Features of Western European culture of the 19th century. Western European culture of the 19th century

Introduction.
The culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. This is the period of the appearance of works that have become a huge cultural asset and a conquest of human genius, although the conditions of development were complex and contradictory. Factors that influenced the main processes and directions artistic creativity, were varied.
Among the socio-economic and political factors Social revolutions and the revolutionary movement were of decisive importance. In the 19th century, bourgeois revolutions swept many European countries. They contributed to the establishment and development of capitalism, the solution of pressing historical problems, and awakened in progressive humanity the desire for freedom from social oppression and injustice.
The industrial revolution, which ended in the 19th century, had a huge impact on the development of the Western European world. Its immediate result is an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. The development of production stimulated the rapid development of science. R. Mayer, J. Joule, G. Helmholtz discovered the laws of conservation and transformation of energy, providing a unified basis for all branches of physics and chemistry. A. Einstein created the theory of relativity, M. Planck - quantum theory, which led to a breakthrough in the field of the microworld and high speeds. Many other great discoveries have been made in various fields of science. The creation of the steam locomotive, internal combustion engine, telephone, radio, and cinema revolutionized science and technology. The formation of an industrial society began. Industrial production played a great civilizing role.
In the 19th century, significant development of philosophical thought was achieved. It was prepared by the teachings of I. Kant and I. Fichte. Based on their provisions, a romantic theory was created, the foundations of an objective-idealistic philosophy were laid, formalized in the harmonious teaching of F.V. Schelling. The objective-idealistic concept was further developed in the works of the greatest German philosopher G. Hegel, who gave it completeness in the form of the basic laws of dialectics. In contrast to Hegel’s positions, an idealistic concept arose at the same time, the supporters of which were F. R. de Chateaubriand and A. Schopenhauer.
The 19th century gave the world K. Marx and F. Engels, who created the materialist doctrine in the middle of the century. They, using Hegelian dialectics, developed the concept of historical materialism. Their teaching went down in history under the name “Marxism”.
Influential in the 19th century was the philosophical movement of O. Comte, who was the founder of positivism - the doctrine according to which only empirical knowledge based on experience and its accurate description can be true knowledge.
In the 19th century, under the influence of atheistic tendencies in society, the church experienced a serious crisis. New religions are penetrating into Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, and secularization of education are being born. These processes undermine the influence of religion on society.
Thus, the great shifts that took place at the beginning of the 19th century in the development of philosophy, science and technology had a huge impact on the development of literature and art Western Europe. A common feature of world culture at this time was the steady growth of international cultural exchange. This was facilitated by the rapid development of world economic contacts, improvement of means of transport, communications and mutual information.
Let us consider the essence and content of various trends in the development of European culture in the 19th century.

1. FEATURES OF WESTERN EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY.
The culture of this period is characterized by reflection internal contradictions bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the beginning of alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time.
In the 19th century There is a radical revolution associated with the appearance of the machine, which alienates man from nature, breaking the usual ideas about his dominant role, and turns man into a creature dependent on the machine. In conditions of intensifying mechanization, a person goes to the periphery of spiritual life, breaks away from his spiritual foundations. The place of craft work associated with the personality and creativity of the master was taken by monotonous labor.
Spiritual culture XIX V. developed and functioned under the influence of two important factors: successes in the field of philosophy and natural science. The leading dominant culture of the 19th century. there was science.
Various value orientations were based on two starting positions: the establishment and affirmation of the values ​​of the bourgeois way of life, on the one hand, and the critical rejection of bourgeois society, on the other. Hence the emergence of such dissimilar phenomena in the culture of the 19th century: romanticism, critical realism, symbolism, naturalism, positivism, etc. European culture of the 19th century. is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society represents, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in the depth of penetration into the existence and spiritual world of man and the creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art. In the development of philosophy of the 19th century. Three defining directions can be distinguished: classical German philosophy, dialectical-materialist philosophy, philosophy of positivism.
German classical philosophy represents the most important achievement of bourgeois philosophical thought. Being the ideology of the German bourgeoisie, historically progressive for its time, it reflected both the unique conditions for the development of capitalism in Germany at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, as well as the major socio-economic changes that took place in the more developed countries of Europe.
The formation of German classical philosophy took place under the influence of revolutionary changes in France, the industrial revolution in England, and the peculiarities of the socio-political situation in Germany, which was in economic stagnation. The philosophical thought of Germany reflected the peculiarities of the worldview of its time and did not represent a single whole. I. Kant was a dualist, I. Fichte was a subjective idealist, F. Schelling and G. Hegel were objective idealists, L. Feuerbach was a materialist and an atheist. But they were united by a line of succession. The core line of development of German classical philosophy was the study of forms of universality, which in Kant and Fichte were considered as forms of thinking, in Schelling and Hegel - as forms of being, reality, spiritual reality. Classical German philosophy is united by the idea of ​​development, dialectics. Classical German philosophy is completed by the greatest materialist L. Feuerbach, whose philosophical system was formed on the basis of the Hegelian school. This philosophy determined the thinking of the century and became the methodological basis for the development of spiritual culture in the 19th century. Its problems are, first of all, human problems, solved through the creation of a systematic picture of the world. The systems of “world-man” relations proposed by German philosophers, almost all (except for the ideas of L. Feuerbach) are idealistic in their attempt to once and for all explain the place and purpose of man. A huge achievement of German classical philosophy is the doctrine of development, dialectics, which took the form of scientific knowledge and became a research method.
A significant contribution to the development of culture is made by Marxist philosophy and Marxist theory, which left their mark on the philosophical and artistic thinking of the 19th century. The program document - the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” - presented a new worldview that extended to the area of ​​social life. Creatively reworking the ideas of classical German philosophy, English political economy, French and English utopian socialism, Marx and Engels discovered the laws of social development and showed the proletariat a scientifically based path to improve the conditions of its existence. In addition, the philosophy of Marxism has historical and cultural significance for the development of any scientific research, including research in the field of culture. The method of dialectical materialism, a universal method for studying a developing natural, conceivable or social object, is based on this theory. Based on this method, realistic art turned to reflecting the contradictions of the inner world of man and its contradictory connections with the processes of social life. The fate of Marxism is dramatic, but its role in culture is undeniable. Positivist consciousness developed under the influence of positivist philosophy. The conflict between humanistic ideals and prosaic everyday life resulted in the recognition of a scientific fact. Positivism relied on the philosophy of the New Age, on the program of practical dominance of science as a rational system of experimental reliable knowledge, discarding metaphysical ideas and becoming the forerunner of scientism. In the development of critical trends in the culture of the 19th century. there were two stages. The first was associated with the revolutionary movement, the second - with the emergence and spread of socialist ideas and the spiritual crisis of bourgeois society, that is, with disbelief in the possibility of spiritual progress, in the feasibility of humanistic ideals. All this led to the emergence of pessimism, apathy, and indifference, which was reflected in such forms of artistic culture as impressionism, naturalism, symbolism, aestheticism and decadence.
Impressionism developed under the influence of positivism. Focusing on the precise fixation of a “fact” (a moment in the depiction of reality) and refusing broad generalizations, the worldview of impressionism was unable to acquire stable patterns. This trend was based on the latest scientific discoveries in the field of biology, physiology, physics and chemistry, in the field of studying sound and visual sensations, naturalism.
The influence of positivism was most clearly manifested in it. His credo is “nature as it is.” Naturalists rejected the arbitrariness of the imagination and compared the work of writers and artists with the work of nature researchers - naturalists. The result of such activity is observation through temperament. A literal reflection of the biological aspect of human life was expressed in the profanation of art, which predetermined its scandalous success among the bourgeoisie, in the emergence of the aesthetics of “physiological art.”
But the most significant shift in the spiritual culture of the 19th century. and the life of society was the formation of romanticism, which claimed a holistic worldview and style of thinking along with others - classicism and realism.
Romanticism is a phenomenon generated by the bourgeois system. As a worldview and style of artistic creativity, it reflects its contradictions: the gap between what should be and what is, ideal and reality. The awareness of the unrealizability of humanistic ideals and values ​​of the Enlightenment gave rise to two alternative ideological positions. The essence of the first is to despise base reality and withdraw into the shell of pure ideals. The essence of the second is to recognize empirical reality and discard all speculation about the ideal. The starting point of the romantic worldview is open rejection of reality, recognition of the insurmountable gap between ideals and real existence, the unreasonableness of the world of things.
It is characterized by a negative attitude towards reality, pessimism, interpretation of historical forces as being outside the real everyday reality, mystification and mythologization. All this prompted the search for resolution of contradictions not in the real world, but in the world of fantasy.
The romantic worldview covered all spheres of spiritual life - science, philosophy, art, religion. It was expressed in two ways:
The first - in it the world appeared as an endless, faceless, cosmic subjectivity. The creative energy of the spirit acts here as the beginning that creates world harmony. This version of the romantic worldview is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, and sublime feelings.
The second is that human subjectivity is considered individually and personally, understood as the inner, self-absorbed world of a person in conflict with the outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism, a lyrically sad attitude towards the world.
The original principle of romanticism was “two worlds”: comparison and contrast of the real and imaginary worlds. The way to express this dual world was symbolism.
Romantic symbolism represented an organic combination of the illusory and real worlds, which manifested itself in the appearance of metaphor, hyperbole, and poetic comparisons. Romanticism, despite its close connection with religion, was characterized by humor, irony, and dreaminess. Romanticism declared music to be the model and norm for all areas of art, in which, according to the romantics, the very element of life, the element of freedom and the triumph of feelings, sounded.
The emergence of romanticism was due to a number of factors. Firstly, socio-political: the French Revolution of 1769-1793, the Napoleonic Wars, the War of Independence of Latin America. Secondly, economic: the industrial revolution, the development of capitalism. Thirdly, it was formed under the influence of classical German philosophy. Fourthly, it developed on the basis and within the framework of existing literary styles: enlightenment, sentimentalism.
Romanticism flourished between 1795 and 1830. - the period of European revolutions and national liberation movements, and romanticism manifested itself especially clearly in the culture of Germany, England, Russia, Italy, France, and Spain.
The romantic tendency had a great influence in the humanities, and the positivist tendency in the natural sciences, technology and practice.
The term “realism” should be understood in two ways: as a historically defined direction, a type of artistic thinking and as a truthful, objective reflection of reality (in the language of a particular art). Realism evolved from primitive forms of culture. As an artistic method, realism arose in the depths of romanticism in the first third of the 19th century, when the principle of truthful depiction was established in Europe as an opponent to romanticism.
Therefore, in realism, the subject of the image is not the world of fantasy and dreams, but modern reality. The importance of realism in culture is difficult to overestimate.
Critical realism. In the second half of the 19th century. becomes the dominant artistic thinking and method. Critical realism does not at all mean a negative attitude towards reality. This is a form of opposition to the existing (dominant) ideology. The leading role in critical realism belongs to literature. A realistic reflection of reality is determined not by one or another technique, but by a general attitude to reality, that is, artistic truth, which includes two sides: a truthful reflection of existing aspects of life and truth, compliance with the aesthetic ideal. In the first half of the 19th century. realism functioned in close connection with romanticism.
Romanticism in Germany. The basic principles of the literary theory of romanticism were formulated by F. Schlegel and Novalis. F. Schlegel was the first to develop the theory of romantic irony, one of the most brilliant and original creations of the romantic genius. Novalis's aesthetic views are expressed in the theory of art, which should connect the real with the ideal and should strive for universality. A special place in the romantic literature of Germany belongs to Heinrich Kleist and Ernst Hoffmann.
Realism in Germany. It did not manifest itself as clearly as in other European countries, but among the representatives of this trend it is worth mentioning Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), Georg Buchner (1813-1856), who strived for a certain idealization of reality.
Romanticism in England. The most prominent figure among the romantics of England should be considered George Gordon Byron (1788-1824), one of the greatest lyric poets in world literature. Among the outstanding English romantics are Percy Shelley (1792-1822) and Walter Scott (1871 -1892). The English romantics affirmed optimism, the pathos of the struggle against tyranny and religious fanaticism; their works clearly showed an epic element, passionate journalism, and realistic tendencies.
Realism in England. It is distinguished by great originality - pronounced didacticism and critical realism. The most famous English realist writers were Charles Dickens (1812-1870) and William Thackeray (1811 -1863). The romantic movement in English literature is represented by the works of the sisters Charlotte and Emilia Bronte.
Romanticism in France. Its development was influenced by the Great French Revolution, classicism and the Enlightenment. The emergence of romantic ideas is associated with the names of J. de Stael and F. R. de Chateaubriand. The pinnacle of French romanticism is the work of V. Hugo, P. Merimee, J. Sand, and others. In their works, romantic aesthetics is combined with subtle psychologism and strength of character.
Realism in France. It goes through several stages in its development and is characterized by an instant response to significant events in social life. The works of Stendhal, Honore de Balzac, and Postav Flaubert can be considered among the most striking manifestations of realism in France.
2. THE FLOWERING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY
In the 19th century arose A New Look on the educational process. Pestalozzi put forward the idea of ​​developmental education. This type of education is designed to encourage children to develop independently. The essence of developmental education is the close connection between mental education and moral education. The most important position of Pestalozzi's pedagogy is the connection of learning with production work.
The outstanding German teacher A. Disterweg expressed the idea of ​​universal education, which is based on the principles of natural conformity, cultural conformity, and self-activity. You need to listen and heed the voice of nature, act in alliance with it. It is necessary to take into account the conditions, place, time of birth and life of a person.
It is necessary to develop creative activity aimed at serving beauty, goodness, and truth.
Gradually, a system of didactic rules emerged and the basis of the didactics of developmental education was consolidated. Scientific revolution of the 19th century. preceded by outstanding discoveries in science in the 17th-18th centuries. and its formation as a social institution. Thanks to the works of N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, F. Bzkon, R. Descartes, I. Newton, I. Kepler, a new picture of the world was formed. The emergence of experimental knowledge and a rationalistic type of thinking contributed to its subsequent streamlining in the 19th century. It becomes a scientific system that studies the processes of origin and development of objects, phenomena, organisms and their connections. Fundamentally new was the approval of the idea of ​​development and the principle of interconnection in nature, i.e., the emergence of the principles of dialectics in scientific research. A scientific experiment in mechanics led to the establishment of a connection between science and production. Engineering and technology were developed on the basis of mechanics, physics and mathematics.
Science of the 19th century marked by a revolution in chemistry. Discoveries in this area led to the emergence of chemical statistics by J. Dalton, who showed that each element of nature is a collection of atoms that are strictly identical to each other and have the same atomic weight. Thanks to this theory, ideas of systemic development of processes penetrated into chemistry. I. Berzelius discovers the law of multiple ratios and its extension to organic matter, which helped to establish the connection between objects of the organic and inorganic world. In 1828, F. Weller developed a process for producing urea from inorganic substances, which confirmed this connection in practice. Thanks to the inorganic production of compounds that had hitherto been produced only by living organisms, it was proven that the laws of chemistry apply the same force to organic bodies as to inorganic ones.
An important discovery of the 19th century. is the law on the cell and cell formation by T. Schwenn and M. Schleiden, who created the cell theory and pointed out the unity of the cellular structure of plants and animals in 1838-1839.
M. Lomonosov's ideas about the conservation and transformation of energy were consolidated by the discoveries of R. Meyer, J. Lenz, and W. Grove. The law was discovered in different areas of nature. The discovery of this law was based on the recognition of the unity of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the movement of matter. It can rightfully be considered the second great discovery of the 19th century.
The third great discovery of the 19th century. associated with the name of Charles Darwin, who published the book “The Origin of Species” in 1854, where the evolutionary theory was substantiated. The theory of natural selection, during which the strongest organisms survive, constantly quarrel with each other and then pass on their characteristics by inheritance, later led to the emergence of the field of genetic research. A complex process takes place in nature, representing the interaction of three factors: the struggle for existence, variability, and heredity. Darwin's theory proves that all species of animals and plants are related to each other genetically by their origin and are in a state of constant change and development.
Scientific discoveries of the 19th century. have compiled a huge body of knowledge that has extraordinary depth and space for further research. This contributed to a change in worldview and changed many inert views on nature and its connection with man, giving rise to new way thinking - dialectical-materialistic.
Depending on the context, industrial society can be designated as “bourgeois”, “capitalist”, “technically developed”, “modern”, etc. A truly functioning industrial system combines its various principles and structures. Because of this, the term “industrial” is accepted as summarizing the diversity of socio-economic options of modern society.
The most characteristic feature of an industrial society is that production in it is based on the predominance of accumulated labor (capital) over living labor. Accumulated labor takes the form of means of production - technologies, tools, resources, etc., secured in the form of property of any type. Labor is skilled and specialized; developed production means a high degree of division of labor
The second most important characteristic industrial society, which K. Marx, E. Durkheim, and M. Weber paid attention to, lies in the deep duality and contradictory principles of its social organization:
- in the contradiction between the ever-deepening division of labor or the increasing differences between in different parts society and the need to maintain interaction and unity;
- in contradictions related to the social-class stratification of society, which causes social tension and class struggle.
In the formation of bourgeois society in Europe, the principles of bourgeois ethics, developed and ordered within the framework of the religious system, played an important guiding role. Both Protestantism and Catholicism contributed to this. Over time, the scope of religious regulation shrank, giving way to secular principles and norms.
An important shift in the culture of Western Europe was the establishment of the principle of realism in ideology, art, and philosophy. The mythological and religious worldview is replaced by recognition of reality, which requires taking into account circumstances and overcoming illusions. Utilitarian thinking, closely tied to the needs of real life, was affirmed. In social life, the autonomy of the church and state-political authorities was formed, and stable bourgeois relations were established in each social layer.
Throughout the XIX - XX centuries. in bourgeois society, specialized value orientations are developed and the high prestige of entrepreneurship is introduced into the public consciousness. Ideological guidelines affirm the image of a successful person, embodying the spirit of enterprise, determination, risk-taking, combined with accurate calculation, and the combination of the spirit of entrepreneurship with the national spirit turns out to be an important means of cohesion of society. The establishment of national unity meant the smoothing out of internal differences, barriers, and borders. At the state level, various programs are being implemented aimed at mitigating the consequences of social stratification, ensuring the survival and maintaining the status of low-income segments of the population.
Interstate relations of European countries strove for sociocultural pluralism, although the struggle for independence and autonomous rights led to long and bloody wars. Sometimes the rivalry extended to colonial spaces.
The level of centralization, political and spiritual monopoly gradually decreased, which ultimately contributed to the strengthening of pluralism. The interaction of various centers of influence created a pluralistic system in which the regulation of relations was developed on the basis of the mutual relationship of rights and obligations. Such a system contributed to the destruction of anarchy, authoritarianism and the formation of a mechanism for the legal regulation of relations.
The principles of democracy were implemented primarily in public life, extending to other spheres of society.
The United States, Western Europe, and Japan were the first to enter the modernization stage.
Modernization is associated with the intensive development of technology, caused by the imperative of industrial society, which has already been mentioned: the need to assert the predominance of accumulated labor over living labor. An important economic reason for technization is that without new technical means of production it is impossible to ensure a level of consumption and lifestyle corresponding to the characteristics of an industrial society. An important political reason is that in conditions of national rivalry, more technologically advanced countries and nations can defend their interests with greater success and even dictate their will to less developed communities. Culturally, it is customary to single out two spiritual reasons that have given high prestige to technical society. Firstly, this is the idea of ​​man as an active transformer of nature, and secondly, this is an affirmation of the active role of the mind in comprehending reality and its ability to construct the world in its own way. The influence of technology, however, is not limited to high technology. It is also a transformation of a person’s worldview. Mass production. In an industrial society, production dynamics are measured in physical or monetary terms, that is, according to the criteria of quantity and volume. These criteria apply to other areas as well.
Energy consumption as a criterion of living standards. Using new energy sources, modern technology makes it possible to implement grandiose projects. The focus on new energy sources has given rise to breakthroughs in technologies that have sometimes become very dangerous for humans.
Break with traditions. Technology is constantly facing the future. Improving the standard of living involves improving technology, which must be constantly updated. In such a situation, turning back means the end of progress, without which the very meaning of the modernization process is lost. There is an intoxication in the process of searching for something new, a desire for constant renewal, that is, a break with traditions.
Sense of functionality. Improvement of technology and production, the “materiality” of consciousness, the cult of technology give rise to a rational attitude towards the world as an environment of functional objects. Even man himself began to be viewed from the standpoint of rational significance.
New communications. Communication technology, as it improves, contributes to the intensification of communication processes, the destruction of political and cultural barriers, the bringing of peripheral areas closer to the centers and thereby contributes to the expansion of the modernization process.
New models of thinking. The massive spread of technology required a fundamental change in human thinking. The role of anthropomorphic images and humanitarian principles is decreasing. They are being pushed aside by the natural scientific approach to the world, nature, society, and man. Thinking becomes abstract. New principles of socio-technological organization of activity covered not only large industry, but also spread to all spheres of life, including the spiritual. As a result, spiritual culture turns into an industry of mass consciousness.
3. WESTERN EUROPEAN ART OF THE 19TH CENTURY
In the art of the 19th century. It is necessary to highlight several artistic trends related to the development of the entire culture.
Romanticism in art and literature has common characteristic features: rejection of the bourgeois, bourgeois reality of its day, contrasting the prose of the existing world with the ideal world. This opposition was carried out by the inherent methods of expressiveness inherent in different types of art. For example, the juxtaposition of a day filled with bustle led poets, musicians and painters to poeticize the night, this strange, sometimes surreal world that lives according to its own laws. The night genre is becoming a favorite in the works of romantic artists. Sometimes the lyrics of the night give way to the horror of darkness. Rejection of life and reality gives rise to the motive of departure, escape from life, which is expressed in various forms, including in the genre of travel, wandering, most often to the East. The theme of death takes on a special meaning. The favorite theme of the romantics is the rebel hero, the tragic struggle, the confusion of violent feelings. Portraiture takes on special significance. Artists strive to depict the inner workings of thought, self-absorption, and sensual individuality. Images of turbulent nature allow us to allegorically convey our plans. The theme of heroic struggle against the elements, desperate tension, impulse are common to the romantics of European countries. The desire to learn more deeply the intricacies of the human soul gives rise to the themes of the tragedy of a broken fate, a sick soul, and despair. The most prominent representatives of the French school were E. Delacroix and T. Gericault.
Romanticism is also reflected in landscape painting, conveying a special mood, inspiration from contemplation native nature. This is, first of all, characteristic of English art, the prominent representatives of which were J. Constable, J. Turner, R. Benington.
Realism. The history of realism as a movement in art is connected with landscape painting in France, with the so-called Barbizon school. Barbizon is a village where artists came to paint rural landscapes. They discovered the beauty of the nature of France, the beauty of the labor of the peasants, which was the assimilation of reality and became a novelty in art. The Barbizon school includes the works of T. Rouseau, J. Dupre, C. Daubigny and others. Close to them in theme are C. Corot, J. Millet. The head of the realistic movement was Gustave Courbet. Historical events that took place in France, from the revolution of 1830 to the Paris Commune, the Franco-Prussian War, were reflected in the work of graphic artist Honore Daumier. His work gained popularity thanks to the advent of lithography, i.e. the possibility of replicating graphic works of art.
Impressionism. The name of this movement comes from the French word meaning “impression.” The history of the genre originates from the creative quests of both realists and romantics. The essence of impressionism is the desire to convey a direct impression of the surrounding world. Using pictorial means, artists sought to convey the uniqueness and illusion of light, air, water, color in all its purity, and subtle nuances of the light-air environment. Painting expanded the boundaries of space, “opened a window” into nature with all its unique and fleeting changes. The founder of the movement was Edouard Manet, but Claude Monet became its recognized leader. Outstanding impressionists were O. Renoir, E. Degas, A. Sisley, C. Pissarro, and later P. Cezanne, V. van Gogh, and the sculptor O. Rodin was very close to them in terms of the nature of his creativity. Impressionism marked the beginning of a new perception of the world around us, allowed us to feel the beauty of every moment of life and had a huge influence on the emergence of new directions in art.
In general, the culture of Western Europe in the 19th century. developed as the culture of an industrial society with all its inherent characteristics and influenced its further formation.
Alienation has become one of the most important characteristics of industrial society. From the sphere of industrial relations, alienation extended to social norms.
Colonialism. The subjugation of more backward countries for the purpose of exploiting their resources was not limited to the establishment of political and economic dominance, but was accompanied by the suppression of local cultures in the name of the universalism of Western industrialism.
etc.................

Western European culture of the 19th century.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

A. Blok

Culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. Capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all branches of material production, which entailed corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, public consciousness). The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of the internal contradictions of bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the base classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the polarization of society, meteoric rise material culture and the beginning alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time. European culture of the 19th century. is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society represents, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in the depth of penetration into the existence and spiritual world of man in terms of creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art

Among the socio-economic and political factors, the decisive ones were social revolutions And revolutionary movement. In the 19th century bourgeois revolutions swept many European countries and represented one of the most important stages of the class struggle. They contributed to the establishment and development of capitalism, the solution of pressing historical problems, in particular, the unification of Italy and Germany, and awakened in progressive humanity the desire for freedom from social oppression and injustice.

Had a huge influence on the development of the Western European world industrial Revolution , which ended precisely in the 19th century, which led to a significant restructuring of work and the objective world. Its immediate result is an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. Practical needs stimulated the rapid development of science. XIX century - ϶ᴛᴏ blossoming classical natural history, creation unified system sciences . At this time, the connection between science and production becomes closer. The first research laboratories working for industry appear. Discoveries in various fields of natural science are increasingly influencing the development of leading industries: metallurgy, energy, mechanical engineering, instrument making, transport, chemical industry.

To the most striking achievements of the industrial revolution of the 19th century. This includes the use of electricity in industry, new means of communication (telegraph, telephone), drive devices of working machines, in many technological processes various industries, in the creation of incandescent lamps for indoor and outdoor lighting. The creation of a steam locomotive, internal combustion engine, telephone, radio, cinema and much more amounted to a revolution in science and technology.

The formation has begun industrial society , radically different from the pre-industrial one that preceded it. Industrial production, associated with constantly developing technology, with the release of new goods and the creation of the service sector, as K. Marx emphasized, played a great civilizing role. By tearing out huge masses of people from previous social structures, undermining these structures themselves, industrialization becomes the driving force that introduces the masses into new relationships and accustoms them to a new way of life, the rhythm of work, discipline, and expands literacy and horizons of existence.

Turbulent political and social processes predetermined in many countries a change in forms government system. France underwent especially significant upheavals, where over the course of a century the Directory, the Consulate, the Empire were established twice, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, the Republic was proclaimed twice, and even the Paris Commune took place, when the working class took power for a short time.

Spiritual culture of the 19th century. developed and functioned under the influence of two important factors: successes in the field philosophy And natural sciences. The leading dominant culture of the 19th century. was the science.

Continuous revolutionary upheavals occurred in the 19th century. V science. During this historical period, science was glorified R. Mayer, J. Joule, G. Helmholtz, who discovered the laws of conservation and transformation of energy, which provided a unified basis for all branches of physics and chemistry. The creation was of great importance in understanding the world T. Schwann And M. Schleiden cell theory, which showed the uniform structure of all living organisms. C. Darwin , who created the theory of evolution in biology, introduced the idea of ​​development in natural science. Thanks to the periodic system of elements discovered by brilliant Russian scientists D. I. Mendeleev , the internal connection between all known species substances. Discovery of electron, radium, transformation chemical elements, Creation A. Einstein theory of relativity and quantum theory M. Planck marked a breakthrough into the field of the microworld and high speeds.

In the 19th century significant development has been achieved philosophical thought. It was prepared by the teachings of I. Kant and I. Fichte. Based on their provisions, a romantic theory was created, the foundations of an objective-idealistic philosophy, formalized in a coherent teaching, were laid F. D. Schelling (1775-1854). Schelling saw in art the sphere where the oppositions of the theoretical and moral-practical are overcome; the aesthetic principle appears as “balance”, complete harmony of conscious and unconscious activity, the coincidence of nature and freedom, the triumph of feelings and moral principles.

The objective-idealistic concept was further developed in the works of the greatest German philosopher G. Hegel , which gave it completeness in the form of the basic laws of dialectics.

XIX century gave to the world K. Marx And F. Engels who created in the middle of the century materialistic doctrine. K. Marx and F. Engels asserted the primacy of matter and, using Hegelian dialectics, developed the concept of historical materialism, according to which the history of mankind appears as a change of formations (methods of production) and class struggle. Their teaching, which received further development, went down in history under the name Marxism.

Under the influence of atheistic tendencies in society, society is experiencing a serious crisis. church. New religions are penetrating into Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization of education, etc. are being born.
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Processes of secularization undermine the influence of religion as an integrating principle. Religious conflicts are weakening, but at the same time the sense of unity of believers is being undermined. These processes do not mean a break in social ties, but they largely change the nature of these ties. The unity of society is largely determined by as national unity.

The development of production meant the introduction of increasingly complex technologies, which was impossible without a certain minimum public education. The Enlightenment contributed to the abolition of many medieval remnants in the spheres of law, legal proceedings, art, morality, and political culture. It led to the gradual democratization of society, as ever wider sections of the population began to enjoy legal protection, acquired the opportunity to participate in civil life, and could become involved in cultural achievements.

Artistic culture of the 19th century. The main artistic directions in the development of European culture in the 19th century. There were classicism (which was becoming obsolete), romanticism, and realism.

Romanticism– (French romantisme; from Middle Ages, roman – novel). expressed disappointment in the ideas of the Great French Revolution. Romantic art is characterized by aversion to bourgeois reality, a decisive rejection of the rationalistic principles of the Enlightenment and classicism, and distrust of the cult of reason. The Romantics affirmed the dignity of the human person, the intrinsic value of its inner world and spiritual and creative life. This was embodied in the depiction of extraordinary characters and strong passions, aspirations for boundless freedom. The revolution proclaimed individual freedom, but the same revolution gave rise to the spirit of acquisitiveness and selfishness. These two sides of personality (the pathos of freedom and individualism) manifested themselves very complexly in the romantic concept of the world and man.

The Romantics denied the extreme importance and possibility of an objective reflection of reality; they proclaimed the subjective arbitrariness of the creative imagination to be the basis of art. The plots for romantic works were chosen to include exceptional events and extraordinary settings in which the characters acted.

Originating in Germany, where the foundations of the romantic worldview and romantic aesthetics were laid, romanticism is rapidly spreading throughout Europe. It covered all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, humanities, plastic arts. Representatives of romanticism - Byron, Heine, Hoffmann(in literature), Schumann, Wagner, Chopin- in music, Delacroix, Gericault– in painting, etc.

Realism. In a realistic light, the phenomena of reality appear in all their complexity, versatility and richness of aesthetic properties. The principle of generalization becomes typing. The truthfulness of details and the presentation of typical characters acting in typical circumstances - main principle realism. Realism did not oppose romanticism, it was its ally in the struggle against the idealization of bourgeois social relations, for the national and historical originality of works of art (the flavor of place and time).

By the middle of the century, realism became the dominant trend in European culture.

Realism arose in France and England under conditions of established capitalist relations. Social contradictions and shortcomings of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude of realist writers towards it. They denounced money-grubbing, blatant inequality, selfishness, and hypocrisy. According to his ideological purposefulness, he becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of great realist writers is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice. Representatives of realism: O. Balzac, V. Hugo, G. Flaubert, B. Shaw G. Ibsen and others.

In the second half of the 19th century, new artistic and aesthetic theories.

Symbolism. The Symbolists, focusing their attention on artistic expression through ideas beyond human sensory perception, sought to break through visible reality to the “hidden realities,” the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world. The leading trends of modern art have already appeared here - longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of social catastrophes, distrust of age-old cultural and spiritual values, mysticism.

The painful decline of civilization is obvious, indisputable for the outstanding French poet Charles Baudelaire . He is a harbinger of French symbolism. His main book was called the flowers of Evil. This is hatred of the bourgeois world, anarchic rebellion, a longing for harmony. The poet combines these feelings with a recognition of the insurmountability of evil: “True travelers are those who set out on a journey, leaving the past behind.”

Naturalism. A transformation specific to the end of the 19th century occurs with the realistic tradition - the degeneration of realism into naturalism. Supporters of this direction proceeded from the idea of ​​the complete predetermination of fate, will, and the spiritual world of a person by the social environment, everyday life, heredity, and physiology. Most major representative and the theorist of this movement - Emile Zola . Zola painted a broad panorama of French society, covering in it the life of all segments of the country's population. In his best novels, “The Belly of Paris,” “The Trap,” “Germinal,” “Money,” and “Destruction,” the writer depicted social contradictions with great realistic force. At the same time, the idea of ​​the laws of society as biological laws limited his realism.

Impressionism. Under the influence of representatives of critical realism painting (Courbet, Daumier), a new direction in art appeared - impressionism (from French. Impression - impression). The aesthetic attitudes of this direction were characterized by the desire to combine cognitive tasks with the search for new forms of expression of the artist’s unique subjective world, to convey one’s fleeting perceptions, and to capture the real world in all its variability and mobility. Its history is relatively short - only 12 years. Representatives – Claude Manet, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley. The great French sculptor was a contemporary and ally of the Impressionists Auguste Rodin

The main features of impressionism were developed in post-impressionism . Prominent representatives of this trend were artists P. Cezanne, V. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin . They began working simultaneously with the Impressionists and experienced their influence in their work. Each of them, however, represented a bright individuality and left a deep mark on art.

However, the industrial structure of society meant a deep qualitative transformation not only of the nature of production, but also of the prevailing social structures and culture of society. Great changes that took place in the 19th century. the development of philosophy, science and technology, had a huge influence on the development of literature and art in Western Europe.

The importance of modern culture for the development of world culture is seen in the following:

· the formation of bourgeois society and the industrial type of civilization. It was the era of bourgeois revolutions that revealed the tragedy and inhumanity of violent changes in society;

· the formation and strengthening of a rationalistic approach to reality, which was expressed in the formation of a new science, both experimental and theoretical. Scientific achievements The 17th century created the prerequisites for the further development of fundamental sciences. The main direction in the development of philosophical thought is the theory of knowledge;

· The Enlightenment awakened social thought and social feeling in Europe;

Great social upheaval. The French Revolution, which began as a triumph of Reason and did not affect the multifaceted inner world of man, ended tragically;

· the formation of classical philosophy (late 18th - early 19th centuries) in Germany; the emergence of Marxism;

· The 19th century became a century of contrasts: the flourishing of spiritual culture and the spiritual impoverishment of society are marked not only by philosophy, but also by art, as well as the human sciences that emerged during this period;

· in the art of the New Age, new styles and trends are being formed, striving to embody in their images a person as a deeply and strongly feeling being, as a freedom-loving and proud being;

· the artistic exploration of the world in the 19th century created a type of romantic and realistic hero. Art deepens into the understanding of the foundations of the world, while moving from the “exceptional” to the “ordinary”, into the depth of the subjective worldview.

Western European culture of the 19th century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Western European culture of the 19th century." 2017, 2018.

This was the century when the pace of development of Western civilization was increasingly accelerating, the formation of an industrial society was taking place, and it was strengthening and developing market economy. One of the most important factors influencing all spheres of life was the growing momentum scientific and technical progress. The 19th century gave the world the steamship, steam locomotive, automobile transport, telegraph, telephone, radio, photography, sound recording, and cinema. Electric lighting appears in cities. The prestige of exact and technical sciences is increasing, and primary education is being introduced as compulsory for all.

Changes and social structure society: the number of people employed in agriculture and living in the village; the number of city dwellers is growing, equality of classes is being established in economic life, and the process of becoming a democratic society is underway.

The most important feature of Western culture of this time is the exceptional diversity of trends and genres in art and literature. Many of them were inherited by the culture of the 19th century from previous centuries: they were classicism, sentimentalism, and pre-romanticism. The beginning of other styles dates back to the 19th century.

At the beginning of the century, on the basis of pre-romanticism, a romanticism, whose features are the denial of the rigid framework of classicism, the desire for freedom, irony in relation to bourgeois progress, the painful discord between the ideal and social reality. Realism, which arose at the beginning of the century and quickly became a leading artistic movement, gave brilliant results in all types of art. He was distinguished by the desire for a truthful reflection of reality and at the same time the presence of a high author's ideal in the work, the reproduction of typical characters and situations and at the same time individualization in their depiction. Naturalism proceeded from the idea of ​​the complete predetermination of fate, will, and the spiritual world of a person by his social environment, heredity, and physiology. Striving for an objective and dispassionate display of reality, naturalists likened themselves to scientists, and their artistic methods to the methods of scientific analysis. Symbolism built on the assumption that there is a reality hidden from direct human knowledge; the purpose of art is to break through to these hidden realities; This “ideal essence of the world” can be cognized with the help of symbols - ideas that are beyond the limits of sensory perception. Representatives impressionism they tried to capture the real world in the most natural form - in all its beauty and minute-to-minute variability, to convey their fleeting impressions and moods in painting. A continuation and in some way a negation of impressionism was post-impressionism, which was characterized by the search for permanent principles of existence, stable material and spiritual essences of the world.

The nineteenth century produced many great names. Among them in literature are Mark Twain, Honoré de Balzac, Prosper Merimee, François de Chateaubriand, Gustave Flaubert, Guy de Maupassant, Emile Zola, George Byron, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, Victor Hugo, George Sand, Heinrich Heine, Ernst Theodore Amadeus Hoffmann; in music - Robert Schumann, Franz Schubert, Richard Wagner, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frederic Chopin, Giuseppe Verdi, Claude Debussy, in painting - Auguste Ingres, Eugene Delacroix, Gustave Courbet, Käthe Eolwitz, Edouard Manet, Claude Monet , Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, Paul Gauguin, Paul Cezanne, Van Gogh, in sculpture - Auguste Rodin, in science - Charles Darwin, Louis Pasteur, Max Planck, Bernhard Riemann, Pierre and Marie Curie, Wilhelm Roentgen.

In architecture at the beginning of the 19th century, the main style was classicism, on the basis of which arose empire style -- the final stage in the development of classicism in architecture. The Empire style is characterized by massive, monumental forms, rich decor, and active use of the artistic heritage of the culture of Ancient Europe, especially Ancient Rome. Examples of buildings in the Empire style served as the embodiment of the ideas of state power and military glory. The construction of triumphal arches and columns in the ancient Roman style was popular. In the middle of the century comes the time of eclecticism in architecture, the style is popular historicism, expressing the desire to show the origins of national architecture and identify its main features.

In the second half of the 19th century, the introduction of new materials and technologies into construction practice significantly expanded the functional and artistic capabilities of architects. The construction of new types of structures begins, an example is the famous Eiffel Tower in Paris (1889).

A revolution in the minds.

Revolutions of the late XVIII - XIX centuries. prepared not only by changes in the life of society, but also by changes in the minds of people, in their worldview - the perception of the world around them. Already during the XVIII - XVIII centuries. The view became more and more widespread that God does not directly influence an individual person, his successes or failures in life. Everything depends on personal efforts, intelligence, perseverance, hard work. It is unfair that a person's position and the conditions of his life are predetermined by birth. This idea became the rationale for revolutions.

Literature. End of the 18th century and almost the entire first half of the 19th century. were marked by a romantic movement that swept European states. The Romantics contrasted feelings with reason. They valued inspiration, spontaneity of feeling, and opposed the rules established by reason. They worshiped nature and sought to directly experience its mysterious phenomena. In the art of romance, they valued the unique and individual. The novel “Notre Dame de Paris” by V. Hugo became a kind of manifesto of the French romantics.

In the 20s XIX century Critical realism is emerging in culture. Critical realists did not deny progress, like some romantics, and did not turn away from harsh reality. Writers and artists of the realistic direction show interest in the multifaceted reproduction of reality, in broad generalizations.

Reflection of the economic, political, and moral contradictions of their time in full-fledged artistic images is the main merit of the writers of critical realism. The great realist writers O. Balzac and Charles Dickens in their novels comprehensively revealed the life of their contemporary society. Never subsequently did European literature reach such a height and breadth of artistic generalization as did the representatives of critical realism of the 19th century.

Balzac imagined society as a system of violence against the natural passions of man, that is, as a continuous drama in which, in his opinion, lies the truth of art. The writer studied in depth the causes and consequences, the laws of social existence, and his attention was focused not on the disasters themselves, but on the conditions that caused them. A picture of all layers of French society with their contradictions and struggles unfolded in his works.

Dickens considered it his duty to “show the harsh truth” of life in order to eliminate the evil that exists in it. Exposing the vices in the life of England, Dickens showed the spiritual qualities of ordinary people who withstood difficult life trials. Dickens's concept of beauty is inextricably linked with good, while he perceived evil as ugliness and deviation from the norm.

The poet G. Heine, the “freedom enthusiast” of Germany, began his creative path like a romantic. However, he did not take his readers into the world of the idealized Middle Ages, did not plunge into fantasy. He paid attention to social issues and made extensive use of folk art. The pinnacle of Heine’s poetic creativity is his political poem “Germany” (“The Winter’s Tale”), created in 1844. Drawing German life in it, the poet laughed at those who tried to calm the people with tales about the afterlife. Heine wanted to “turn the earth into heaven and make the earth a paradise.” The theme of the coming revolution runs through the entire poem.

At the end of the nineteenth century. in literature, fine arts, architecture, theater, music, new styles and trends appear, either replacing each other or existing simultaneously. There is a revaluation of values. Changes in the life of society, discoveries in science and technological progress - all this required comprehension, a new look. The art of realism and various non-realistic movements, united under the name of decadence (French decadence - decline), approached this task in different ways.

Symbolism - one of the most significant phenomena in the literature of decadence - was formed in France in the 80s. XIX century The Symbolists called themselves singers of “decline, decline, death,” hopelessness and disappointment. They abandoned the image of reality, preferring the “inner essence” to the external image, appearance. Symbolism is characterized by a departure from the boundaries of the real world, significant meaning, mystical allusions, images devoid of concreteness, and an orientation not towards the mind, but towards feelings.

The most talented symbolist poets in France were P. Verlaine and A. Rimbaud. In England, the Symbolists rallied around the Yellow Book magazine, with which O. Wilde, the most significant representative of English Symbolism, was associated. The writer wrote fairy tales, satirical plays, the poetic confession “From the Abyss”, and the novel “The Picture of Dorian Gray”. The Belgian playwright Maeterlinck contributed to the development of the traditions of symbolism in the theater (the fairy tale “The Blue Bird”).

An important phenomenon in literature and art was naturalism, which originated in France in the early 70s. XIX century Naturalists believed that facts are more valuable than the finest fiction, and a writer should record the events of real life. It was assumed that everyday life was just as subject to strict laws as the exact sciences. Therefore, the main thing in literature is documentation and accuracy of description. One of the most prominent representatives of naturalism is E. Zola, although his work cannot be reduced exclusively to naturalism. In 1868, Zola began work on the 20-volume Rougon-Macquart series, which he would complete a quarter of a century later. The series is subtitled "The Biological and Social History of a Family in the Second Empire."

Critical realism in French literature develops under the influence of Zola. Its representatives were G. Maupassant and A. France. Maupassant became famous thanks to his amazing skill as a short story writer, with his novels “Life” and “Dear Friend”. A. France is a master of philosophical and satirical stories.

The English writer H. Wells, the creator of modern science fiction, wrote about the problems that technological progress can lead to, and touched upon the topic of the responsibility of a scientist, the need to correlate progress and moral standards.

Art.

In the first half of the 19th century, the art of Western Europe followed the path of imitation of the great masters of the past. In France, the main representative of painting of this time was J.L. David. Of David's many students, Engr stood out for his high talent. He had to endure a stubborn struggle with the artists of the new romantic movement, which was a reaction to the cold impassivity of the classics. The first artist to embark on the path of romanticism was E. Delacroix.

Realism established itself only through genre painting. Realistic traditions in the fine arts of the first half of the 19th century. strongly associated with the name of G. Courbet. Political events were reflected in numerous etchings and lithographs by O. Daumier, imbued with sympathy for the common people of Paris. J. Millet depicted peasants in the lap of nature.

In England in the late 40s. XIX century three young artists J. Milles, D. G. Rosseti and H. Hunt formed an alliance to jointly fight against convention and imitation in contemporary painting. They called themselves Pre-Raphaelists because they opposed the idealism and passion for the masters of the 16th century that reigned in Europe. naive and deep realism of artists of pre-Raphaelian times.

At the end of the 19th century. The most striking event in fine art was the emergence of impressionism. Its appearance is associated with the work of E.

Manet, around whom a circle of young artists formed. They are characterized by the desire to reflect in their works the fleeting, changeable, and accidental; convey light and air through painting. They used pure colors of the spectrum, placed in separate strokes on the canvas, but forming a unity when viewed from a certain distance.

Romanticism of the early 19th century. showed himself widely in music. All outstanding composers of the 19th century. Romantic elements were closely intertwined with realistic ones. This interweaving is typical for the operatic work of G. Verdi. A certain romantic touch is also felt in such an outstanding example of realistic opera as “Carmen” by J. Bizet.

F. Schubert strove to embody in music a unique moment, a deep intimate experience - everything that is connected with the range of feelings of a simple person. R. Schumann created agitated, rebellious music, which so fully reflected his nervously heightened, sensitive reaction to life’s impressions. F. Chopin's music is permeated with folk rhythms and intonations, heroic legends of antiquity, and the aroma of fields and meadows.

In the music of the 70-80s. XIX century Opera played an important role. The last works of R. Wagner, who created the genre of musical drama, date back to this period. He completed the final version of The Ring of the Nibelungs. Wagner's influence extended even to composers who did not share his views on music.

Major scientific discoveries.

At the beginning of the 19th century. followed by a whole avalanche of discoveries that changed people's understanding of the world around them.

In the 20s XIX century The largest discoveries in the field of electricity were made by A. Ampere; thermoelectric phenomena were discovered in 1834 by J. Peltier and A. S. Becquerel, who began research on phosphorescence.

The development of chemical science was marked by a number of fundamental discoveries. In 1811, B. Courtois discovered iodine. L. Tenard in 1810 proved the elemental nature of sodium and chlorine, and in 1826 the chemist A. Balard discovered bromine.

Theoretical and physical chemistry developed intensively.

In 1802, J. Gay-Lussac discovered the laws of thermal expansion of gases, and in 1808 - the volumetric ratios of gases during their reactions.

J. Joule's experiments to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat provided an experimental substantiation of the law of conservation of energy. Joule and J. Maxwell laid the foundations of the molecular kinetic theory of thermal phenomena. The work of Joule and Thomson on cooling gases during their expansion laid the foundation for low-temperature physics and technology. At the beginning of the 19th century. T. Young revived the wave theory of light. J. Herschel discovered infrared radiation.

From the 30s of the 19th century. Organic chemistry especially developed, in which a special role belongs to J. Liebig, who founded an entire school of chemists and created a world-famous laboratory. Liebig divided everything organic compounds for proteins, fats and carbohydrates, in 1831 he first obtained chloroform, and in 1835 - acetaldehyde. Liebig developed the theory of fermentation and putrefaction.

In 1801, I. Ritter proved the existence of ultraviolet rays. The reformer of technical optics was P. Franzhofer, who in 1814 described the lines of the solar spectrum, which were later named after him, and created diffraction gratings that opened the way to spectroscopy. In 1821, T. Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity. In 1826, G.S. Ohm discovered the law named after him.

Mathematicians G. Gauss and W. Weber developed a system of measures of electrical and magnetic quantities and corresponding measuring instruments. F. Neumann created the theory of electromagnetic induction.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. A genuine revolution took place in physics, which influenced other sciences. Ideas about time, space, movement, and the structure of matter have completely changed.

The English physicist Maxwell developed the general theory of electrodynamics. Subsequently, Maxwell's provisions were confirmed by the works of physicists around the world (the discovery of radio waves by G. Hertz, X-rays by V. K. Roentgen, etc.).

The most important phenomenon in science was the discovery of the first elementary particle - the electron. Dutch physicist H.A. Lorentz completed his electronic theory of matter. J. Stoney introduced the term “electron”.

A. Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which was actively studied by M. Sklodowska-Curie and P. Curie. The beginning of the creation of the physics of the atomic nucleus was laid. The English physicist E. Rutherford discovered alpha, beta and gamma rays, released during the decay of radioactive elements and having different permeability.

In 1868, J. Lukier named the element helium, corresponding to the line he discovered using spectral analysis in the solar spectrum.

In 1895, the English physicist and chemist W. Ramsay discovered this gas in laboratory conditions.

Important discoveries were made in the field of theoretical chemistry. In 1869-1871 Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev developed a periodic system of chemical elements based on their “atomic weight and chemical similarity.” In addition to the 63 known elements located in the table, Mendeleev predicted the properties of a number of elements that had not yet been discovered.

Back in 1856, aniline dye was synthesized. A whole industry for the production of dyes arose. Synthetic chemistry, biochemistry, and chemical pharmacology developed.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. American biologist T. Morgan studied the patterns of inheritance of traits (experiments with the fruit fly Drosophila), discovered in the 60s of the 19th century. G. Mendel, but who did not receive fame then. At the very end of the 19th century. W. Betson proposed the term “genetics” in 1900-1901. Dutch scientist M. Fried developed the theory of mutations (i.e. sudden rare changes in the characteristics of properties in newly generated animals and plants with the subsequent transmission of these changes by inheritance.

The development of medicine was associated with biology. In the 80s XIX century French chemist L. Pasteur developed vaccinations against chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies. At this time, in Germany, R. Koch studied the causative agents of tuberculosis and cholera. His assistant Gafke discovered the typhoid bacillus. During the same period, diphtheria and plague bacteria were discovered.

Automobiles and aeronautics.

The first self-propelled machines were steam-powered machines. With the invention of the electric motor and internal combustion engine at the end of the 19th century. New opportunities for creating mechanisms have emerged.

The German engineer K. Benz tested the first car with an internal combustion engine in 1885. Benz's compatriot, engineer G. Daimler, developed his own gasoline engine and designed several devices. Thus, Daimler and Benz became the inventors of the prototype of the modern car.

At the end of the 19th century. humanity's long-standing dream of controlled aircraft has come true. Until the 70s. XIX century There were only balloons. The first thing that was possible was to construct controllable airships - lighter-than-air aircraft. In 1900, the Zepellin airship, which had a rigid frame structure, made its flight in Germany. It was this apparatus that formed the basis of all military airships.

However, the future lay in heavier-than-air vehicles - airplanes (airplanes). The first experiments in designing aircraft with steam engines were carried out by A. F. Mozhaisky in Russia, K. Ader in France, and H. Maxim in the USA. The Americans O. and W. Wright were the first to use a gasoline engine in aircraft construction in 1903, and they managed to complete a series of long flights.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

All-Russian Correspondence Financial and Economic Institute

Department of History

TEST

in cultural studies

"Western Culture of the 19th Century"

Vladimir - 2008.

Work plan

Introduction

Development of science and philosophy

Romanticism in the artistic culture of Europe

Critical realism in literature and art of France, England, USA

Impressionism and post-impressionism in the artistic culture of the 19th century

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

In the development of European literature, art, science of the 19th century. - the time of the appearance of works that became a huge cultural asset and a conquest of human genius, although the conditions of development were complex and contradictory.

The factors that influenced the main processes and directions of artistic creativity were varied. These included changes in basic relationships, in political life, the development of science, the industrial revolution and its results, the religious aspect.

Development of science and philosophy

The 19th century became a century of continuous revolutionary upheavals in science. First of all, this is the flowering of classical natural science, the creation of a unified system of sciences. The connection between science and production is being strengthened, science is turning from small to big – it now employs significantly more personnel than before. Significant development of philosophical thought has been achieved, general interest in historical science has been shown, linguistics and archeology have advanced; the foundations of scientific folkloristics, art history, and literary criticism were laid.

The strengthening of atheistic tendencies in society leads to a serious crisis of the church - new religions penetrate into Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization of education, etc. are born. All this undermines the influence of religion as an integrating principle, changes the nature of social relations - the unity of society is developing in many ways as national unity and professional - cultural rapprochement vertically, within the framework of the same professional activity.

Great changes that took place in the 19th century. in the economic basis, the development of philosophy, science and technology had a huge influence on the development of literature and art in Europe.

A feature of the development of European culture in the 19th century. there was an exceptional variety of types, directions and genres of artistic creativity. Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, naturalism, impressionism, post-impressionism - these are the main trends that covered all types of art - literature, painting, music of Europe in the 19th century. However, despite the variety of styles that have developed in this century, the realistic art direction is considered to be the primary one, which has given brilliant results in all types of creativity in all countries.

Romanticism in the artistic culture of Europe

1. Romanticism in literature, music and art - a style that emphasizes the imagination, emotions and creative individuality of the artist; nature and folklore serve as sources of inspiration. The term is often used to describe the culture of the 19th century. a counterweight XVIII classicism V. In music he reached his apogee in the works of Schumann and Wagner.

2. Romanticism – direction in art of the first quarter of the 19th century, opposing the canons of classicism, reflecting works of art the inner world of heroes, ideal feelings and passions.

3. Romanticism – creative direction in European literature of the 19th century; his character traits: idealization of the past (the Middle Ages), individualism, exclusivity of images and plots.

ART

In Germany, romanticism arose earlier than in other countries. The pathos of advanced social ideas was alien to many of the German romantics. They idealize the medieval past, give in to unaccountable emotional impulses, and talk about the frailty of human life. The art of many of them was passive and contemplative. These artists created their best works in the field of portrait and landscape painting.

An outstanding portrait painter was Otto Runge (1777-1810). The portraits of this master, while outwardly calm, amaze with their intense and intense inner life. Landscapes Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) reveal the beauty of the mountain landscapes of southern Germany and the melancholy ghostliness of the moonlit northern sea coasts.

The rebellious essence of romanticism was most clearly manifested in France. There, this artistic movement reflected deep disappointment in the results of the French Revolution, a protest against bourgeois reality, which shattered the dream of the “kingdom of reason and freedom” that the enlighteners of the 18th century spoke about. French romanticism emerged in the early 1820s, on the eve of a new revolutionary upsurge. French artists were fascinated by strong and active heroes, people of deep emotions and passionate temperament. Representatives of the romantic movement defended the artist’s right to directly express his thoughts and feelings, and fought against the academic rules of classicism that constrained creative freedom. " Listen to nature, truth and inspiration" became the main rule of the romantics. They contrast the rationality of academicians with the emotionality and drama of images, the bold dynamic compositions of their paintings; dry drawing – saturated bright colors. French romantics sought to find a great theme in modernity; they were also attracted by the exoticism of the East and the liberation struggle of enslaved peoples.

The artist whose name is associated with the first brilliant successes of romanticism in France was Theodore Gericault (1791-1824). Already in his early paintings (portraits of military men, images of horses), ancient ideals retreated before the direct perception of life.

In 1816, due to the fault of the French government, the frigate "Medusa" was lost, from which only a few people escaped on the raft. This event shocked all of France, and Géricault dedicated his most significant work, “The Raft of the Medusa” (1818), to him. He depicted the experiences of those who despaired and who, at the sight of an approaching ship, regained hope for the salvation of people with such a dramatic force that David’s art had never known.

The head of French romanticism in painting was destined to become Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863). The inexhaustible imagination of this artist created a whole world of images that still live on the canvas with their intense life, full of struggle and passion. Here is a scene from Dante's Inferno, and heroes from the works of Goethe, Shakespeare, and Byron, depicted in moments of acute emotions. Delacroix captured numerous images of the people of the East, mainly Algerians and Moroccans, whom he saw during his trip to Africa. In his work “The Massacre on the Island of Chios” (1824), Delacroix reflected the struggle of the Greeks against Turkish rule, which was then worrying the whole of Europe. The artist contrasted the group of suffering captive Greeks in the foreground of the picture with a woman distraught with grief and a child crawling towards the chest of a dead mother with arrogant and cruel figures of punitive forces; A burning, destroyed city is visible in the distance. The picture amazed contemporaries with both the breathtaking power of human suffering and its unusually bold and sonorous coloring.

The events of the July Revolution of 1830 inspired Delacroix to create the well-known painting “Liberty on the Barricades” (1830).

The largest representative of romanticism in French sculpture was Francois Rude (1784-1855). His famous sculptural group “Marseillaise” (1833-1836), decorating the Arc de Triomphe on the Place des Stars in Paris, is dedicated to the heroic revolutionary days of 1792.

In the works of English artists of the early 19th century, primarily landscape painters, romantic passions were combined with a more objective and sober view of nature.

Creates romantically elevated landscapes William Turner (1775-1851). He especially loved to depict thunderstorms, downpours, storms at sea, and bright, flaming sunsets. Turner often exaggerated the effects of lighting and intensified the sound of color even when he painted the calm state of nature. Using the technique of watercolorists, Turner began to apply oil paint in a very thin layer and painted directly on the ground, achieving rainbow-colored tints.

Initially worked in watercolor technique Richard Bonington (1802-1828). In seascapes painted in oil, simple and devoid of dramatic effects, Bonington sought to capture the peculiarities of sunlight, the grayish haze of humid air.

He most consistently embodied a new attitude towards nature in his work John Constable (1776-1837). An important innovation of Constable was his large (the size of a painting) oil sketches, remarkable for the spontaneity and subtlety of his observations, for the freshness and richness of color. In them he was able to convey all the complexity of the inner life of nature in its everyday life, achieving this with the very technique of pictorial writing. He painted with bold, moving strokes, sometimes thick and rough, sometimes smoother and more transparent. Constable's innovative painting had a huge influence on the works of Delacroix, as well as on the entire development of French landscape in the 19th century.

LITERATURE

Romanticism constituted an entire era in the history of European culture. For several decades he dominated literature, music, and painting. Romanticism intricately combines the exclusivity of heroes, individualism, deep interest in the past, the desire and ability to visibly convey the flavor of distant times (historicism), attraction to the unusual, to the exotic (atypicality, exceptional circumstances) and, finally, sincerity, lyricism, penetration into the depths of humanity souls.