic hand movements. They called these movements terbligs. This name comes from the surname Gilbreth, when read backwards. Based on the information received, they modified work procedures to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements and, using standard procedures and equipment, sought to improve work efficiency. Gilbreth was offered new method, based on the study of simple operations, which led to the creation standards for certain types of work.

F. Gilbreath grouped factors influencing worker productivity into three categories:

· variable factors of the worker (physique, health, lifestyle, qualifications, culture, education, etc.);

· variable factors of the environment, equipment and tools (heating, lighting, clothing, quality of materials used, monotony and difficulty of work, degree of fatigue, etc.);

· variable factors of movement (speed, amount of work performed, automaticity, direction of movements and their feasibility, cost of work, etc.).

Studying each factor separately and identifying its impact on labor productivity, Frank came to the conclusion that the most important category is movement factors.

The use of labor standardization has resulted in a significant increase in labor productivity and is now widely used in many countries.

Taylor's developments were theoretically substantiated by a sociologist and engineer Max Weber(1864-1920).

He put forward and systematized the principles of rational organization building:

1. Everything is built rationally;

2. All functions are defined by instructions;

3. All work is standardized;

4. Division of labor and specialization of management personnel;

5. Regulation of functions and limitation of the number of managers;

6. The interaction of personnel is subordinated to goals, and everyone is responsible for their actions to their superiors.

Taylor's principles were supplemented by practical developments Henry Ford, which:

1. performed standardization of all production processes,

2. division of operations into small components,

3. mechanization,

4. synchronization,

5. organization of continuous production based on a conveyor with a set tact or rhythm of movement.

Due to this, he received low costs associated with the required unskilled labor of a low tariff category, and saved on training, which allowed him to pay good wages to each worker (at least $6 per day), reduce the work schedule (no more than 48 hours per week ); Maintain the best condition of equipment, cleanliness and order in the workplace. All this reduced the cost by 9 times.

Table 2. Positive and negative features of scientific

An approach to managing an organization.

School of Scientific Management

Positive features: · Selection of workers and managers based on scientific criteria, their vocational selection and vocational training. · Specialization of functions in production, each employee performing only those functions for which he is most suitable, his training. · A system of material incentives for workers to increase their productivity (money, social innovations, etc.). · Accounting and control of work performed. · Separation of administrative and executive work. Introduction of the institute of masters supervising workers. · Cooperation between administration and workers on the practical implementation of innovations. · Equal distribution of responsibility between employees and managers.

Negative features: · Reducing stimulating moments to satisfying utilitarian needs of people. · Mechanical approach to control.

Classical (administrative) school of management (1920 -1950)

The authors who wrote about scientific management mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below management.

With the emergence of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.

Henri Fayol, whose name is associated with the emergence of this school and who is sometimes called the father of management, worked almost his entire adult life (58 years) in a French company for processing coal and iron ore. Dindall Urwick was a management consultant in England. James D. Mooney, who wrote works together with A. C. Reilly, worked under the direction of Alfred P. Sloan at General Motors.

The main goal of this school was efficiency in the broader sense of the word - in relation to the work of the entire organization.

The "classics" tried to look at organizations from a broad perspective, trying to determine General characteristics and patterns of organizations.

The goal of the classical school was Creation universal principles of management. In doing so, she proceeded from the idea that following these principles would undoubtedly lead the organization to success.

Fayol considered the organization as a single organism, which is characterized by the presence of 6 types of activities:

1. Technological\technical activities;

2. Commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);

3. Financial (search for capital and its effective use);

4. Accounting activities (inventory and accounting of property, raw materials, materials);

5. Protective function (protection of property and personality);

6. Administrative (impact on personnel).

Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that in his book “General and Industrial Administration” (1923) considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning, organizing, motivating, regulating and controlling.

Fayol identified 14 principles of management:

1. Division of labor, which increases the qualifications and level of work performance. The purpose of the division of labor is to perform more and better work with the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and effort must be directed.

2. Authority and responsibility Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, responsibility arises.

3. Discipline. Discipline involves obedience and respect for agreements reached between the company and its employees. Discipline also presupposes the fairness of the sanctions applied.

4. Unity of command. An employee must receive orders only from one immediate superior.

5. Unity of direction. Each group operating within one goal, must be united by a single plan and have one leader.

6 Subordination of personal interests to the general ones. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of the company or organization.

7. Staff remuneration. To ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must be paid fairly for their service.

8. Centralization. The appropriate degree of centralization will vary depending on the specific conditions. It is necessary to find the right proportions between centralization and decentralization.

9. The scalar chain or chain of interaction consists in the clear construction of chains of commands from management to subordinates.

10. Order - everyone should know their place in the organization.

11. Justice is a combination of kindness and justice.

12. Stability of the workplace for staff and constancy of staff (staff turnover is poor quality).

13. Initiative, i.e. encouraging employees when they develop new ideas.

14. Corporate spirit lies in the formation of a corporate culture with its norms, rules, and philosophy.

Fayol's main achievement - attempt explore the organizational structure and conclusions about the need to establish horizontal connections, otherwise the hierarchical structure will significantly complicate coordination and decision-making.

“Fayol set the task of teaching industrial administrators how to manage the workers employed at the enterprise, which would ensure the greatest individual and collective labor productivity by concentrating their “will” in one, strictly defined direction, indicated by the entrepreneur. The latter requires the creation of a science of human management based on “careful study and scientific experimentation.”

Fayol developed list of personal qualities of a manager necessary for working with personnel:

· physical health;

· intellectual abilities;

· moral qualities;

· education;

· ability to work with people;

· competence in the activities of the enterprise.

Fayol has prepared a number of tips and recommendations for novice managers:

· complement your technical knowledge with management skills;

· gain additional knowledge in the process of communicating with managers;

· control your words and actions when communicating with subordinates, do not make unfair comments;

· do not abuse the trust of your boss;

· try to approach the assessment of the people around you as objectively as possible, and, if possible, avoid criticism in your judgments;

· Constantly educate yourself, try to keep abreast of the latest scientific achievements.

Table 3. Positive and negative traits

classical school of management.

Classical (administrative) school of management

Positive features: Ø The question of the need to highlight one’s own management activities as a special object of research. Ø The need for competence and knowledge of the manager. Ø Development of a holistic organization management system. Ø The structure of management and organization of the enterprise by employees based on the principle of unity of command. Ø Creation of a system of management principles leading the organization to success.

Negative features: ü Inattention to social aspects management. ü Inattention to the human factor at the enterprise. ü Mastering new types of work based on personal experience, rather than using scientific methods.

Features of the classical school of management:

· Rational enterprise management “from above”

· Consideration of management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated operations: technical, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting, administrative

· Statement of the basic principles of management: division of labor, power and responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of leadership, remuneration, centralization, scalar chain, initiative, corporate spirit, justice, etc.

· Formulation of a systematic theory of management of the entire organization, highlighting management as a special type of activity

· Development of general management issues

· Formulation of a systematized theory of management of the entire organization with the separation of management into a special type of activity

· Isolation of the volitional moment in the organization and development of production

School of Human Relations (neoclassical school) (1930-1950)

The human relations movement began in response to the failure to fully recognize the human element as a fundamental element of organizational effectiveness. Since it arose as a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical approach, school of human relations sometimes called neoclassical school.

Two scientists - Mary Parker Follett(1868-1933) and Elton Mayo(1880-1949) can be called the largest authorities in the development of the school of human relations in management.

Exactly Miss Follett was the first to define management as “getting work done with the help of others.” She believed that For successful management, a manager must abandon formal interaction with subordinates (i.e., stop relying on official authority), and become a leader recognized by employees.

Mayo found that well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to increased productivity, as representatives of the scientific management school believed. The forces that arose in the course of interaction between people could and often did exceed the efforts of the leader. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to pressure from group colleagues than to the desires of management and material incentives.

Generalization of empirical data allowed him to create a social philosophy of management (a system of human relations).

Experiments at the Horton plant of the Western Electric Company over a period of 13 years (1927-1939) showed that You can influence the psychology of people and change their attitude towards work by organizing a small informal group. Mayo called for the activation of the spiritual stimuli characteristic of each person, the strongest of which he considered a person's desire for constant connection with his comrades for work.

“At the beginning of the experiment, a group of research engineers set the task of determining the influence of lighting, duration of breaks and a number of other factors shaping working conditions on workers’ productivity. A group of six workers was selected, who were placed for observation in a special room and on whom various experiments were carried out. The results of the experiments turned out to be striking and inexplicable from the point of view scientific management. It turned out that labor productivity remained above average and was almost independent of changes in illumination and other factors studied. The scientists involved in the study, led by Mayo, concluded that the high productivity was due to special relationship between people, their joint work. This study also showed that a person’s behavior at work and the results of his work fundamentally depend on the social conditions in which he is at work, what kind of relationships workers have among themselves, as well as what kind of relationships exist between workers and managers. These conclusions were fundamentally different from the provisions of scientific management, as the focus shifted from the tasks, operations or functions performed by the worker to a system of relationships, to a person no longer considered as a machine, but as a social being. Unlike Taylor, Mayo did not believe that the worker was inherently lazy. On the contrary, he argued that if the appropriate relationships are created, a person will work with interest and enthusiasm. Mayo said that managers must trust workers and focus on creating positive relationships within the team."

The Horton Experiments started:

1. numerous studies of relationships in organizations,

2. taking into account psychological phenomena in groups,

3. identifying motivation to work

4. studying interpersonal relationships,

5. emphasized the role of the individual and small group in an organization.

Based on these findings, psychology researchers believed that if management showed greater concern for its employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which would lead to increased productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective supervisors, consultation with employees and providing them with greater opportunities for communication at work.

School of Behavioral Sciences

Approximately Since the late 50s, the school of human relations has transformed into a school of behavioral sciences, the main postulate of which is not methods for establishing interpersonal relationships, but increasing the efficiency of the individual employee and the organization as a whole. Research in this direction contributed to the emergence in the 60s of a special management function called “personnel management.” The transformation was associated with the development of sciences such as psychology, sociology and the improvement of research methods after the Second World War, making the study of behavior in the workplace more strictly scientific.

Among the largest figures of a later period of development behavioral (behaviourist) direction can be mentioned Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert, Douglas McGregor and Frederick Hertzberg. These and others researchers studied:

· various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure,

· communications in organizations,

· leadership,

· changes in the content of work and the quality of working life.

The school of behavioral sciences departed significantly from the school of human relations, which focused primarily on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships. The new approach sought to provide greater assistance to the employee in understanding his own capabilities through the application of behavioral science concepts to the building and management of organizations.

In the most general terms, the main goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

A prominent representative of the behavioral school is Douglas McGregor(1906-1964), who developed the theory of “X” and “Y”, according to which there are two types of management, reflecting two types of attitude towards employees.

An “X” type organization is characterized by the following prerequisites:

· the person has an inherited dislike for work and tries to avoid it;

· due to reluctance to work, most people can only carry out the necessary actions under the threat of punishment;

· a person prefers to be controlled, not wanting to take responsibility.

Based on these initial assumptions autocrat usually:

· centralizes powers as much as possible,

· structures the work of subordinates and gives them almost no freedom in decision-making,

· strives to simplify goals, break them down into smaller ones, assign each subordinate his own specific task, which makes it easy to control its implementation, i.e. closely manages all work within his competence

· may apply psychological pressure (threats) to ensure work is completed.

The premises of Theory "U" are as follows:

· it is quite natural for a person to express physical and emotional effort at work;

· responsibility towards the organization depends on the remuneration received by the employee;

· a person brought up in a certain way is ready not only to take responsibility, but even strive for it.

Organizations where the democratic style dominates have the following characteristics:

· high degree of decentralization of powers;

· subordinates take an active part in decision making;

· the leader avoids imposing his will on his subordinates;

· Instead of strict control over subordinates in the process of their work, the lower-level manager usually waits until the work is completed to the end to evaluate it;

· the leader, having explained the goals of the organization, allows subordinates to determine their own goals in accordance with those that he formulated;

· The manager acts as a liaison, ensuring that the production group's goals are aligned with those of the organization as a whole and ensuring that the group receives the resources it needs;

· enjoy wide freedom in completing tasks.

McGregor came to the conclusion that type "U" management is much more effective and that the task of managers is to create conditions under which the worker, while expending effort to achieve the goals of the organization, at the same time optimally achieves his personal goals.

A psychologist made a great contribution to the development of behavioral direction in management Abraham Maslow(1908-1970), who developed a theory of needs known as the “pyramid of needs.”

According to this doctrine, each person has a hierarchically arranged complex structure of needs, and the manager must identify these needs using appropriate methods of motivation.

Maslow divided these needs into basic (the need for food, safety) and derivatives. Basic needs are constant, but derivatives change.

The value of derived needs is the same, so they have no hierarchy. And the basic ones, on the contrary, are arranged according to the principle of hierarchy from “lower” (material) to “higher” (spiritual):

· physiological;

· existential – needs for security, confidence in the future;

· social – needs to belong to a team;

· prestigious – needs for respect, self-esteem;

· spiritual – needs for self-expression, creativity.

Maslow's needs theory has been used as the basis for many modern models of motivation.

Rancis Likertand his colleagues at the University of Michigan developed the system by comparing high-performing groups with low-performing groups in different organizations.

Figure 1. Organizational leadership orientation.

Leader focused on work , also known as task-oriented leader primarily cares about designing the task and developing a reward system to improve productivity.

As a continuation of his research, Likert proposed four basic leadership styles.

Table 4. Likert leadership styles.

System 1	System 2	System 3	System 4
		Consultative democratic	Based on
Leaders have the characteristics of an autocrat.	Managers may maintain authoritarian relationships with subordinates, but they allow subordinates, albeit limited, to participate in decision making. Motivation is created by reward and, in some cases, punishment.	Managers show significant, but not complete, trust in subordinates. There is two-way communication and some degree of trust between managers and subordinates. Important decisions are made at the top, but many specific decisions are made by subordinates.	Group decisions and employee participation in decision making. According to Likert, it is the most effective. These leaders have complete trust in their subordinates. The relationship between the manager and subordinates is friendly and mutually trusting. Decision making is highly decentralized. Communication is two-way and non-traditional. They are also people-oriented, in contrast to System 1 managers who are work-oriented.

Industries such as services, education, accounting and similar firms, medicine, and trade require managers who work on the basis of the second approach. In industrial production emphasis on the production process more correct and efficient.

When managing according to the first principle (focus on production), the level of injuries, illnesses, and absenteeism is much higher than with another approach to management, but in teams where there is no clear structure and cohesion, a rigid management style is a positive factor.

Peculiarities:

· Development and application of methods for managing interpersonal relationships to increase productivity and job satisfaction.

· Development of a theory of needs.

· Using the sciences of human behavior in managing and shaping the organization so that the employee can be used to his full potential.

· The use in management of methods focused on the characteristics of interpersonal relationships.

Table 5. Positive and negative features of scientific

School of Human Relations and School of Behavioral Sciences.

School of Human Relations and School of Behavioral Sciences

Positive features: Ø Identifying the need to activate the spiritual stimuli characteristic of each person. Ø Costs per person are company assets that must be used correctly. Ø Formulating the basic requirements for selecting people for leadership positions. Ø The leader focuses on his employees. Ø Development of the theory of social management. Ø The desire to help the employee understand his own capabilities. Ø The idea of ​​harmony between labor and capital, achieved with proper motivation and taking into account the interests of all stakeholders.

Negative features: ü Lack of strict mathematical methods and specific calculations. ü The unacceptability of other methods in management other than the application of behavioral science.

Process approach

This concept, which marks a major turn in management thought, is widely used today (in the form of business process management).

The process approach was first proposed by adherents of the school of administrative management, who tried to describe the functions of a manager .

Management is seen as a process because working to achieve goals with the help of others is not a one-time action, but a series of ongoing interrelated actions . These activities, each a process in itself, are critical to the success of the organization. They are called management functions. Each management function is also a process because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions. The management process is the sum total of all functions.

Henri Fayol, who is credited with originally developing this concept, believed that there was 5 original functions. According to him, “to manage means to predict and plan, organize, motivate, coordinate and control».

REFERENCE MATERIALS

(PERSONALIES)

Ansoff Igor (Igor Ansoff) born in Russia in 1918, American, author of the famous work “Corporate Strategy” (1965). Serious, analytical and complex, the book has had a very strong impact on the world of business. It was she who made strategy much more important than before. This was followed by “Strategic Management” (1979) and “Implementing Strategic Management” (1984). Aware of the mixed success of strategic planning, Ansoff spent 11 years empirically testing his proposed “success paradigm.” This paradigm has been tested in more than 500 companies in the US, Japan, Indonesia, Algeria, Australia and Ethiopia. Statistical results fully confirmed the functionality of the paradigm.

Weber Max(1864-1920) - famous German sociologist, historian, economist, lawyer. He was a professor of political economy at the universities of Freiburg, Heidelberg, and Munich. Considering the formation of Western European capitalism, Weber assigned a decisive role in its formation to Protestantism, which was reflected in the work “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” (1904-1905). Weber is a proponent of the idea of ​​rationality in management. Of greatest interest are his ideas about the rational nature of man and organizational structures due to their importance for making management decisions. These ideas are presented in the book “Theory of Social and economic organization"(1921). He formulated the principles of the so-called bureaucratic methods of personnel management (clearly defined job responsibilities, definition of a hierarchy of interactions, formal uniform procedures in management practice, compliance with uniform regulations, strict selection of candidates, periodic certification, etc.); highly appreciated the capabilities of the bureaucracy and considered the development of the bureaucracy to be a positive prospect for the historical process. According to Weber, the ideal type of bureaucratic organization in relation to government bodies has a number of properties, namely: management activities are carried out constantly; the sphere of power and competence of each level and individual in the management apparatus has been established; hierarchy forms the basic principle of control over officials; officials are separated from ownership of the means of production; management activity is considered a special profession; management functions are documented; The principle of impersonality dominates in management.

Gastev Alexey Kapitonovich(1882-1941) - Russian scientist, public figure, poet.

In 1919 he organized the “School of Social Engineering Sciences”, in 1920 he headed Central Institute Labor (CIT), which he directed until 1938. The institute developed methods of analysis and training in labor processes, methods of organizing labor and reconstructing production.

Among the works of A. K. Gastev on the organization of labor, the following should be mentioned: “How to work” (1923), “Labor installations” (1924), “Rationing and organization of labor” (1928), “Installation of production using the CIT method” (1929) and etc.

Gastev emphasized that the most productive labor, capable of providing the necessary acceleration of technical progress, is the creative work of workers, the desire to improve production processes. He wrote that “the most perfect machine does not help if it is not born new type a worker who will be devoted with all his soul to this machine, who will extend the tendency of machinism to every bolt, to every lump and will strive to make perfect out of everything that is most imperfect.” And one more thing: “We spend time at work the best part own life. You need to learn to work in such a way that the work is easy and that it becomes a constant school of life.”

The works of A.K. Gastev are of significant scientific and practical interest; the proposals and recommendations he developed have not lost their relevance to the present day.

Gilbreth Lilian(1878-1972) - American psychologist, wife of Frank Gilbreth. Conducted experimental and theoretical research in the field of management, devoted to issues of personnel management, their scientific selection, placement, and training. In 1915, she became the first woman in US history to receive a doctorate in psychology. At a number of American enterprises, with the support of Gilbreth, personnel schools were opened, where systematic training of instructors in HOT was carried out, and work motivation based on remuneration and respect for the individual was promoted.

Gilbreth Frank(1868-1924) - American specialist in production management, one of the founders of scientific management, contemporary of F. Taylor, author of the books “The Study of Movement” (1912), “The Study of Fatigue” (1921), “Applied Study of Movement” (1925). He investigated the optimal ways to perform work using elementary movements, using for the first time photographic equipment, a movie camera, and a microchronometer for these purposes. The creator of microelement rationing (“terbling approach”), which was crucial for the further development of labor rationing. Following Taylor, he developed the best method for performing work and determined the conditions necessary for this (expedient arrangement of workplaces, rational methods of supplying materials, etc.). Gilbreth's main works (some of them written together with his wife, Liliana Gilbreth): “The Study of Movements” (1911), “The Beginnings of Scientific Management” (1912), “Fatigue Factors” (1916), “The Practical Application of Movements” (1917).

Drucker Peter Ferdinand(p. 1909) - American economist, sociologist, specialist in the field of management problems, “godfather” of modern management.

Drucker established himself as a leading theoretician of the so-called empirical school in industrial sociology, which claimed to synthesize the “classical” school of management with the doctrine of “human relations.”

Drucker is characterized by “managerial reductionism”: reducing problems modern development to the problems of managing society, understood similarly large corporation. Management, Drucker emphasizes, is a special kind of activity that turns a disorganized crowd into an effective, focused group. Modern society, according to Drucker, is a pluralistic “society of organizations, an increasing number of whose members become managers and “knowledge professionals.” This leads to a leading role in modern life management, which - in contrast to technocracy - by linking all social institutions together with its activities, must go beyond immediate benefit, making human life fruitful and forming a new quality of life for society and the economy, community and individual.

Drucker believed that the main efforts of managers and production organizers should be aimed at creating a system of interest, forming and improving effective labor motivation. At the enterprise level, this is manifested primarily in remuneration and the achievement of job satisfaction by each employee. Specific situations, specific conditions in which a manager operates, Drucker notes, are so diverse that modern theories management have turned out to be unsatisfactory from the point of view of practitioners looking for practical guidance in theory. In this regard, he formulates the foundations of a situational approach to management: the need for a specific analysis of situations in order to make the right management decisions. Drucker considers situational theory as a unifying concept and advocates turning it into a fundamental principle of management thinking, as well as training and retraining of management personnel.

Drucker opposes the idea that only the computer is called upon to play a decisive role in the scientific organization of management. He also takes a cautious position regarding the professionalization of management, pointing out that the “creative essence” of a manager’s activity, which always remains largely an art, excludes the possibility of a purely scientific solution to its specific problems.

Drucker's main works: “Management Practice”, “New Society”, “Market: How to Become a Leader. Practice and principles”, “New realities in government and politics, economics and business, in society and worldview”.

Peter Drucker is an American, the most influential thinker of the 20th century. in the field of management, author of numerous works. Particularly noteworthy in Drucker's work is his ability to identify new trends in the development of organizations and society. His ideas are almost always picked up by others. Thus, Drucker called for less hierarchical structures and leaner organizations back in the 60s of the 20th century. and returned to this problem again in the 80s, although these ideas entered the world of management only in the 90s. The most famous works: “Management Practice”, “Managing for Results”, “Management in Turbulent Times”, “Corporation Concept”, etc.

Carnegie Dale(1888-1955) - a famous American expert in the field of management, public speaking and human relations. In 1906, while still a penultimate year student teacher training college, Carnegie began giving public lectures on public speaking and the system of “human relations” to college students. Soon he won all the highest awards of the college for his lectures. After graduating from college, he continued his public speaking to a wide variety of audiences.

In 1936, Carnegie published the book How to Win Friends and Influence People. It immediately became extremely popular, and the author's name became known in almost every American home. In less than a year, more than a million copies of the book were sold, and it was published abroad in 14 languages. The book became a bestseller. 30 years later, in 1966, a course of lectures on Carnegie’s book was given in 863 cities in the USA and Canada and in 51 cities in other countries.

Carnegie developed a number of principles (rules) for people to communicate with each other. They are also important for the manager. Let's list some of them. Here are his six principles for “people-pleasing”: “Be genuinely interested in other people; smile; remember that a person's name is the sweetest and most important sound for him in any language; be a good listener, encourage others to talk about themselves; talk about what interests your interlocutor; instill in your interlocutor a sense of his importance and do it sincerely.”

Likert Rensis(1903-1981) - American sociologist. He developed the structure of an ideal, in his opinion, management organization at an enterprise. Among its main characteristics: a) leadership style, in which the leader demonstrates his trust and confidence in his subordinates; b) motivation based on the desire of managers to encourage subordinates, involving them in active work, using group forms of activity; c) communications, where information flows are directed in all directions and distributed between all levels; d) decision making is characterized by the fact that they are approved at all levels with the participation of all members of the organization; e) the goals of the organization, established through group discussion, which should remove hidden opposition to these goals; f) control, the functions of which are not concentrated in one center, but are distributed among many participants.

Levin Kurt(1890-1947) - German psychologist, worked in the USA since 1932. In 1935 he founded Harvard University Center for Group Dynamics, in 1946 at the University of Ann Arbor (Michigan) - Institute for Social Research. He developed a concept of personality, which is based on the concept of “field” borrowed from physics (the unity of the personality and its environment). One of the founders of experimental research into motivation and psychology of groups (group dynamics). Researched effective leadership styles and identified three classic style leadership (authoritarian, democratic, neutral). Lewin's research laid the foundation for behaviorist scientists' search for a style of behavior that can lead to high productivity and high levels of job satisfaction. Made a significant contribution to the development of small group psychology.

Maslow Abraham(1900-1970) - American psychologist, one of the leaders of “Humanistic Psychology”, author of the book “Motivation and Personality” (1954), dedicated to the problems of motivation and satisfaction of human needs. He developed a hierarchy of human needs, in which he devoted a large place to the needs for creativity, self-actualization of the individual, and the realization of human abilities and talents. An essential element of Maslow's theory of motivation is the statement that a person can never fully realize his goals, because, having satisfied one need, he turns to another.

Matsushita Konosuke, which at one time put on stream the production of cheap household electrical equipment, today's Japan owes many of its achievements in the economy.

Already at the age of 9, Konosuke was forced to quit school and get a job at a car repair shop to earn a living. It all started when, having found his feet and received his first practical business skills, full of original engineering ideas, Matsushita ventured at the age of 23 to open his own business. The future belongs to electricity, the aspiring businessman firmly decides for himself. Having relied on novelty and cheapness, the young owner quickly achieves expansion of the business. Radios, fans, irons, heaters with the “National” brand (from English - “national”, i.e., nationwide) became widespread in the families of ordinary Japanese even in the pre-war years.

What allowed Matsushita to prove himself a skilled manager was, first of all, his good knowledge of people and the laws of human relationships. In fact, he takes the lead in putting forward and implementing the idea of ​​“harmony of interests” between labor and capital. A significant contribution to management theory was the introduction within the conglomerate of a revolutionary innovation at that time - complete cost accounting and independence of all links of the production structure.

Since the 30s. last century to this day, the work shift of 190 thousand employees of the Matsushita empire on the Japanese islands themselves and in dozens of foreign countries begins with the choir singing the company anthem and an oral proclamation of seven value guidelines - the spiritual testament of the founder. Do not be cunning, says the first commandment, be honest; be the master of your place. This is followed by: don’t live for yesterday, constantly improve your knowledge; treat others with respect and consideration; always remember about the outside world, adapt to the laws of its development; be grateful for what you have and receive - we all borrow from society; Don’t get tired of asking: who do you work for? There is only one answer: society.

This is the cornerstone of K. Matsushita's approach to business management.

In the first place, Matsushita teaches, there must be an idea, a dream, a course... Call it whatever you want, but there must be something - something that would unite the team, unite the efforts of everyone into one common aspiration. Otherwise, no management concept can be considered valid. Further. Management is primarily the science of managing people. All entrepreneurship starts with human contacts; therefore, without being an expert in human nature, one cannot count on the actual success of the matter. From time to time it is necessary to place oneself above the narrow framework of pure calculation and monetary-commodity relations.

Relations between managers and workers. They must develop in “dynamic (read dialectical) harmony.” Stop trying to pretend that everyone is on an equal footing. After all, it is initially clear that the positions of the two sides are different (if not opposite). But there are always points of contact. The best way- not exclusion, but the maximum involvement of workers in solving the company's problems. Give a voice in the management of affairs and maintain an ongoing constructive dialogue with trade unions.

Taken together, Matsushita's theory is more humane than any of the other existing business schools in Japan.

Mayo Elton(1880-1949) - American psychologist, founder of the school of human relations in management. The essence of Mayo's concept: the work itself, the production process, are of less importance for the worker's thinking than his social and psychological position in production. According to Mayo, the main task of management is to put into service the social and psychological motives of activity, the ability of employees to create group creativity, the main motive for effective work is the atmosphere in the team, good relationships. The main ideas are as follows: a) a rigid hierarchy of subordination and bureaucratic organization are incompatible with human nature and his freedom; b) industrial managers should focus more on people than on products - this contributes to the social stability of society and individual satisfaction with their work. Proclaimed the principle of replacing individual influences with group ones, economic ones with socio-psychological ones (favorable moral climate, job satisfaction, democratic leadership style). He laid the foundations for the concept of “humanization of labor,” “education of employees,” and “group decisions.” From 1927 to 1932, he conducted a large series of experiments to study the causes of staff turnover and low productivity at a number of electrical enterprises in Hawthorne (“Hawthorne Experiments”), which marked the beginning of the study informal groups. Mayo and his collaborators were the first to view the manufacturing enterprise as a social system.

Mintzberg Henry(b. 1939) - Canadian. He became widely known thanks to the book “The Nature of Management Activity”. In his research, he shows managers as hostages of a system in which constant interference, jumping from one problem to another, and lack of special attention to individual issues are considered the norm. Instead of being isolated heads analyzing circumstances and generating carefully thought-out strategies, managers were suddenly shown as real people who, like everyone else, make mistakes from time to time. During the 1990s, Mintzberg focused his attention on strategic planning. Instead of approaching strategy as the apotheosis of rationalism, he proposed the now famous term “artisan strategy,” which refers to the idea that it is created as deliberately and carefully as a potter makes his pot. Strategy, according to Mintzberg, “manifests itself” through organizational diffusion rather than being implemented by a group of strategists.

Peters Tom(b. 1942) - American, management consultant and writer. His book In Search of Excellence, written with Robert Waterman, is the best-selling book on management. Its popularity largely determined the increased demand for books on management in the market, and its influence on practical activities remains enormous today. An important element The book was the concept of the “seven S” (seven S framework). The beauty of this model is that its components are very simple and easy to remember. The main idea of ​​the model is the way an organization achieves success. The concepts presented in the book In Search of Excellence are now widely accepted in the language and practice of management. Of the subsequent works, “Liberal Management” should be mentioned. In it, the author demonstrates good knowledge of the world's major corporations, which are characterized by “advancement” and “innovation.” The essence of the author's message is that the corporate revolution is not limited to changing the place where the director's car is parked, but is real and affects literally everyone.

Sloan Alfred(1875-1966) - CEO and President Emeritus of General Motors from 1917 to 1966. Sloan's triumph lies in the fact that he was able to prove the viability of a decentralized structure. He believed that top-level managers perform three functions: they decide on the company's strategy, determine its structure, and select control systems. The new General Motors became a management model that other business structures began to duplicate.

Taylor Winslow Frederick(1856-1915) - founder of the school of scientific management, American practical engineer and manager. In 1875, Taylor went to work in a workshop in Philadelphia, where he served as a mechanic and model maker. Three years later, he got a job at the Midvale Steel Company, where he quickly advanced from simple mechanics to chief engineer. In 1883, while studying by correspondence, Taylor received a diploma in mechanical engineering. He was an outstanding inventor and received more than 100 patents during his life. Most famous is the creation of high-speed steel by him and White.

While still working at Midvale, Taylor began to introduce principles into labor organization and production process management that later became part of the scientific management system. Since 1890, Taylor worked as the general manager of a company that produced paper fiber, and since 1893, as a management consulting engineer at several enterprises. In 1898-1901. Taylor worked exclusively at the Bethlehem Steel Company, where he actively introduced his innovations.

Taylor became widely known in 1912 after his speech at the hearings of the House Select Committee on the Study of Shop Management Systems.

Before Taylor, management meant the most unexpected things, right down to the technology for manufacturing a particular product. He was the first to give this concept the qualitative definition of “organization of production” or, to take a broader aspect, “rational organization in general.”

In his main work, “The Scientific Organization of Labor” (1911), Taylor formulated a number of postulates that were called “Taylorism.” Instead of vague and rather contradictory principles of management, Taylor put forward a strict scientific system of knowledge about the laws of rational organization of labor, the constituent elements of which are a mathematical method of calculating costs, a differential system of remuneration, a method of studying time and movements (timing), a method of dividing and rationalizing labor techniques, instructions cards and much more. Summarizing the essence of his system, Taylor wrote: “Science instead of traditional skills; harmony instead of contradictions; collaboration instead of individual work; maximum performance instead of limiting performance; development of each individual worker to the maximum permissible productivity and maximum well-being.”

Taylorism is based on four principles (rules of management): 1) the creation of a scientific foundation that replaces old, purely practical methods of work, Scientific research each individual type of work activity; 2) selection of workers and managers based on scientific criteria, their vocational selection and vocational training; 3) cooperation between the administration and workers in the practical implementation of NOT; 4) equal and fair distribution of duties (responsibilities) between workers and managers.

Frederick Taylor is the largest representative of American and world management thought, one of the founders of the scientific organization of labor (SLO) and production management, which became widespread first in the USA and then throughout the industrial world. In his works, such as “Scientific Foundations of the Organization of Industrial Enterprises”, “Scientific Organization of Labor”, etc., Taylor formulated new principles of remuneration and enterprise management, based on deep specialization and rationalization of labor operations. He came up with the idea of ​​functional management, designed to displace the linear system. An important element of Taylor's management scheme was the creation of such divisions in the structure of the enterprise as planning and distribution departments. For the first time in the world practice of labor organization and management, he formulated the task of studying the elements of time and establishing norms and tasks, developed his own wage system, abolishing equalization, substantiated the need for constant study of labor movements, and introduced the technological documentation he developed. Taylor's rationalistic concept of organizing personnel management has grown into the classical school of management, which presupposes the following principles of management: individual employee responsibility for the performance of job duties and tasks; strict division of areas of activity; priority of individual forms of organization and stimulation of labor; the use of rational techniques and methods of work according to the criterion of minimum time for their implementation; labor rationing; the predominance of economic incentives over all other types; authoritarian leadership style.

Fayol Henry(1841-1925) - French researcher and founder of the so-called “classical administrative” school of management, a well-known specialist in the field of management.

After graduating from the lyceum and mining school, Fayol entered the service of a large mining and metallurgical company. In 1888, Fayol took over the management of the company, which was on the verge of bankruptcy, and within thirty years made it one of the most prosperous enterprises in France.

After retiring in 1918, Fayol headed the Center for Administrative Research that he created (later merged, with his consent, with the French organization of Taylor's followers). He argued that the management principles he discovered were applicable not only in the economy, but also in government services, in the army and navy, that is, they were universal.

Fayol is considered the most outstanding European of the first half of the 20th century, who made an invaluable contribution to the theory of scientific management with his book “General and Industrial Management” (1916). Fayol divides all operations that are found in organizations into six groups: technical (production, dressing and processing); commercial (purchase, sale and exchange); financial (raising funds and managing them); insurance (insurance and protection of property and persons); accounting (accounting, costing, accounting, statistics, etc.) and administrative. Whatever the enterprise: simple or complex, small or large, these six groups of operations, Fayol notes, are always found in it. All of them are closely dependent on each other. Of all operations, Fayol singles out administrative ones.

Fayol proposed a formalized description of the work of managers in organizations, highlighting their characteristic activities or functions: planning, organization, management, coordination and control.

Fayol developed an “administrative theory”, the basis of which is formed by 14 rules, applicable, in his opinion, to all areas of administrative activity without exception: division of labor, power, discipline, unity of command, unity of leadership, subordination of individual interests to the general interest, remuneration, centralization, scalar chain (line of authority), order, equality, stability of personnel positions, initiative and corporate spirit. Fayol also calls these rules the principles of management, which he proposes to guide when solving management problems and performing the manager’s functions.

Among all the means of influencing subordinates to strengthen discipline, Fayol considers the personal example of a manager to be one of the most powerful. Among the qualities necessary for a manager, Fayol invariably emphasized competence and knowledge.

Unlike technocrats, Fayol did not exaggerate the role of technical knowledge. We, Fayol emphasized, can confidently say that exclusively technical education does not meet the general needs of enterprises. Management does not even appear in the teaching programs of higher engineering schools.

If the main “installation” of the worker, Fayol emphasized, is the technical “installation,” then the main “installation” of the manager is the administrative “installation.” “As we rise up the hierarchical ladder,” writes Fayol, “the relative importance of the administrative “set” increases, while the relative importance of the technical “set” decreases.”

Henri Fayol - French economist, representative of scientific management, entrepreneur, organizer. He developed and deepened a number of important concepts of scientific management. Fayol's most important ideas are presented in the book “General and Industrial Management” (1916). He laid the foundations for the methodology of modern management and personnel management, and developed the foundations of functional management. Divided the entire range of work on managing an industrial company into six main groups. Administrative activities of the management apparatus: planning, organization, leadership, coordination; commercial activities: purchase, sale, exchange; technical and production activities: production, finishing, testing, control; financial activities: implementation of financial control; occupational health and safety activities; activities to record the state of affairs in production. Fayol developed a process concept of management, identifying six management functions (prediction, planning, organization, distribution, coordination, control). He put forward and substantiated the position on the optimal balance of organizational, technical and social abilities and knowledge among people working in large enterprises. Justified the need to separate management into a special type of activity. Formulated 14 basic principles, the observance of which ensures effective management. This is the division of labor; power and responsibility; discipline; unity of management and leadership; subordination of private interests to general ones; reward and centralization; scalar chain and hierarchy; order and justice; stable staff composition; initiative and corporate spirit. Fayol was the first to pose the problem of organized management training. His ideas about building a perfect, capable of self-development social organization resonate with modern ideas in management.

Follett Mary Parker (Follett Mary P.)(1863-1933) - American researcher of the psychological aspects of management. Studied social and psychological relationships in small groups. Author of the book “Freedom and Coordination” (1949), in which she outlined her views on power, conflict resolution, and the functional unity of organizational structures. She defined management as “ensuring that work gets done with the help of others” and put forward the idea of ​​harmony between labor and capital, which can be achieved with proper motivation and taking into account the interests of all parties. I tried to combine three schools of management (classical, administrative, human relations) into a single whole. She believed that a manager should abandon formal relationships and be a leader recognized by employees. Being a supporter of the formal theory, according to which power in the hierarchy is directed from top to bottom, she at the same time considered any power to be “functional” (situational) depending on the position occupied and the work performed. She has worked as a consultant to many large corporations.

Ford Henry(1863-1947) - American industrialist, “king” of the US automobile industry, one of the creators of management.

Born into the family of a Michigan farmer, an emigrant from Ireland. At the age of 15, he left school and became a mechanic's apprentice in Detroit. A craving for mechanics and ingenuity manifested itself in him very early.

In 1893 Ford became the chief engineer of the Edison Company, which specialized in lighting in Detroit, and in 1899, the chief engineer of the Detroit Automobile Company, from which he left in 1902. A year later, he founded the Ford Motor Company. By this time, Ford already had a reputation as an inventor of high-speed car models, gained through the participation of his cars in car racing. In 1906, Ford acquired a controlling interest in his company.

Ford's real triumph was the introduction of the Model T, which meant a change in all guidelines in the concept of the automotive industry. Mass production required standardization and unification of all technological processes. “Terror of the machine” - this is how Ford characterized the control system he introduced. A clear control and planning system, conveyor production, continuous technological chains - all this contributed to the fact that the Ford empire operated in automatic mode.

In 1945, Ford handed over leadership of the company to his grandson and namesake, Henry Ford II, and retired. Ford died two years later.

In his books “My Life, My Achievements” (Russian translation, 1924) and “Today and Tomorrow,” Ford developed a theory called “Fordism.” Fordism is a system of organizing mass production. It was based on the introduction of conveyor assembly, which, along with other technical innovations (unification of parts, product typification, etc.) sharply increased the growth of labor productivity and reduced production costs. Ford considered it necessary: ​​to pay each worker well and ensure that he worked all 48 hours a week, but no more; ensure the best condition of all machines, insist on absolute cleanliness, teach people to respect tools, the environment and themselves. Fundamentally important is Ford's statement that the industry must have its own generals, and highly qualified generals at that. Following Taylor, he is an active supporter of the large-scale use of diverse scientific knowledge in the organization of production and management.

A special pathos is inherent in Ford's words that America lives by work, that it has talented people, and therefore the most important task of businessmen is to create conditions through which the capabilities of its people can fully manifest themselves. Not individual people or some social strata, but the largest number of them. As Ford writes, one of the purposes of industry is not only to supply consumers, but also to create them. It is a known fact that in 1914 Ford introduced the highest wages at his factories, which caused the indignation of many entrepreneurs. His explanation on this matter was as follows: if workers do not earn good money, they will not be able to be active consumers of our goods, and therefore the same middle class will not appear in America, on whose social stability the dynamic development of the country’s economy depends.

Speculators, Ford noted, are unable to create socially significant values; those who like to take advantage of the moment and inflate prices are engaged in the same criminal activity as profiting from wars is criminal. Such people, in his opinion, are most often ignorant in business, because they believe that the highest business wisdom is to make money as quickly as possible and by any means necessary.

At all Ford enterprises the principle prevails: heavy work is on the shoulders of the machines; a strict requirement for organizing production is the prompt implementation of the best scientific and technical innovations; cleanliness, hygiene, comfort are mandatory parameters of the working environment; strict consideration of the psychophysiological characteristics of workers when assigning them to monotonous and creative operations.

Industrial organization, Ford argued, is a science, and all other sciences serve this purpose. And the author himself was an example of the widespread use of a wide variety of knowledge in entrepreneurial activity.

Ford's historical place can best be shown by comparing his views with those of Taylor and Fayol. “Taylor,” noted A. Gastev, “developed certain organizational mechanics. Ford, with an unusual technical revolutionism, resolved the issue of Taylorism in such a way that he replaced people with pure technology. Ford replaced unskilled transport workers and all kinds of unregulated inferior labor with machines. The Ford plant represents the highest type of administrative automaton. Therefore, Ford is the very last word of Taylorism, Ford is Taylor, who literally replaced human organization with steel.”

The theory of scientific enterprise management “from below”, according to Taylor, combined with the theory of enterprise management “from above”, according to Fayol, the practical application of these theories by Ford with his discoveries created the foundation of management. Actually, these three “pillars” - Taylor, Fayol and Ford - are the founders of modern management.

Henry Ford is an American entrepreneur and founder of the automobile industry. Born into a family of Irish immigrants. From the age of 15 he worked as a mechanic. In 1899 he became chief engineer of the Detroit Automobile Company. In 1903 he founded the Ford Motor Company (since 1906 - owner of a controlling stake). Supporter of the large-scale use of diverse scientific knowledge in the organization of production and management. Organized mass production of cars based on the use of conveyor lines, standardization and unification of technological processes, a clear control and planning system, and the creation of continuous technological chains. Developed a technical service network. By 1921, Ford controlled 56% of the automobile market. He was the first to establish a minimum wage and an 8-hour working day in his factories. Ford was a supporter of paternalistic relations between managers and subordinates. One of the first vocational schools in the United States was created at his factories. Took measures to improve the social status of workers. For the first time, a sociological service with a staff of 60 people was created to study the working, living, and leisure conditions of workers. He ignored the actions of trade unions, which led to a protracted conflict with them in 1937-1941. At the end of the 20s, the Ford company lost its leading position. Ford developed a theory called “Fordism” and outlined in his books “My Achievements,” “My Life,” and “Today and Tomorrow.” Ford was engaged in political activities that were predominantly scandalous.

Emerson Harrington(1853-1931) combined the sophistication of an intellectual and the passion of an entrepreneur. He was born on August 2, 1853 in the American city of Trenton, received excellent education and at the age of 23 headed the linguistics department at the University of Nebraska.

Six years later, Emerson left his academic career and went into banking and real estate. Then, from 1885 to 1891, Emerson carried out economic and engineering studies for the railroad. Later he represented the interests of a British syndicate in the USA, Mexico and Canada. For some time he ran a glass manufacturing company.

Emerson's analytical talent helped him creatively use the wealth of experience that practice gave him. Gradually he came to key concept its concept - “efficiency”, or in the Russian version - “productivity”. By this term he meant the optimal relationship between total costs and economic results. In 1900, his book “Productivity as a Basis for Management and Remuneration” was published, and in 1912 the main work of his life, “The Twelve Principles of Productivity,” was published.

Since 1901, Emerson began his activities as a professional management consultant. Of particular note are the innovations that he introduced in 1904-1907. on the railway. His words that American railroads could save more than a million dollars a day by following this path instantly spread throughout the country. They made headlines and overnight made famous the idea of ​​“scientific management,” previously perceived as an obscure doctrine cultivated by a group of enthusiastic engineers.

From 1907 to 1923 he headed the Emerson Company of Efficiency Engineers (a term he coined). He was practically the first who drew attention to the problem of the principles of scientific selection and training of employees and even published (in 1913) a book on this topic.

“To work hard,” Emerson believed, “means to apply maximum effort to a task; To be productive means to put in minimal effort.” Following this principle, he retained his rare working capacity and mobility until old age.

Emerson is an American management researcher and industrial organizer. Developed a comprehensive systems approach to the organization of management. Formulated the fundamental principles of scientific management, which are presented in the book “The Twelve Principles of Productivity” (1912): precisely set goals; common sense; competent consultation; discipline; fair treatment of staff; prompt, reliable, complete, accurate and permanent accounting; dispatching; norms and schedule; normalization of conditions; rationing of operations; written standard instructions; reward for productive work. Emerson was the first to draw attention to the problem of the principles of the scientific approach and the training of employees.

Iacocca Lee(p. 1924) - the embodiment of success, efficiency, self-confidence. The president of the Chrysler automobile company, who saved it from collapse and brought it back to life. A legendary man, included in the top ten most popular figures in the United States in 1989.

Lee Iacocca was born in America, into a family of Italian immigrants. His business “career” began at the age of ten: after school, he worked as a delivery boy in one of the first supermarkets in the United States. A little later - a permanent job with a greengrocer on Saturdays and Sundays, for 16 hours of work - 2 dollars and a wallet with vegetables and fruits.

The biggest shock was the years of the Great Depression, when the family, barely getting back on its feet, went bankrupt. “I was seven years old at the time, but the anxiety about the future is still alive in my brain. Hard times are indelible, they remain forever, recalls Lee Iacocca. - No matter how my financial affairs are, the years of collapse have not disappeared from my consciousness. To this day, I don't like spending money. When narrow ties give way to wide ones, I still keep them until fashion returns. I still get furious when food or a half-eaten piece of meat is thrown away.”

Lee Iacocca's business acumen showed early. Success came with the idea of ​​selling cars in installments, then there was a meteoric rise to the heights of the presidency of the Ford company and an even more dizzying fall, until he was fired from his job.

And again jump forward and up. This time to the presidential bridge of the Chrysler concern. In difficult times, on the eve of complete bankruptcy, he borrowed from the state, reorganized the company, fired about two thousand people from the administrative apparatus, invited all employees to tighten their belts and himself refused a salary of a million dollars a year.

The human factor in business is Lee Iacocca’s area of ​​interest, the secret of his success entrepreneurial activity. It is known what role Henry Ford I played in organizing mass production based on the four discoveries of his predecessors. These discoveries are the interchangeability of product parts, the conveyor, the fragmentation of work operations, and the elimination of unnecessary movements by the worker. Ultimately, the essence of progress, according to Ford, is the transformation of man into a machine, into its appendage. Lee Iacocca, on the contrary, returns again to the humanization of industrial relations, to the development of incentives, and the employee’s interest in the success of the entire enterprise. He places emphasis on improving the management system, organizing production, and implementing new ideas.

“There is a characteristic of any manager,” said Lee Iacocca, “no matter how capable he may be, a characteristic that I do not tolerate. Here it is: “He doesn’t have good relationships with people.” I find this characterization damning. Doesn't he know how to deal with people? Consequently, he found himself in a most difficult position, for here lies the very essence of management. If he is not able to properly build relationships with his own kind, then what good is he to the company? His only purpose as a leader is to encourage other people to act. If he doesn’t know how to do this, he is therefore out of place.”

Lee Iacocca is a well-known representative of the US business world. Born into a family of Italian immigrants. Since 1946, he worked at Ford Motor Company, progressing from a trainee engineer to the president of the company (1968). In 1978, after a conflict with Henry Ford II, he left Ford Motor. In the same year, he headed the Chrysler automobile company, which was on the verge of bankruptcy. By 1983, Chrysler, under Iacocca's leadership, had successfully overcome financial difficulties. His autobiography “Manager's Career” (1984) became widely known, which sets out the story of the salvation of the Chrysler company (Iacocca places the main emphasis on creating a “team” of experienced and young production workers and managers, the principles of building a central management apparatus, overcoming it bureaucratization, involvement of workers in solving production problems), Iacocca’s views on the problems of the American economy and ways to overcome them, and on the formation of industrial policy are presented.