The totality of all peoples inhabiting the planet. Social structure of society

Slavery has evolved historically. There are two forms of it: patriarchal and classical. At the mature stage, slavery turns into slavery. When they talk about slavery as a historical type of stratification, they mean its highest stage. Slavery is the only form in history social relations when alone a person is the property of another and when the lower stratum is deprived of all rights and freedoms.

Castes

Caste system not as ancient as slave ownership, and less widespread. While almost all countries went through slavery, of course, to varying degrees, castes were found only in India and partly in Africa. India is a classic example of a caste society. It arose on the ruins of the slaveholding in the first centuries of the new era.

Caste called a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes solely to his birth. A person cannot move from his caste to another during his lifetime. To do this, he needs to be born again. The caste position is enshrined in the Hindu religion (it is now clear why castes are not very common). According to its canons, people live more than one life. Each person falls into the appropriate caste depending on what his behavior was in his previous life. If he is bad, then after his next birth he must fall into a lower caste and vice versa.

In India 4 main castes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), Shudras (workers and peasants). At the same time, there is about 5 thousand non-core caste and semi-caste. Especially worth untouchables. They do not belong to any caste and occupy the lowest position.

During industrialization, castes are replaced by classes. The Indian city is increasingly becoming class-based, while the village, where 7/10 of the population lives, remains caste-based.

Estates precede classes and characterize feudal societies that existed in Europe from the 4th to the 14th centuries.

Estates

Estate — social group with established by custom or legal law and inheritable rights and obligations.

A class system that includes several strata is characterized by hierarchy, expressed in inequality of position and privileges. The classic example of class organization was Europe, where at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. The structure of society was divided into the upper classes (nobility and clergy) and the unprivileged third class (artisans, merchants, peasants). In the X-XIII centuries. There were three main classes: the clergy, the nobility and the peasantry.

In Russia from the second half of the 17th century. established class division into nobility, clergy, merchants, peasantry and philistinism(middle urban strata). Estates were based on land ownership.

The rights and duties of each class were determined by legal law and sanctified by religious doctrine. Membership in the class was inherited. Social barriers between classes were quite strict, so social mobility existed not so much between classes as within classes.

Each estate included many layers, ranks, levels, professions, ranks. Thus, only nobles could engage in public service. The aristocracy was considered a military class (knighthood).

The higher a class stood in the social hierarchy, the higher its status. In contrast to castes, inter-class marriages were fully tolerated. Individual mobility was sometimes allowed. A simple person could become a knight by purchasing a special permit from the ruler. But over time, the term “estate” is replaced by a new concept “class”, expressing the socio-economic status of people who are able to change their status.

Class

Class is understood in two senses: broad and narrow.

IN broad meaning under class understand a large social group of people who own or do not own the means of production, occupy a certain place in the system of social division of labor and are characterized by a specific way of generating income.

Since private property arose during the birth of the state, it is believed that already in the Ancient East and ancient Greece there were two opposing classes: slaves and slave owners. Feudalism and capitalism are no exception. And here there were antagonistic classes: exploiters and exploited. This is the point of view of K. Marx, which is still adhered to today. Another thing is that with the maturation and complication of the versatility of the social organism, the need arose to isolate not one or two classes, but many social layers, called strata in the West. And correspondingly stratification of society - its stratification (the appearance of many elements in the structure of society).

Social stratification

The term " stratification" comes from the Latin stratum - layer. Thus, the etymology of the word contains the task not only of identifying group diversity, but of defining vertical sequence of the position of social layers, layers in society, their hierarchy. For various authors, the concept of “stratum” is often replaced by others keywords: “class”, “estate”. Using all these terms below, we will put a single content into them and understand by stratum a large group of people that differ in their position in the social hierarchy of society.

Sociologists are unanimous in their opinion that basis of stratification structure (social structure of society) - natural and social inequality of people. However, the ways in which inequality is organized are different. What are the grounds that would determine the appearance vertical structure society?

K. Marx introduced the only basis for vertical consideration of the structure of society - possession of property. Therefore, his social structure of society was actually reduced to two levels: owner class(slave owners, feudal lords, bourgeoisie) and Class, deprived of ownership of the means of production(slaves, proletarians) or having very limited rights to property (peasants). Attempts to present intelligentsia, some other social groups as intermediate layers left the impression that the general scheme of the social hierarchy of the population was ill-conceived. The narrowness of this approach became obvious already at the end of the 19th century.

That is why M. Weber expands the number of criteria that determine belonging to a particular stratum. In addition to the economic (attitude to property and income level), he introduces criteria such as social prestige and membership in certain political circles (parties). Prestige was understood as the acquisition by an individual from birth or due to personal qualities of such social status, which allowed him to occupy a certain place in the social hierarchy.

The role of status in the hierarchical structure of society determined such important feature social life, like its normative and value regulation. Thanks to the latter, only those whose status corresponds to the ideas rooted in the mass consciousness about the significance of his title, profession, as well as the norms and laws functioning in society.

So, society reproduces and organizes inequality on several grounds: by the level of wealth and income, by the level of social prestige, by the level of possession political power, by level of education, as well as by some others. It can apparently be argued that these types of hierarchy are significant for society, since they make it possible to regulate the reproduction of social connections, as well as direct the personal aspirations and ambitions of people to acquire statuses that are significant for society.

What are the mechanisms, supporting the hierarchical structure of society? For maintaining social hierarchy In society, a simple solution was initially found: someone born into a slave’s family should remain a slave, while someone born into a noble’s family should remain a representative of the upper class. The entire system of social statuses (law, army, court and church) monitored compliance with the rules of class organization of the hierarchical structure of society.

Sustainability such a hierarchical system could supported only by force: either by force of arms, the possession of which was the exclusive right of the upper strata; or by the power of religion, which had exceptional possibilities of influencing the minds of people; or by force of the appropriate laws, norms, customs, to the observance of which all power was aimed state apparatus.

The hierarchical system of modern society lacks this rigidity. Formally, all citizens have equal rights, including the right to occupy any place in social space, to rise to the highest floors of the social ladder or to be in the lower echelons. The sharply increased social mobility, however, did not lead to the erosion of the hierarchical system. Society still maintains and protects its hierarchy (structure).

It has been observed that the vertical profile of society is not constant. K. Marx at one time suggested that its configuration would gradually change due to concentration of wealth in the hands of a few and significant impoverishment of the bulk population. The result of this trend will be the emergence of serious tension between the upper and lower layers of the social hierarchy, which is inevitable will result in a struggle for the redistribution of national income.

P. Sorokin, rejecting K. Marx’s thesis about the absolute impoverishment of the masses under capitalism, was nevertheless also inclined to believe that the upper part of the social pyramid tends to rise above the rest. But this growth of wealth and power is not unlimited. In his opinion, there is a saturation point beyond which society cannot move without the risk of a major catastrophe. As we approach this point, processes in society begin to contain the harmful trend: either reforms are carried out to redistribute wealth through the taxation system, or deep revolutionary processes begin, in which broad social strata are involved.

Stability of society associated with the profile of social stratification (structure of society). Excessive stretching of the latter is fraught with serious social consequences. cataclysms, uprisings, riots bringing chaos, violence, hindering the development of society, putting it on the brink of collapse. Thickening of the stratification profile primarily due to the truncation of the top of the cone - a phenomenon repeated in the history of all societies. It is important that it is carried out not through uncontrolled spontaneous processes, but through consciously pursued state policy.

The described process also has a downside, noted by P. Sorokin. There should be no compaction of the stratification profile excessive, nullifying the very principle of social hierarchy. Inequality- not only an objective reality of social life, but also an important source of social development. The equation in income, in relations to property, power deprives individuals important internal incentive to action, self-realization, self-affirmation, and society- the only energy source of development.

The idea expressed by G. Simmel that stability of the hierarchical structure of society depends on t specific gravity and role of the middle layer, or class. Occupying an intermediate position, the middle class plays a kind of connecting role between the two poles of the social hierarchy, reducing their opposition. The larger the middle class, the more chances it has to influence state policy, the process of formation of fundamental values ​​of society, the worldview of citizens, while avoiding the extremes inherent in opposing forces.

Availability thick middle layer in the social hierarchy of many modern countries allows them to remain stable, despite sporadic rising tensions among the poorest. This tension is extinguished not so much by the power of the repressive apparatus, How many neutral position of the majority, generally satisfied with his position, confident in the future, feeling his strength and authority. In all developed countries, despite their cultural and geographical differences, the share of the middle class is approximately the same 55-60%. On the social ladder it is located between the elite (tops) and the workers or social lower classes. The increase in his role in society is explained by completely objective reasons. In developed countries in the 20th century. there is a reduction in manual labor and an expansion of mental labor both in industry and in agriculture. Consequently, the number of workers and peasants is declining; the latter make up only 5% in the United States. But these are not traditional peasants, but independent and prosperous farmers. The list of new professions is being enriched not by low-skilled ones, as before, but by highly qualified, knowledge-intensive specialties associated with advanced technologies. Their representatives automatically fall into the middle class. From 1950 to 2000, American family income doubled. The purchasing power of the population has increased; you have to work less to buy the same thing. Leisure time has expanded, more time remains for entertainment, tourism, and amusements. Labor society is becoming a thing of the past; it is being replaced by a leisure society.

Middle class plays special role in society, figuratively it can be likened to the function spine V human body, thanks to which he maintains balance and stability. The middle class, as a rule, includes those who have economic independence (that is, are the owner of an enterprise) or a strong professional orientation. And these are precisely those functions that are not only highly valued by society, but also highly rewarded. Scientists, priests, doctors, lawyers, middle managers, bankers and entrepreneurs form the social core of society. Where there is no middle class or where it has not yet formed, society is unstable.

T. I. Zaslavskaya identifies four main features of the middle class:

• set of social groups occupied intermediate position in the social structure of society and playing a role mediator between the top and bottom;
• economically independent part of society confident in the future and interested in maintaining social order and stability of society;
• the most qualified, socially active citizens, contributing to the progressive development of society;
• main bearers of public interests, national culture, constituting the majority of the population and spreading images of their own culture to other social strata.

All of the above signs (and others) make middle class to a certain extent self-sufficient and relatively independent part of the population.

Social mobility

Mobility(French mobile) - mobility. We are interested in social(public) mobility — process of change by the subject public life your social status, moving him up the career ladder.

The term “social mobility” was introduced into sociology
P. A. Sorokin, who considered social mobility as any change in social status. In modern sociology, the theory of social mobility is widely used to study the social structure of society.

The following types of social mobility are distinguished:

• vertical ascending and descending (an individual occupies a higher position, significantly improves his financial situation, wins elections, etc. or loses a prestigious job, his company goes bankrupt, etc.);
• horizontal - movement of an individual or group within one social stratum;

Intergenerational mobility involves an increase or decrease in the social status of children in relation to the position occupied by their parents. Previously, this was not possible in all societies. Intergenerational mobility refers to long-term social processes.

Intragenerational social mobility involves a change in the status of the individual himself during his life. The position of his parents is not affected. This process is also called a career (a specialist improves his qualifications and moves to a new, more prestigious position). Sometimes this process is accompanied by a change in the sphere of work from physical to intellectual.

Studying the structure of social mobility, researchers came to the conclusion that it is influenced by factors such as a person’s gender, age, population density, and the birth rate in a particular region. Men are also more mobile;

• group - entire social groups, social layers and classes change their social position in the social structure. For example, former peasants move into the category of hired workers; miners of mines liquidated due to unprofitability become workers in other fields;
• individual - an individual moves in social space in one direction or another.

In modern in a developing society, vertical movements are not group, A individual character. Certain personalities rise up capable of overcoming the pull of their sociocultural environment. This is not easy, although a worker can, in principle, rise to the rank of minister. (The experience of the USSR is particularly indicative: M. S. Gorbachev, B. N. Yeltsin, V. V. Putin).

There is hardly a society whose strata do not allow individual units into themselves. In modern society, vertical movement is possible. However this transition Always complicated! If mobility were free, then there would be no social strata in society, believed P. A. Sorokin. It would resemble a building without a ceiling or walls.

At the same time, all societies are stratified. They have a certain “sieve” that sifts individuals and allows some to rise to the top, leaving others in the lower layers. The role of the sieve perform social institutions, regulating vertical movement, and the uniqueness of the culture, way of life of each layer, testing each nominee for strength, for compliance with the norms of the stratum to which he is moving.

So, education system provides not only the primary socialization of the individual, but also fulfills the role a kind of elevator, which allows the most capable climb up.

Political parties form the political elite, the institution of property strengthens the class of owners, the institution of marriage allows one to rise even in the absence of intellectual abilities. However, it is not enough to rise. Necessary gain a foothold in the stratum, i.e., accept its way of life and fit in in her sociocultural Wednesday, adopt norms, principles.

This process difficult, is painful, as it requires a lot of mental stress and is often fraught nervous breakdowns. A person can forever remain an outcast where he strives or ends up by the will of fate.

If social institutions are “social elevators,” then the sociocultural shell that envelops each stratum acts as a filter that exercises a kind of control. The filter may not let through an individual striving to the top, and then the one who escapes from the bottom will be doomed to be an outcast. Having risen to a higher level, he will remain behind the door leading to the stratum itself, which is fraught with neuropsychic breakdowns.

A similar picture can arise when moving down. Having lost the right, secured by capital, to live in upper layers, a person is not capable open door to another stratum with a different socioculture and from here - conflict.

Marginality

Finding a person as if between two structures called in sociology marginality.

Marginal- is an individual lost his former social status and turned out to be incapable adapt to the new sociocultural environment.

Adaptation to new conditions is often associated with a radical restructuring of life orientations. In addition, the new social environment itself has a kind of filters that select their own and reject others. It happens that a person, having lost his sociocultural environment, cannot adapt to a new environment. Then he seems to be stuck between two social layers, between two cultures. For example, a former small entrepreneur who has become rich is trying to get into higher strata of society. He seems to be leaving his old environment, but even for the new social environment he is a stranger - “a tradesman among the nobility.” Another example: a former scientist, forced to earn a living as a cab driver or small business, is burdened by his new position; for him the new environment is alien. Often he becomes the object of ridicule and humiliation on the part of less educated, but more adapted to the conditions of his environment, “colleagues in the shop.”

Marginality is a socio-psychological concept. This is not only a certain intermediate position of the individual in the social structure, but also his own self-perception, self-awareness. If a homeless person feels comfortable in his social environment, then he is not marginalized. The marginalized is the one who believes that his current position is temporary or accidental. People who are forced to change their type of activity, profession, sociocultural environment, place of residence, etc., for example, refugees, experience their marginality especially hard.

It is necessary to distinguish between marginality as an integral part of natural social mobility and forced marginality that arose in a crisis society, which becomes a tragedy for large social groups. Natural marginality is not widespread and long-term and does not pose a threat to the stable development of society. Forced mass marginality, which takes on a protracted, long-term character, indicates a crisis state of society.

Social structure (stratification) of modern Russian society

Structure Russian society XXI century has changed significantly. Instead of the Soviet three-member structure (working class, peasantry, intelligentsia), several real numerous layers of the population, new strata, appeared, primarily as a result of the economic reforms of the 1990s. During their implementation, the military-industrial complex “sank” and the financial sector quickly grew, private sector. The criterion of property and income acquired a decisive role. Social entities have been formed that meet the requirements of a market economy in their professional and personal qualities. According to T. I. Zaslavskaya, structure of modern Russian society includes five main social layers: elite, upper, middle, base layer and social bottom (underclass). At the same time, the structure of the working population at the beginning of January 1997 in percentage terms was as follows: the share of elites was no more than 1%; top layer - 5-6%; average - 66%; lower - 10%. The percentage of representatives of the social bottom was not determined, since this category of citizens, according to T. Zaslavskaya, should hardly be included in the working population.

Among Russian citizens there is a great desire to be no worse than others, even if there are no sufficient grounds for this. Therefore, to the question: “What social class do you consider yourself to be?”, 55% answered middle. Whereas in reality it is only 25-30%.

A feature of the social structure of a perfect Russian society is that it has a large social stratum (approximately 25-30%), whose representatives possess many of the basic characteristics of the middle class. These are doctors, teachers, university professors, lawyers, engineers and technicians, scientists and cultural figures, small entrepreneurs who have sufficient social activity and are aged from 25 to 50 years. In any developed country, these social groups occupy the position of the middle class. However, in Russia for various reasons, this category of citizens has a very low material income and cannot self-realize as the middle class.

According to the Institute of Comprehensive Social Research, in 2008, 46.9% of Russians classified themselves as those who lost as a result of reforms and were unable to adapt to new conditions. These people can be conditionally classified as marginalized. A third of those surveyed remained with their ideas and only 6.8% considered themselves winners.

The income gap between the richest 10% of Russian citizens and the poorest 10% (decile coefficient) is approximately 30-40, i.e. the richest are 30-40 times richer than the poor. For comparison, in the USSR the decile coefficient in different periods fluctuated between 5-7. Poor Russia in 2008 ranked fourth in the world in terms of the number of dollar billionaires.

N. E. Tikhonova identifies four classes in the structure of modern Russian society, including eleven strata.

1. The poor, consisting of:

• lumpen lower strata, including predominantly unskilled urban and rural workers (including pensioners who were unskilled workers before retirement), and are divided into the 1st social structure (conventionally called "beggars") and 2nd structure (actually poor);
• border 3-th social structure, balancing on the poverty line and conventionally called "people in need", which in terms of living standards is closer to the lower strata than to the median class, but is not yet lumpenized.

2. Median class

• including the 4th social structure (conventionally called "low-income" and being median according to the structure of Russian society in general for almost all indicators).

3. Middle layers including:

• lower middle class— 5-6th strata;
• actually middle class— 7-8th strata.

4. Rich, consisting of:

• border 9-th strata(conventionally called "upper middle class");
• upper strata, including 10th stratum(actually rich) And 11th stratum(elite and subelite).

As we see, the model of stratification (structure) of Russian society by standard of living has already formed and taken stable forms.

Within this model two lower strata(1st and 2nd) unite about 20% of Russians. These are people who, according to their real standard of living, are below the poverty line, and according to the indicators of the standard of living index, they are characterized by minus values, which clearly indicate deprivation. It is no coincidence that 61% of the group that assessed their ability to satisfy three basic needs (food, clothing and housing) as poor belonged specifically to these strata, and another quarter to 3rd stratum, which unites Russians teetering on the brink of poverty, and then sliding over this line, then slightly rising above it. There are 14% of them today. Unfortunately, a new class of poor people has formed in Russia, sliding into the underclass (lumpen and marginalized), but the worst thing is that young people from this class have no chance of moving beyond the lower class.

Fourth social structure corresponds to the level poverty. It is this standard of living is also the median(middle), and modal(i.e. the most typical) in today's Russia, as its representatives themselves feel. Among them, the assessment of their social status as satisfactory dominates (2006 - 73%), while the rest are almost equally divided into those who assess it as good and bad. The standard of living of this most massive stratum of Russian society, uniting a quarter of all Russians, he also sets consumption standard, which is perceived by Russians as the minimum acceptable living wage, forcing you to live end to end. In the process of the majority of Russians sliding from low-income to poverty in the next 5-10 years, the median class will be divided into a more prosperous part, which will join the lower middle class, and a less prosperous part (pensioners, low-skilled workers), which will join the lower class.

Social structures from 5th to 8th- This middle layers, whose well-being has significant differences among themselves, but which in any case can be considered as relatively prosperous against the all-Russian background ( 35% of Russian society).

9-10th strata unite those who, from the point of view of the overwhelming majority of Russians, can be considered rich. Their distinctive feature feeling of being masters own life. There are 5-7% of them.

Numerically, these classes of society are presented in it as follows (Table 1):

To the above-presented European structure, descending into Russian reality, it is necessary to add some social layers: engineering and technical workers, humanitarian intelligentsia, military personnel, prisoners, refugees, etc.

Structure of the middle class of Russian society (2006)

Defining the main layers of modern Russian society, to middle layers we carried lower middle class, covering the 5th and 6th strata and actually middle class— 7-8th strata (12% of society). It is his standard of living that is perceived by the majority of the Russian population as a certain average standard of normal life. At the same time, there has been a tendency for the 5th stratum of the lower middle class to slide towards the median class (4th social structure) and the movement of a third of the representatives of the 6th stratum upward to the 7th stratum. The gap between the 6th and 7th social structures will narrow, and the 6th social structure will join the 7th. Due to which the middle class will be approximately 15% of the population.

Sociological research in 2006 showed that all three pieces of property (apartment, car, dacha) are owned by 10% of the representatives of the 5th stratum, 23% of the 6th stratum and 30% of the 7th stratum. There are no criteria for 4% of the 5th stratum and 1% for the 6th. A similar picture is observed in other aspects of life (promotion, education, income, starting your own business, etc.). Even more convincing are the differences in the standard of living of representatives of the lower middle class (5th and 6th strata) and the middle class itself (7th and 8th strata). The latter were more active, enterprising, wealthy, achieved more in life: they purchased expensive goods, used paid educational and medical services, and were optimistic about the future of their children.

In the struggle to increase incomes, the middle classes are increasingly concentrated in the public sector (58% of their representatives), given that work in the public sector provides a much greater degree of social security, while providing the opportunity to receive relatively high incomes for Russia. This allows us to state that representatives of the middle classes occupy the most attractive production positions today. Among them, the share of government workers is increasing, and the share of agricultural workers is falling.

It is worth adding to this that representatives of the middle classes were better able to “earn” additional income by working part-time or retraining if necessary. They more actively improved their financial situation, using bank loans and other financial transactions, economic rationality, which allows them to plan their resources and receive maximum dividends from their own activity. Being, as it were, at the junction fundamentally different classes poor and rich, the middle classes perform an important integrating function in the structure of society.

Thus, about a third of Russians are either below the poverty line, or on this line with the risk of a final slide into poverty at the slightest deterioration in the macroeconomic situation or some family problems. About a quarter are in poverty. Approximately a third of the population can, although with some degree of convention, be considered Russian analogue of the middle class. And finally top 5-7% are those whom Russians themselves consider rich.

Moreover, the level of material security of representatives of various strata most often corresponds to other indicators of their social status: the amount of power, level of education and qualifications, characteristics of production positions, prestige, worldview, lifestyle, circle of friends.

Let us summarize the results obtained when considering middle classes in the structure of Russian society. First, in terms of their economic status, both middle classes differ from lower classes in that they have a certain economic resource(in the form of property or various types of savings and investments), as well as sufficient funds to appear in on a massive scale style differences in consumption. Moreover, starting from these classes, the trend of degradation of their property and personal potential, which characterizes the situation of other classes, ceases to be recorded. IN unlike the poor and middle class, they managed to take advantage of those new opportunities, which provided the transition to a market economy. Moreover, the features of the strategies they use to improve their financial situation, as well as the features of their economic consciousness and behavior in general, are qualitatively different from the situation in the two lower classes and give reason to assume that these differences will grow quite quickly.

However, at the same time lower middle and middle classes differ markedly How volume available to them economic resources, and the possibilities of style spending. Moreover, the dynamics of their well-being differ among them. These differences are especially evident in the situation in the lower middle class, where, despite the similarity in many parameters of the current situation in the 5th and 6th strata that comprise it, differences in trends in changes in their position are recorded between them. This allows us to assume not so much a rapprochement between the lower middle and middle classes in the future, but a further deepening of the differences between the various layers of the lower middle class, as a result of which, apparently, the 6th social structure will largely become part of the middle class itself, which will expand with favorable developments, up to approximately 15% of the population. The rest will join the lower middle class, which will also expand, incorporating part of the representatives of the 6th stratum, the 5th stratum and part of the median class.

In general, it must be said that when working with data characterizing the life of various strata in the structure of Russian society, identified on the “poverty-wealth” scale, one cannot help but be amazed at the energy with which people resist extremely unfavorable circumstances for them, that without exaggeration titanic struggle for life and the right to the future, which year after year lead tens of millions of our fellow citizens. They lead in the most difficult conditions, sometimes with the last of their strength, but still resisting the threat of finding themselves in a pool of deeper and deeper poverty and degradation. And it is no coincidence that the fear of deterioration in their financial situation turns out to be the main fear not only of the lower, but also of the middle classes - the point here is not the inability in this case to buy an extra thing or go to the movies one more time. The problem is much deeper. Apparently, even the relatively prosperous citizens of our country feel, although perhaps not always realize, which is beyond some very close line for the vast majority of them begins then at first it is smooth, and then everything accelerates sliding into the abyss of poverty and misery, from which it is almost impossible to escape.

Taking into account the analysis and other materials, the above allows us to draw the following conclusions:

1. By 2000, in Russia mainly formed qualitatively new, extremely polarized socially -class structure with poles as bourgeoisie, on the one hand, and semi-declassified hired workers - on the other hand, at very thin and unstable middle class, which would be more accurately called the middle social stratum.

2. Deepest, which has no analogue in modern industrial countries the stratification of society according to property wealth has taken on a character. The state system of social protection of Russians has been largely destroyed and turned into scattered fragments of private charity and departmental assistance, which created all the prerequisites for the lumpenization of the country's population.

3. Polarization is not limited to social-mass and property sections of society, but in a number of directions has passed through a system of relations: authorities - masses, power structures of the Center - power structures of the regions, city - village, ethnic group - ethnic groups, etc. Stratification also takes place within the bourgeois class(national bourgeoisie - comprador bourgeoisie), employees(in connection with one form of ownership or another) and, moreover, splits society into a law-abiding part and a rapidly growing criminal population; on the relatively prosperous, with housing and work, and on the rapidly multiplying socially disadvantaged. Because of this, the antagonism of Russian society has taken on a character and is fraught with either its explosive or creeping-quiet disorganization.

“USED SECTION: SOCIETY 1. Write down the word missing in the table. Type of society Main factor of production Agrarian _ Post-industrial...”

USE FOR SECTION: "SOCIETY"

1. Write down the word missing in the table.

Type of society Main factor of production

Agricultural _____

Post-industrial Information

Answer:________.

2. Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts

row below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.

1) reform, 2) revolution, 3) social dynamics, 4) evolution, 5) social regression.

Answer:________.

3. Below are a number of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the characteristics of a traditional society.

1) subsistence farming; 2) manufacturability; 3) specialization of production;

4) conservatism; 5) simple reproduction; 6) reliance on customs Answer: ________.

4. The arms race has affected the aggravation of the environmental and economic situation in the world. Select from the list below the global issues that are directly reflected in this cause-and-effect relationship.

1. threat of a new world war

2. environmental crisis and its consequences

3. the gap between developing countries of the “third world” and developed countries

4. demographic situation on the planet

5. alcoholism and drug addiction

6. international terrorism Answer:________.

5. Establish a correspondence between the spheres of society’s life and social institutions:

For each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Social institutions Spheres of social life

A) state 1) social

B) education 2) political

D) police

E) electoral system A B C D E

6. Factory production is developed in country H. What other signs indicate that a country is developing as an industrial society? Write down the numbers under which these distinctive features are indicated.

1. computer technologies are being introduced

2. a class of industrial workers is formed

3. religion has a significant influence on the development of society

4. there is a division of labor

5. Agriculture is developing at an accelerated pace

6. there is a concentration of production Answer:________.

7. Establish a correspondence between the spheres of society and the given characteristics: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column

–  –  –

8. Choose the correct judgments about society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Society is part of nature.

2. Nature completely determines the development of society.

3. Modern society characterized by class structure.

4. The totality of all the peoples inhabiting our planet constitutes a society.

5. Society can be called a certain stage historical development humanity.

Answer:________.

9. Establish a correspondence between the types of societies and the given characteristics: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Characteristics Types of societies

A) transition to universal primary education 1) traditional

B) non-economic forced labor 2) industrial

B) the emergence of mass culture

D) social origin as the basis of personal status

D) the dominance of a religious worldview

A B C D E

10. Which of the listed situations indicate the development of a post-industrial society? Choose the correct positions and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Residents of the village turned to the head of the administration with a request to organize a center for open access to the Internet.

2. A technical university opened in the city.

3. Factory workers demanded the introduction of an eight-hour working day.

4. An employee of a metallurgical plant received maternity leave.

5. Elections of deputies to the republican parliament were held in the republic.

6. The country is developing a programming language specifically designed for scientists.

Answer:________.

–  –  –

12. Choose the correct judgments about society and social institutions and write down the numbers.

under which they are indicated.

1. In a narrow sense, society is surrounding a person material world.

2. B in a broad sense Society is understood as the entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples and countries.

3. Dynamism social institutions manifested in their changes over time.

4. Social institutions arose in connection with the objective need to regulate various social relations.

5. Education as a social institution unites with other social institutions the presence organizational structure and social norms.

Answer:________.

–  –  –

14. In country Z, the urban population is growing faster than the rural population. What other signs indicate that country Z is developing as an industrial society?

Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The state guaranteed the personal freedom of citizens and creates conditions for individual self-realization.

2. The formation of a class social structure is taking place.

3. Religious organizations play a key role in public life.

4. Natural exchange (barter) predominates.

5. Mechanization of production took place.

6. Production is concentrated in large enterprises in industrial areas.

Answer:________.

15. Match distinctive features and types of societies Distinctive features Types of societies

A) subsistence nature of the economy 1) industrial

B) the leading role of information in the life of society 2) post-industrial

C) the emergence of mass culture 3) traditional (agrarian)

D) class structure of society

D) highlighting the service sector

A B C D E

16. In country Z, extensive technology and hand tools predominate. What other signs indicate that country Z is developing as a traditional society?

Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. the main social units are the tribe and the extended family

2. there is an increase in the urban population

3. oral information prevails over written information

4. infrastructure is intensively developing

5. scientific knowledge is widely disseminated

6. subsistence farming dominates Answer: ________.

17. Establish a correspondence between the distinctive features and types of societies

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF TYPES OF SOCIETIES

A) development of high technologies 1) traditional (agricultural)

B) mechanization of industrial production 2) industrial

B) bringing to the fore the service sector 3) post-industrial

D) subsistence nature of the economy

D) communal way of life, collectivism

A B C D E

18. Choose the correct judgments about society and its types and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Society is the totality of all forms of association and ways of interaction between people, which express their interdependence.

2. The main factor of production in an industrial society is land.

3. All spheres of public life and social institutions are subject to change.

4. The systemic nature of society is manifested in the presence of social communities and groups connected by social relations.

5. Society is a closed system that does not interact with the external environment.

Answer:________.

–  –  –

20. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

“The directed development of society from less perfect to more perfect is called social _____ (A). Scientists debate whether _____ (B) of such directional change should be considered. Most agree that its most striking manifestation is the transition from the simplest _____ (B) labor to modern, complex technology and new _____ (D). Is it possible to talk about improving people's morals?

Here opinions differ. Some believe that by proclaiming the ideas of freedom and _____ (D), humanity has become more humane. Others point out that _____ (E) and the associated destruction are not a thing of the past. On the contrary, the creation modern means destruction sharply increases human and material losses. This indicates that in morally We are not very far from our ancestors.”

–  –  –

READ THE TEXT AND COMPLETE TASKS 21 - 24.

The modern information revolution leads to the formation of a new class in post-industrial societies, which we called the “class of intellectuals.” Western sociologists drew attention to this back in the late 50s;

Moreover, it is very characteristic that no traces were visible behind this process at that time. negative consequences. Since, according to popular belief, “information is the most democratic source of power,” most researchers came to the conclusion that the formation of a dominant class that is non-capitalist in nature leads to overcoming the class character of society, making it classless in the long run.

However, real socio-economic processes increasingly contradict such assumptions. With each new stage of the technological revolution, the “intellectual class” gains more and more power and redistributes more and more of public wealth in its favor. In the emerging new economic system, the process of self-increasing value of information goods turns out to be largely divorced from material production. As a result, the “class of intellectuals” turns out to be dependent on all other layers of society to a much lesser extent than the ruling classes of feudal or bourgeois societies were dependent on the activities of the peasants or proletarians they exploited. This creates the preconditions for the emergence of another class on the historical stage, uniting in its ranks those who are not able to actively participate in high-tech production. His share in social wealth is steadily declining, leaving no opportunities for improving his skills and replenishing the “class of intellectuals.” This social group, for the time being associated with the lower strata of the proletariat, by the beginning of the 90s acquired a pronounced class definition, and it is impossible not to take it into account when analyzing the problems of modern society.

(V.L. Inozemtsev)

21. The author notes the formation of what new class of post-industrial society?

What reason does he give for the appearance of this class? What, according to most sociologists, should be the consequence of the emergence of a new class?

23. What another one new class characterizes the author? Based on social science knowledge, name any two social groups that can be included in this class.

Briefly explain your choice.

24. Based on the text and social science knowledge, formulate three judgments about the role of information in modern world.

25. What meaning do social scientists give to the concept of “globalization”? Using your social science course knowledge, compose two sentences: one sentence containing information about the manifestations of globalization in the economic sphere, and one sentence revealing any negative manifestation of globalization.

26. Name any three characteristics of society as a dynamic system.

27. In the context of the transition to a post-industrial society, new demands are placed on the professional qualities of an employee. Using social science knowledge and facts of social life, indicate and briefly explain any three qualities of an employee, the need for which increases in the transition to a post-industrial society.

28. You will have to prepare a detailed answer to the topic: “Globalization and its consequences.” The plan must consist of at least three points, at least two of which are divided into sub-points.

–  –  –

21. 1. “class of intellectuals”

2. The modern information revolution leads to the formation of a new class in post-industrial societies

3. the formation of a dominant class that is non-capitalist in nature leads to overcoming the class nature of society, making it classless in the future

22. No, because:

1. with each new stage of the technological revolution, the “class of intellectuals”

gaining more and more power

2. with each new stage of the technological revolution, the “class of intellectuals”

redistributes in its favor an increasingly large part of social wealth 3. the “class of intellectuals” turns out to be dependent on all other layers of society to a much lesser extent than the ruling classes of feudal or bourgeois societies were dependent on the activities of the peasants or proletarians they exploited

23. Another class unites in its ranks those who are not able to actively participate in high-tech production:

1. low-skilled workers

2. pensioners

3. housewives Because these social groups do not have opportunities to improve their skills and replenish the “class of intellectuals”

24. Role (function) of information:

1. cognitive – the formation of a holistic idea of ​​a people, country, era, etc.;

2. evaluative – differentiation of values, enrichment of traditions;

3. regulatory (normative) – the formation of a system of norms and requirements of society for all individuals in all areas of life and activity (morality, behavior);

4. informative – transfer and exchange of knowledge, values ​​and experience of previous generations;

5. communicative – preservation, transmission and replication of cultural values, development and improvement of personality through communication;

6. socialization – individuals’ assimilation of a system of knowledge, norms, values, accustoming them to social roles, normative behavior, desire for self-improvement.

7. ideological (socially oriented) - influencing the ideological foundations and value orientations of society, the self-awareness of people, their ideals and aspirations, including the motivation of behavior

8. cultural and educational – participation in the promotion and dissemination of high cultural values ​​in the life of society, educating people

1. Globalization is the process of becoming a united humanity;

2. Globalization of the economy is manifested in the global division of labor, the formation of global consumption standards, and the development of world commodity and financial markets.

3. Negative manifestations of globalization include cultural unification to the detriment of the development of national cultures.

1. presence of subsystems subject to change

2. self-organization and self-development

3. emergence of new elements and connections

4. interconnection of spheres of social life

5. interaction of social institutions 27.

1. willingness to improve qualifications throughout labor activity(the employee has to adapt to the constant development of technology and technology);

2. mobility (a modern worker is required to be ready to change types of activities and master related professions);

3. communication skills (information is the basis of the economy, so the ability to receive and transmit information is important).

28. Globalization and its consequences Plan

1. Globalization as a process of formation of a united humanity

2. The main reasons for globalization:

2.1. ICT development

2.2.Economic integration of regions of the planet

2.3.Activities of transnational corporations

3. Main directions of globalization:

3.1.Economic

3.2.Political

3.3.Cultural

3.4. Information and communication

4. Consequences of the globalization process:

State University named after S. Toraigyrova Faculty of Agricultural Technology Department of "Biotechnology" TRAINING PROGRAM ON...”

“2012 BULLETIN OF ST. PETERSBURG UNIVERSITY Ser. 3 Issue 3 AGROCHEMISTRY, SOIL SCIENCE UDC 631.466:581.557.24 N. M. Labutova INFLUENCE OF BACTERIA R. PSEUDOMONAS AND ENDOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGUS GLOMUS INTRARADICES ON SORGHUM PLANTS IN SALT ... "

“Pereslavl Local Lore Initiative. - Topic: village. - No. 4638. 9-10. Collectivization of agriculture In 1927, the XV Party Congress decided to fully develop the collectivization of agriculture. Basically..."

"ROSSELKHOZNADZOR INFORMATION AND ANALYTICAL CENTER EPIZOOTIC SITUATION IN COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD No. 21 February 01, 2017 Official information of the OIE 1. Ukraine: African swine fever

1) spiritual and practical

3) creative

4) educational

5) prognostic

6) individual

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

4) think

5) produce offspring

1. Choose a concept that summarizes all other concepts in the series below. Write down this word (phrase).

Social revolution, economic reform, social progress, social dynamics, fundamental changes.

1) cognition

2) game

3) labor

4) communication

5) activity

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

List of terms:

Part 2.

21. What two types of necessities of human existence are noted by the authors? What is the main contradiction, according to the authors, that I encountered? modern man?

27. One philosopher considered the criterion of true knowledge to be its clarity and self-evidence. Another philosopher considered sensations to be such a criterion. Based on your knowledge of the course, indicate three criteria of truth accepted by modern science.

29. Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, identifying, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic raised). When expressing your thoughts about the raised problem (designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained from studying the social studies course, relevant concepts, as well as facts of social life and your own life experience. (To support your argument, give at least two examples from different sources.

29.1	Philosophy
29.1.	Philosophy
29.3

Preview:

Social studies test, grade 10, semester 1, Option 1

1. Write down the word missing in the diagram.

Explanation.

The activity is divided into two parts: practical and spiritual (theoretical).

Answer: spiritual.

1. Choose a concept that summarizes all other concepts in the series below. Write down this word (phrase).

Knowledge, worldview, values, attitudes, beliefs.

Explanation.

Worldview is a generalized system of a person’s views on the world and his place in it. The basis of a worldview is the knowledge accumulated by a person throughout his life. The structure of a worldview includes values, attitudes, and beliefs.

Answer: worldview.

1. Below are a number of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, are characteristic of the stages of human knowledge of the world.

1) feeling

2) perception

3) hypothesis

4) presentation

5) practice

6) judgment

7) concept

Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in your answer.

Explanation.

Hypothesis and practice are methods and criteria of scientific knowledge. Everything else is a form of knowledge.

Answer: 35.

1. In country Z information Technology are the most important factor of production. What other signs indicate that country Z is developing as post-industrial society? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Social relations are regulated by legal and moral norms.

2) The majority of the population is employed in the service sector.

3) Extensive farming methods predominate.

4) Science-intensive, resource-saving technologies are receiving the greatest development.

5) There is a widespread introduction of computer technology into various areas of life.

6) Natural factors influence the development of society.

Explanation.

Post-industrial information is characterized by the following features:

1) knowledge, information, high technology;

2) computerization, widespread use of machinery;

3) environmental transformation;

4) intensive development path;

5) intellectual products (programs, inventions);

6) individualism;

7) reducing the role of religion;

8) the main thing is education, science.

Answer: 245.

1. Establish a correspondence between the distinctive features and types of society: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Pre-industrial society (traditional) - competition between man and nature. It is characterized by the predominant importance of agriculture, fishing, cattle breeding, mining and wood processing industries. In these areas economic activity About 2/3 of the working population is employed. Manual labor dominates. The use of primitive technologies based on everyday experience passed down from generation to generation.

Industrial is a competition between man and transformed nature. It is characterized by the development of the production of consumer goods, which is carried out through the widespread use of various types of equipment. Economic activity is dominated by centralism, gigantism, uniformity in work and life, Mass culture, low level spiritual values, oppression of people, destruction of nature. The time of brilliant craftsmen who could, without fundamental special knowledge, invent a loom, a steam engine, a telephone, an airplane, etc. Monotonous assembly line work.

Post-industrial - competition between people. It is characterized not only by the widespread use of the achievements of science and technology in all areas of human activity, but also by the targeted improvement of technology itself based on the development of fundamental sciences. Without the application of the achievements of fundamental sciences, it would be impossible to create either an atomic reactor, a laser, or a computer. Man is replaced automated systems. One man using a computer modern technology can produce the final product, not in a standard (mass) version, but in an individual version in accordance with the consumer’s order.

A) the class structure of society is agrarian.

B) the leading role of information in the life of society is post-industrial.

C) affirmation of the values ​​of progress, personal success - industrial.

G) mass production consumer goods - industrial.

D) bringing the service sector to the forefront - post-industrial.

Answer: 13223.

1. Select from the proposed social facts that contain a manifestation of the most important social needs of the individual.

1) In the work team where the graduate of an economics university came, at first it was not easy for her, many questions differed significantly from the university knowledge, but more experienced senior colleagues helped her get up to speed with their advice.

2) For a young man, his social circle, friends and girlfriends are extremely important; sometimes you can discuss with them things that you cannot discuss with either your parents or teachers.

3) The young man succeeded in the tourism business, creating large company, specializing in the field of extreme tourism, but now he is more concerned about the glory of a philanthropist, a patron of young talents; He recently established a scholarship for young scientists.

4) The professor devotes every last Saturday of the month to going to the conservatory for chamber music concerts.

5) Every person needs support heat balance bodies, so in winter we wear mittens, warm boots and jackets.

Explanation.

Needs: physiological (for reproduction, food, clothing, housing, rest), existential (for the safety of one’s existence, comfort, guarantee of entertainment), social needs (manifested in a person’s desire to communicate, affection, care for another person, attention to oneself) , prestigious (in self-respect, respect from others, recognition, achievement of success), spiritual (in self-actualization, self-expression, creativity).

1) In the work team where the graduate of an economics university came, at first it was not easy for her, many questions differed significantly from the university knowledge, but more experienced senior colleagues with their advice helped her get up to speed - yes, that’s right.

2) For a young man, his social circle, friends and girlfriends are extremely important; sometimes you can discuss with them what you cannot discuss with either your parents or teachers - yes, that’s right.

3) The young man succeeded in the tourism business, creating a large company specializing in extreme tourism, but now he is more concerned about the fame of a philanthropist, a patron of young talents; he recently established a scholarship for young scientists - no, that’s incorrect.

4) The professor devotes every last Saturday of the month to going to the conservatory for chamber music concerts - no, that’s incorrect.

5) Every person needs to maintain the thermal balance of the body, so in winter we wear mittens, warm boots and jackets - no, that’s not true.

Answer: 12.

1. Since ancient times, the creations of folk artists make beautiful daily life, decorate household items - clothing, tools, kitchen utensils, fishing and hunting implements, furniture. Products made from birch bark, fur, wood, ceramics and other items of decorative and applied art represent the results of the activity.

1) spiritual and practical

2) socially transformative

3) creative

4) educational

5) prognostic

6) individual

Explanation.

1) spiritual and practical - yes, that’s right.

2) socially transformative - yes, that's right.

3) creative - yes, that's right.

4) cognitive - no, incorrect, not present here.

5) prognostic - no, incorrect, not present here.

6) individual - no, incorrect, not present here.

Answer: 123.

1. An eleventh-grader is preparing to enter university. Establish a correspondence between the examples and its elements educational activities: For each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Activity is a process of a person’s active relationship to reality, during which the subject achieves previously set goals, meets various needs and masters social experience.

Structure of activity: subject - the one who carries out the activity (person, group of people, organization, government body); the object is what it is directed at ( natural materials, various objects, spheres or areas of people’s lives); motives - those internal forces that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage him to perform certain activities; goals are the most significant objects, phenomena, tasks and objects for a person, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity (the goal of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result); methods and techniques (actions) are relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals, subordinated to a common motive.

A) problem solving is a means to achieve a goal.

B) teacher consultation is a means to achieve a goal.

C) eleventh grader - subject.

D) getting a high score on the exam is the goal.

D) textbooks are a means to an end.

Answer: 33123.

1. Find in the list below the human abilities that are primarily social in nature and circle the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) transform the environment

2) see the purpose of your actions

3) adapt to natural conditions

4) think

5) produce offspring

6) alternate periods of activity and rest

Explanation.

The ability to think and practically act is of a social nature.

Answer: 124.

1. Choose a concept that summarizes all other concepts in the series below. Write down this word (phrase).

Social revolution, economic reform, social progress, social dynamics, fundamental changes.

Explanation.

Social dynamics is social change, movement, development.

A social revolution is a qualitative revolution in the entire social structure of society.

Economic reform is a restructuring affecting the economic sphere.

Social progress is a development characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from simpler to more complex, and movement towards something more perfect.

Answer: social dynamics.

1. Choose the correct judgments about human activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Human activity is creative and transformative.

2) Human activity is entirely determined by conditioned reflexes.

3) Unlike the behavior of animals, human activity is focused on satisfying the needs operating in this moment time.

4) Human activity is caused by social needs.

5) Human activity is volitional and conscious.

Explanation.

Activity is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at understanding and transforming the external world and the person himself.

The main feature of activity is that its content is not determined entirely by the need that gave rise to it. Need as a motive (impulse) gives impetus to activity, but the forms and content of activity themselves are determined by social goals, requirements and experience.

There are three main types of activity: play, learning and work. The goal of the game is the “activity” itself, not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called learning. Labor is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.

1) Human activity is creative and transformative - yes, that’s right.

2) Human activity is entirely determined by conditioned reflexes - no, incorrectly, not entirely, it is also purposeful.

3) Unlike the behavior of animals, human activity is focused on satisfying the needs that exist at a given moment in time - no, that’s not true, the behavior of animals is also aimed at what is happening at a given moment in time.

4) Human activity is caused by social needs - yes, that’s right.

5) Human activity is of a volitional and conscious nature - yes, that’s right.

Answer: 145.

1. Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.

1) cognition

2) game

3) labor

4) communication

5) activity

Explanation.

All concepts presented are types of activities.

Answer: 5.

1. Choose the correct judgments about society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Society is part of nature.

2) Nature completely determines the development of society.

3) Modern society is characterized by a class structure.

4) The totality of all the peoples inhabiting our planet is a society.

5) Society can be called a certain stage in the historical development of mankind.

Explanation.

1) Society is a part of nature - no, that’s not true, society is a separated part of the natural world.

2) Nature completely determines the development of society - no, incorrect.

3) Modern society is characterized by a class structure - no, that’s not true.

4) The totality of all the peoples inhabiting our planet constitutes a society - yes, that’s right.

5) Society can be called a certain stage in the historical development of mankind - yes, that’s right.

Answer: 45.

1. Match between characteristic features and levels of scientific knowledge: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Methods of scientific knowledge are divided into empirical - based on sensory knowledge and theoretical - based on rational knowledge, using concepts, judgments and inferences. A hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or natural connections of any phenomena or events of nature, society, or thinking.

A) formulation of scientific laws - theoretical.

B) explanation of the essence of the phenomena being studied - theoretical.

B) generating hypotheses - theoretical.

D) observation of the phenomena being studied - empirical.

D) carrying out quantitative measurements - empirical.

Answer: 22211.

1. Select the correct judgments about sensory cognition and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) With the help of sensory knowledge, we can judge the external properties of individual objects and phenomena.

2) Sensation is one of the forms of sensory knowledge.

3) One of the forms of sensory cognition is the formation of a holistic image of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

4) At the stage of sensory cognition, the key task is to generalize and analyze information.

5) The mental connection of several judgments and the isolation of a new judgment from them is the result of sensory cognition.

Explanation.

Sensory cognition - through the senses. Forms: sensation (reflection of individual features of objects through the senses), perception (a holistic image of an object is given through all senses), representation (a sensory image of an object from memory).

1) With the help of sensory knowledge, we can judge the external properties of individual objects and phenomena - yes, that’s right.

2) Sensation is one of the forms of sensory knowledge - yes, that’s right.

3) One of the forms of sensory cognition is the formation of a holistic image of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses - yes, that’s right.

4) At the stage of sensory cognition, the key task is to generalize and analyze information - no, incorrect.

5) The mental connection of several judgments and the isolation of a new judgment from them is the result of a sensory one - no, it is incorrect.

Answer: 123.

1. Select the correct judgments about the formational approach to the study of society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The formational approach to the study of society was most fully formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels.

2) Within the framework of the formational approach, the leading role in the development of society is assigned to ideological and cultural factors.

3) The formational approach describes the development of society as a movement from a lower to a higher level.

4) The formational approach assumes the universal nature of the laws of social development.

5) The formational approach emphasizes the uniqueness and diversity of various geographical and historical forms of society.

Explanation.

Formational approach - history is considered as a single progressive development, which identifies stages common to all peoples. Formulated by Marx and Engels.

1. The formational approach to the study of society was most fully formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels - yes, that’s right.

2) Within the framework of the formational approach, the leading role in the development of society is assigned to ideological and cultural factors - no, it is incorrect.

3) The formational approach describes the development of society as a movement from a lower to a higher level - yes, that’s right.

4) The formational approach assumes the universal nature of the laws of social development - yes, that’s right.

5) The formational approach emphasizes the uniqueness and diversity of various geographical and historical forms of society - no, it’s wrong.

Answer: 134.

1. Find in the list given the features characteristic of folk culture. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

2) is predominantly commercial in nature

3) does not require special training for its perception

4) appeared earlier than other forms of culture

5) designed for a narrow circle of connoisseurs

Explanation.

Designed for a narrow circle of connoisseurs - it is not suitable, because the people are not a narrow circle of society. It is predominantly commercial in nature - at the birth of folk culture, the concept of “commercial” did not even exist.

Answer: 134.

1. Establish a correspondence between the methods of scientific knowledge and their types: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Levels of scientific knowledge: empirical (based on the description of objects and phenomena, observation and experiment) and theoretical (based on laws, principles, scientific theories, which reveal the essence of cognitive processes, laws that cannot be observed).

A) classification - theoretical.

B) experiment - empirical.

C) observation - empirical.

D) formalization - theoretical.

D) description - empirical.

Answer: 12212.

1. A student was doing a biology project. What signs indicate that he used empirical methods of knowledge? Select these methods of cognition from the list below and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) developed an ecosystem model

2) conducted observations in the field

3) studied the literature on the research problem

4) used the school laboratory to conduct experiments

5) before starting the study, he put forward a working hypothesis, which was confirmed

6) described a number of cases that had not previously appeared in the literature

Explanation.

Empirical methods rely on the senses.

1) developed an ecosystem model - no, incorrect.

2) conducted observations in the field - yes, that’s right.

3) studied the literature on the research problem - no, incorrect.

4) used the school laboratory to conduct experiments - yes, that's right.

5) before starting the study, he put forward a working hypothesis, which was confirmed - no, incorrect.

6) described a number of cases that had not previously appeared in the literature - yes, that’s right.

Answer: 246.

1. Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

“The proportion of people who become “knowledge workers” is steadily increasing. _________________________________(A) and knowledge constitute both the source material and the product of their activity. But the point is not only that more and more people are engaged in _____________________ (B): the intellectual content of all work is growing, be it in agriculture, industry, institutions or in _____________________ (B). A modern doctor, armed with antibiotics, magnetic resonance imaging and _______________________(D), brings to his work much more knowledge than his predecessors before World War II, whose main drugs were hot water and caring attention to patients. The heroic image of __________________________ (D) - naked to the waist, with reflections of hellish flames from a blast furnace on his torso - is becoming a thing of the past, just as the peasant before him disappeared from the historical arena. The modern worker is more likely to work in an air-conditioned control room, overseeing rows of _____________________(E).”

The words in the list are given in nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once. Choose one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the blanks.

List of terms:

The table below shows the letters representing the missing words. Write down the number of the word you chose in the table under each letter.

Explanation.

Based on the context, sequence 134897 is the only correct answer. Indirect clues are the gender and number of words.

Answer: 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 7.

Part 2.

The main contradiction that modern man is faced with is the sharp discrepancy between the biological and social capabilities of man and the civilizational capabilities that the world, built according to the latest achievements of science and technology, gives him, due to which the problem arises: what state is the world heading towards? The first option: it could be a more developed world, progressing economically, politically, morally and otherwise. But there may be another option: a world deteriorating in some of these relationships or in all of them at once. But so far only one thing is clear: humanity... has received beginning of XXI V. very much at your disposal powerful tools impact on both nature and society...

Man as a socio-biological being functions at the intersection of two opposing types of needs. Necessities of the first type are a combination of biological, social and other needs. Among them, the leading ones are the needs coming from human body. A person needs to eat, drink, rest, needs some minimum level of comfort, some kind of personal circle of communication, etc. All this, in a certain context, can serve as the basis for egoistic strategies of human existence. Thus, the well-being of one specific individual, one family, a certain circle of people connected by blood or business ties, etc. can be placed at the center of such strategies.

The needs of the second type are associated with the socio-spiritual content of human consciousness and, first of all, with moral and ethical norms, among which human conscience comes first, understood differently by different philosophical schools. But all these schools agree on one thing: it is conscience that is an integral component of such experiences as compassion, altruism, heroism, etc. Conscience is also one of the components of spirituality...

The situation of modern life is such that... lack of spirituality begins to permeate the entire society, and one of its most dangerous consequences is a decrease in the individual’s sense of responsibility. Such a decrease in the responsibility of the individual can be carried out in a certain “corridor” - from inattention to the object of communication or control, etc. until his needs and interests are completely ignored. If a soulless person finds himself at vital points in the state, economic, political, etc. mechanism, then its inadequate actions can lead to various kinds of disasters.

(T.D. Sterledeva, R.K. Sterledeva)

C1. What two types of necessities of human existence are noted by the authors? What is the main contradiction, according to the authors, that modern man faces?

	Points
1) two types of needs (answer to the first question): a set of biological, social and other needs; necessities associated with the socio-spiritual content of human consciousness; 2) contradiction (answer to the second question): a sharp discrepancy between the biological and social capabilities of man and the civilizational capabilities that the world, built on the latest achievements of science and technology, gives him. Elements of the answer can be given in other, similar in meaning formulations
Two types of needs and a contradiction are correctly indicated
Only one type of need and a contradiction are correctly indicated. OR Only two types of needs are correctly specified
Only one type of need is correctly specified. OR Only the contradiction is correctly stated. OR The answer is incorrect
Maximum score

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1) answer to the question: one of the most dangerous consequences of lack of spirituality is a decreased sense of responsibility of the individual; (The answer to the question can be given in a different formulation that is similar in meaning.) 2) two manifestations of personal spirituality, let's say: Interest in works of art and literature; Understanding the meaning of life as a desire for self-improvement, and not for the possession of exclusively material goods. (Other manifestations may be given.)
The correct answer to the question is given, two manifestations are given
The correct answer to the question is given, one manifestation is given. OR Only two manifestations are given
Only the correct answer to the question is given. OR Only one manifestation is given. OR The answer is incorrect
Maximum score

C3. The authors claim that humanity received by the beginning of the 21st century. very powerful means of influencing nature and society. Name any one means of influencing nature and any one means of influencing society, illustrate with examples the effect of each of these means.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The correct answer should name the means of influence and provide relevant examples: science (for example, created on the basis scientific discoveries nuclear power plants in the event of an accident, all components of the region’s natural environment are exposed to radioactive contamination); electronic systems for processing and transmitting information (for example, a failure in the electronic payment system led to the blocking of bank accounts). Other means of influence may be named and other examples given.
The means of influence on nature and society are correctly named, the action of each of them is illustrated with examples.
The means of influence on nature and (or) society are correctly named, the effect of one means is illustrated with example(s)
Only the means of influencing nature and society are correctly named. OR Only examples of impact on nature and society are given
Only the means(s) of influence on nature or society are correctly named. OR Only example(s) of impact on nature or society is given. OR General reasoning is provided that does not meet the requirements of the assignment. OR The answer is incorrect
Maximum score

C4. The authors proposed two options for answering the question: what state is the world heading towards? Which of these answer options seems more reasonable to you? Using your social science knowledge, give three reasons to support your opinion.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1) answer option to the question: a more developed, progressive world OR a degrading world; 2) arguments in support: If you choose the first answer to the question, it may be said that: the duration, level and quality of life of people is increasing; science and technology are actively developing; democracy and civil society are developing; If you choose the second answer to the question, it may be said that: in the modern world, wars do not stop, millions of people suffer from hunger and disease; there is a large gap in the quality of life of the population of the most developed (“golden billion”) and the poorest countries of the world; mass culture broadcasts works that are incompatible with moral values ​​and ideas of beauty. Other arguments may be given to support the chosen answer to the question.
An answer option is indicated and three arguments are given
An answer option is indicated and two arguments are given
An answer option is indicated and one argument is given
Only the answer option is indicated. OR The answer option is not specified, regardless of the presence of other answer elements. OR Reasoning of a general nature is given that does not correspond to
Maximum score

25. What meaning do social scientists give to the concept of “need”? Using your social science course knowledge, make two sentences: one sentence containing information about the types of needs, and one sentence specifying information about any of these types.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)

Points

The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1. the meaning of the concept, for example: A person’s need for something that constitutes a necessary condition for his existence; (Another, similar definition or explanation of the meaning of the concept may be given.) 2. one sentence with information about the types of needs, based on knowledge of the course, for example: Distinguish between biological, social and spiritual needs; (Another sentence may be written containing information about two or more types of needs.) 3. one sentence specifying information about any type of needs, for example: Spiritual needs include the need to acquire new knowledge, artistic creativity, religious faith, etc. (Another proposal may be made that specifies information about any type of need.) Proposals must be formulated correctly and not contain elements that distort the meaning of the concept and/or its aspects. Sentences containing essential errors are not taken into account when grading.

26. Scientific knowledge differs from other types of knowledge of the world. Name three features of scientific knowledge and illustrate each with an example.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The correct answer can name and illustrate the following features: 1) focus on obtaining true knowledge (for example, a sociologist sets the goal of studying the social life of people); 2) the use of special language (for example, the terms “social culture”, “social stratification” are used to characterize society); 3) use special methods and means (for example, a sociologist used survey and observation methods when conducting a sociological survey). Other examples may be given, other features named and illustrated.
Three features correctly named and illustrated
Two or three features are correctly named, two of which are illustrated with an example
One to three features are correctly named, one of which illustrated with an example. OR Only three features are named
Only one or two features are correctly named. OR Only one to three examples are given. OR General reasoning is provided that does not meet the requirements of the assignment. OR The answer is incorrect
Maximum score

27. One philosopher considered the criterion of true knowledge to be its clarity and self-evidence. Another philosopher considered sensations to be such a criterion. Based on your knowledge of the course, indicate three criteria of truth accepted by modern science.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The correct answer may include the following criteria: 1) social practice (this or that type of cognition has as a criterion of truth the corresponding form of practice: everyday practice, observation, experiment, etc.); 2) formal-logical criterion (used in conditions where there is no possibility of relying on practice; for example, identifying logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning); 3) consistency with the knowledge whose truth has been established. Other criteria of truth may be given
Three criteria are given
Two criteria are given
One criterion given	1
OR General reasoning is provided that does not meet the requirements of the assignment. Wrong answer	0
Maximum score	3

28. You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “Scientific knowledge as one of the types of knowledge.” Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Contents of the correct answer and assessment instructions (other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
When analyzing the answer, the following is taken into account: the presence of plan items that are required to disclose the proposed topic; the correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic; compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type. Wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment
One of the options for covering this topic 1. Cognition as an activity. 2. Types of knowledge: a) scientific; b) mythological; c) artistic, etc. 3. Features of scientific knowledge: a) striving for objectivity; b) rational validity; c) systematic; d) verifiability, etc. 4. Levels of scientific knowledge: a) empirical knowledge; b) theoretical knowledge. 5. Methods of scientific knowledge. 6. Truth as a result of scientific knowledge. A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms. The absence of paragraphs 2, 3 and 4/5 of the plan in this or similar wording will not allow us to reveal the content of this topic on its merits
The wording of the points of the plan is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the topic in essence (the provisions ofat least two of the plan points noted above). The structure of the answer corresponds to a complex type plan (contains at least three points, two of which are detailed in subparagraphs)	3
The wording of the plan points is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the topic in essence (the provisions of at least two of the plan points noted above are reflected). The plan includes at least three points, one of which is detailed in subparagraphs. OR The wording of the plan points is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the topic (the provisions of the two plan points noted above are reflected). The plan includes two points, each of which is detailed in subparagraphs	2
The wording of the plan points is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the specified topic (the provisions of at least two of the plan points noted above are reflected). The plan is simple in structure and contains at least three points. OR In the plan along with the correct wordingthere are erroneous positions. But in general, the plan allows you to reveal the content of the topic in essence (the provisions of at least two of the points noted above in the plan are reflected), one or two points are detailed in subparagraphs	1
The plan in terms of structure and (or) content does not disclose the specified topic (including a set of abstract formulations that do not reflect the specifics of the content of this topic). OR The plan is simple in structure and contains one or two points	0
Maximum score	3

29.1	Philosophy	“The joint harmonious development of Nature and Society is the central problem of modern life. And the development of a joint strategy for mankind, aimed at ensuring this harmony, will occupy the most important place in the collective efforts of all countries globe" (N.N. Moiseev)
29.1.	Philosophy	“If we want to move forward, then one leg must remain in place while the other takes the next step. This is the first law of all progress...” (J. Eotvos)
29.3	Sociology, social psychology	“In the matter of education, the process of self-development should be given the widest place.” (G. Spencer)

Estates are groups formed in society, endowed with rights and responsibilities prescribed by law and passed on by inheritance. The class structure of society implies that a person depends on his belonging to a particular class. This dependence involves a certain range of responsibilities, communication, norms of behavior and even clothing. In this case, a transition in the vertical direction is impossible: a person is born and dies in the same rank, which belongs to his ancestors. The same title is passed on to future generations.

General concept

The class structure of society in Russia began to take shape in the 16th century. The process occurred in parallel with the concentration of land around Moscow.

You should also pay attention to what type of society the class structure of society is inherent in. The type of the latter refers to traditional ones, that is, those that are based on traditional values. It is in such a society that stable groups of people or classes are formed.

The class structure of society included privileged classes and dependent classes. The first of these should include servicemen and the clergy. All the rest were dependent.

Let us take a closer look at what classes existed in former times, and how they differed from each other.

Service people

Servants meant everyone who served the state. They were divided into two groups:

1. Those who served “in the fatherland” - their service was inherited.
2. Servicemen “according to the instrument” - all free people could fall into this category.

The class of servicemen “in the homeland” had many gradations within. It was divided into:

• Duma ranks. These are boyars, okolnichy and Duma nobles.
• Moscow ranks. These are sleeping bags, centurions, attorneys, tenants, Moscow nobles.
• The ranks were service elective nobles, as well as boyar children.

The Duma ranks made up the Boyar Duma. Moscow ranks were called “close people,” their names indicated the duties of their owners. The sleepers undress the king, the stewards serve the royal feasts, the solicitors hold the scepter, the residents go with parcels. Moscow nobles received estates under Ivan the Terrible, they were obliged to carry out the royal orders.

The ranks of service policemen are the provincial nobility. Elected nobles carried a difficult military service. were also engaged in public service.

Any free person could fall into the “regular service” category. These included the archers. A special unit consisted of gunners and fighters. Reitars, dragoons, and border Cossacks also belonged to this class. Servicemen “according to the order” were provided with land ownership, however, on a collective basis.

Clergy

The clergy class was divided into black (monasticism) and white (its representatives could have a family). The entire class numbered approximately a million people.

The Russian Church became autocephalous, that is, independent from others. Its first patriarch was Job. His choice belonged to the church council, but in reality the candidacy was determined by the tsar.

In the 17th century in Russian Orthodox Church there were 12 bishops. Bishops were chosen by lot. They had their own courtyards, servants, archers. Bishops paid rent, the amount of which was determined by the wealth of the parish. The Novgorod diocese was considered the most prosperous at that time.

During the described time period, there were about 500 monasteries in Rus'. Some of them were famous thanks to miraculous icons and ascetics. These include Trinity-Sergiev, Chudov, Sergiev, Novodevichy. Often they performed political role, turning into centers of resistance to foreign invaders. Thanks to large land holdings, many monasteries became economic centers.

If we consider the class structure of society in the 17th century, the following groups stood out among the white clergy:

1. Deacons. They were low-ranking priests.
2. Priests are ministers of higher-ranking churches.
3. Archpriests. They were the abbots of the temples. In our time they correspond to archpriests.

So, we looked at the privileged groups of people in the class structure of society. The traditional society of that time also included a dependent population.

Posad people

Speaking about the class structure of Russian society, we should name a group of townspeople. This category was divided as follows:

• Moscow townsman ranks - guests, hundreds, black settlements;
• Posad policemen are the best, average and young people.

The first group was the merchant elite. This group included various merchants, to whom the king granted the title of "guest". These people had various privileges; they could freely travel outside the Moscow state and acquire estates. But in addition to privileges, there were also responsibilities. Guests were supposed to be kissers, appraisers, and purchase materials for government needs.

Posad people paid the “sovereign tax” and many other taxes, called taxes. And the population itself was called tax. It was divided into black hundreds and white settlements. The first included simple townspeople engaged in crafts, trade, and crafts.

And they settled in cities, their occupations were the same as those of the Black Hundreds, but they were feudal-dependent on their owner, who was paid taxes. The townspeople staged serious unrest because of their difficult situation, so in 1649 the white settlements were liquidated.

Based on their property, the townspeople were divided into the best, the middle and the youngest.

District people are taxing

• on the black sowing people, who had personal freedom, based their farms on state land, which they could pass on by inheritance, lived in communities and paid huge taxes;
• proprietary or feudal-dependent.

Among historians, there are two theories about the enslavement of peasants. The first, the decree, says that enslavement began after the decree of Fyodor Ioannovich. The undecided theory claims that there was no such decree, and the process of enslaving the peasants occurred gradually due to debt bondage. Supporters of both theories are still arguing; no consensus has emerged on this issue.

Serfs

• for reporting slaves - they usually served as key holders, that is, managers of feudal farms;
• combat - performed military service;
• enslaved people, who went from free people to service;
• backyard - they lived “outside the yard” of the landowner, worked on his land, received food from him;
• business people - they ran independent households.

Gradually, serfdom and peasants merged, turning into one class group.

Walking people

This is the most diverse category of people in the class structure of society. They were also called free. This group went beyond class boundaries, and people from any stratum could fall into it. The walking people did not have their own plots. Some of them went to work for taxing people. Such workers were called neighbors, sub-neighbors, backbenchers. Others had neither specific occupation nor place of residence. The state fought against this category of the population, since free people took part in riots.

So, we examined the class social structure of society in Russia in the 17th century and characterized all the classes existing at that time.