The name of a work of classicism in architecture. On the way to classicism of the 18th century: features of classicism, appearance in Russian literature

Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as examples of the ideal, “correct” style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism are characterized by harmony and logic.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism replaced Rococo, which was subject to public criticism for excessive complexity, pompousness, mannerism, and excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The architects' attention was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor characteristic of ancient architecture, primarily Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The goal of all objects created in the classicism style is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time, harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental ancient architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were observed.

The aesthetics of classicism were favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter and a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. In the classic composition, following the composition of antiquity, symmetry prevails. The color scheme is predominantly light pastel tones, which serve to highlight the architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, and resorts appear.

In the 20s of the 19th century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic overtones. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

Development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of enlightenment progressive trends in social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of ​​the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal government structure and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when the individual developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of classicists, it was an ideal time in history without social contradictions And social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

Three stages in the development of classicism in the world can be distinguished:

• Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
• Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
• Empire style

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural movement. In fact, like European classicism, it became the opposite of Baroque and quickly supplanted it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) movements: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the accession of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feelings was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “class classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism.” As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, and logical consistency. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. She must portray truth and virtue and engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are intended to promote personal development so that man becomes enlightened and civilized. How stronger connection between various types arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as rich shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines and smooth patterns; the elements are repeating and harmonious, and the shapes are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on roofs, rotundas. Antique ornaments were often present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, without frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most widespread styles throughout the world. Throughout the entire period of its existence, many talented masters appeared, and it was created a large number of projects.

The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the works of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period was Jacques-Germain Soufflot - he was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many of the principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire style - the “imperial style”. This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the 19th century. after which it was replaced by eclectic movements.

In Britain, the equivalent of the Empire style was the "Regency style" (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist, is considered one of the founders of the British architectural tradition.

The most characteristic interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon parts that did not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon appeared.

In Russia, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for an interior in the classicist style were actually the same as for architectural objects: monolithic structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time grace. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simpler and lighter. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture from the Classical era was made from precious woods, great importance acquired a texture that began to perform a decorative function. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of higher quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened and the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.

The colors of this style often have crisp, almost primal yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray as well as bronze and silver embellishments. Popular White color. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.

Currently, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics may also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Let's look at the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period marked the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural movement.

In Classical France, various public institutions were built, including business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times was the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Soufflot. Initially, the project was conceived as the Church of St. Genevieve, patroness of Paris, but in 1791 it was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grandiose dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. The parts of the building are clearly demarcated; one can notice the transition from heavier to lighter forms. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; the columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combined functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the fire of 1666 occurred; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant temple. It has an elongated shape, like a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similar to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a design typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a structure closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is its wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome there is a lantern topped with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower there are 12, and in the right there is the “Great Floor” - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the diameter of the dial is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral there is a monument to Anna, Queen of England previous era. At her feet you can see allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are surrounded by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with the cross is 120 meters.

The openwork grilles by Jean Tijou, made of wrought iron (late 17th century) and the carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient literature and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the master's later works one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, and the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers included popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. IN last years life master built his own museum in Possagno.

In Russia, the era of classicism was created by many talented architects - both Russian and those who came from abroad. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoe Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into the forest.

If at the beginning of the new architectural period the still unknown style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classic Western forms and fusion with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday occurred during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts is reviving the tradition of training its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to introduce Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn’s buildings, as well as Pashkov’s house, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on the top of a hill, its façade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon implemented a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend towards it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the Admiralty facade, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to a complex problem - preserving the design of the spit of Vasilievsky Island, and at the same time being combined with the ensembles of previous eras.

The art of classicism

Introduction

The theme of my work is the art of classicism. This topic interested me very much and attracted my attention. Art in general covers a lot of things, it includes painting and sculpture, architecture, music and literature, and in general everything that is created by man. Looking through the works of many artists and sculptors, they seemed very interesting to me; they attracted me with their ideality, clarity of lines, correctness, symmetry, etc.

The purpose of my work is to consider the influence of classicism on painting, sculpture and architecture, on music and literature. I also consider it necessary to define the concept of “classicism”.

1. Classicism

The term classicism comes from the Latin classicus, which literally means exemplary. In literary and art criticism, the term denotes a specific direction, artistic method and style of art.

This art direction is characterized by rationalism, normativity, a tendency toward harmony, clarity and simplicity, schematicism, and idealization. Character traits are expressed in the hierarchy of “high” and “low” styles in literature. For example, in dramaturgy, unity of time, action and place was required.

Supporters of classicism adhered to fidelity to nature, the laws of the rational world with its inherent beauty, all this was reflected in symmetry, proportions, place, harmony, everything should have been presented as ideal in its perfect form.

Under the influence of the great philosopher and thinker of that time, R. Descartes, the features and characteristics of classicism spread to all spheres of human creativity (music, literature, painting, etc.).

2. Classicism and the world of literature

Classicism as a literary movement emerged in 16-17. Its origins lie in the activities of Italian and Spanish academic schools, as well as the association of French writers “Pleiades”, who during the Renaissance turned to ancient art, to the norms set out by ancient theorists. (Aristotle and Horace), trying to find in ancient harmonious images a new support for the ideas of humanism that have experienced a deep crisis. The emergence of classicism was historically conditioned by the emergence of an absolute monarchy - a transitional form of state, when the weakened aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, which had not yet gained strength, were equally interested in the unlimited power of the king. Classicism reached its highest flowering in France, where its connection with absolutism was especially clear.

The activities of the classicists were led by the French Academy, founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu. The creativity of writers, artists, musicians, and actors of classicism largely depended on the benevolent king.

As a movement, classicism developed differently in European countries. In France, it developed by the 1590s and became dominant by the middle of the 17th century, the highest flowering occurred in 1660-1670. Then classicism underwent a crisis and in the 1st half of the 18th century, Enlightenment classicism became the successor of classicism, which in the 2nd half of the 18th century lost its leading position in literature. During the French Revolution of the 18th century, Enlightenment classicism formed the basis of revolutionary classicism, which dominated all spheres of art. Classicism practically degenerated in the 19th century.

As an artistic method, classicism is a system of principles of selection, evaluation and reproduction of reality. The main theoretical work, which sets out the basic principles of classical aesthetics, is “The Poetic Art” of Boileau (1674). The classicists saw the purpose of art in the knowledge of truth, which acts as the ideal of beauty. The classicists put forward a method for achieving it, based on three central categories of their aesthetics: reason, example, taste, which were considered objective criteria of artistry. Great works are the fruit not of talent, not of inspiration, not of artistic imagination, but of persistent adherence to the dictates of reason, the study of classical works of antiquity and knowledge of the rules of taste. In this way, the classicists brought artistic activity closer to scientific activity, so the philosophical rationalistic method of Descartes turned out to be acceptable for them. Descartes argued that the human mind has innate ideas, the truth of which is beyond doubt. If one moves from these truths to unsaid and more complex positions, dividing them into simple ones, methodically moving from the known to the unknown, without allowing logical gaps, then any truth can be clarified. This is how reason became the central concept of the philosophy of rationalism, and then the art of classicism. The world seemed motionless, consciousness and ideal - unchanging. The aesthetic ideal is eternal and the same at all times, but only in the era of Antiquity was it embodied in art with the greatest completeness. Therefore, to reproduce the ideal, it is necessary to turn to ancient art and study its laws. That is why imitation of models was valued by classicists much higher than original creativity.

Turning to Antiquity, the classicists abandoned the imitation of Christian models, continuing the struggle of the Renaissance humanists for art free from religious dogma. The classicists borrowed external features from Antiquity. Under the names of ancient heroes, people of the 17th and 18th centuries were clearly visible, and ancient subjects made it possible to pose the most pressing problems of our time. The principle of imitation of nature was proclaimed, strictly limiting the artist’s right to imagination. In art, attention was paid not to the particular, individual, random, but to the general, typical. The character of a literary hero has no individual traits, acting as a generalization of a whole type of people. Character is a distinctive property, a general quality, the specificity of a particular human type. Character can be extremely, implausibly sharpened. Morals mean general, ordinary, customary, character means special, rare precisely in the degree of expression of the property dispersed in the morals of society. The principle of classicism led to the division of heroes into negative and positive, into serious and funny. Laughter becomes satirical and refers mainly to negative characters.

Classicists are not attracted to all of nature, but only to “pleasant nature.” Everything that contradicts the model and taste is expelled from art; a whole number of objects seem “indecent”, unworthy of high art. In the case when an ugly phenomenon of reality must be reproduced, it is reflected through the prism of the beautiful.

Classicists paid much attention to the theory of genres. Not all established genres met the principles of classicism. A previously unknown principle of the hierarchy of genres appeared, asserting their inequality. There are main and non-main genres. By the mid-17th century, tragedy had become the main genre of literature. Prose, especially fiction, was considered a lower genre than poetry, so prose genres that were not designed for aesthetic perception became widespread - sermons, letters, memoirs; fiction fell into oblivion. The principle of hierarchy divides genres into “high” and “low”, and certain artistic spheres are assigned to genres. For example, “high” genres (tragedy, ode) were assigned problems of a national nature. In “low” genres it was possible to touch upon private problems or abstract vices (stinginess, hypocrisy). The classicists paid the main attention to tragedy; the laws of its writing were very strict. The plot was supposed to reproduce ancient times, the life of distant states (Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece); it had to be guessed from the title, the idea - from the first lines.

Classicism as a style is a system of visual and expressive means that typify reality through the prism of ancient examples, perceived as the ideal of harmony, simplicity, unambiguity, and an ordered system. The style reproduces the rationalistically ordered outer shell of ancient culture, without conveying its pagan, complex and undifferentiated essence. The essence of the classicism style was to express the view of the world of a person of the absolutist era. Classicism was distinguished by clarity, monumentality, the desire to remove everything unnecessary, to create a single and integral impression.

The largest representatives of classicism in literature are F. Malherbe, Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, F. La Rochefoucauld, Voltaire, G. Miltono, Goethe, Schiller, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin. The works of many of them combine features of classicism and other movements and styles (Baroque, Romanticism, etc.). Classicism developed in many European countries, the USA, Latin America, etc. Classicism was repeatedly revived in the forms of revolutionary classicism, empire style, neoclassicism and influences the world of art to this day.

3. Classicism and art

The theory of architecture is based on the treatise of Vitruvius. Classicism is the direct spiritual successor of the ideas and aesthetic principles of the Renaissance, reflected in Renaissance art and theoretical works of Alberti, Palladio, Vignola, Serlio.

In different European countries, the time stages of the development of classicism do not coincide. Thus, already in the 17th century, classicism occupied significant positions in France, England, and Holland. In the history of German and Russian art, the era of classicism dates from the 2nd half of the 18th century - the 1st third of the 19th century; for the previously listed countries, this period is associated with neoclassicism.

The principles and postulates of classicism developed and existed in constant polemics and at the same time in interaction with other artistic and aesthetic concepts: mannerism and baroque in the 17th century, rococo in the 18th century, romanticism in the 19th century. At the same time, the expression of style in different types and genres of art of a certain period was uneven.

In the second half of the 16th century, there was a collapse of the single harmonious vision of the world and man as its center inherent in the Renaissance culture. Classicism is characterized by normativity, rationality, condemnation of everything subjective and a fantastic demand from art for naturalness and correctness. Classicism also has an inherent tendency towards systematization, towards the creation of a complete theory. artistic creativity, to the search for unchanging and perfect samples. Classicism sought to develop a system of general, universal rules and principles aimed at comprehending and implementing artistic means the eternal ideal of beauty and universal harmony. This direction is characterized by the concepts of clarity and measure, proportion and balance. The key ideas of classicism were set out in Bellori’s treatise “Lives of contemporary artists, sculptors and architects" (1672), the author expressed his opinion on the need for choice middle way between mechanical copying of nature and leaving it into the realm of fantasy.

Ideas and perfect images of classicism are born from the contemplation of nature, ennobled by the mind, and nature itself in classical art appears as a purified and transformed reality. Antiquity - best example natural art.

In architecture, the trends of classicism made themselves known in the 2nd half of the 16th century in the works of Palladio and Scamozzi, Delorme and Lescaut. Classicism of the 17th century had a number of features. Classicism was distinguished by a rather critical attitude towards the creations of the ancients, which were perceived not as an absolute example, but as a starting point in the value scale of classicism. The masters of classicism set as their goal to learn the lessons of the ancients, but not in order to imitate them, but in order to surpass them.

Another feature is the close connection with other artistic movements, primarily Baroque.

For the architecture of classicism, such qualities as simplicity, proportionality, tectonics, regularity of facade and volumetric-spatial composition, the search for proportions that are pleasing to the eye and the integrity of the architectural image, expressed in the visual harmony of all its parts, are of particular importance. In the 1st half of the 17th century, classicist and rationalist mindsets were reflected in a number of buildings by Desbros and Lemercier. In the second half of the 1630s-1650s, the inclination towards geometric clarity and integrity of architectural volumes and closed silhouette intensified. The period is characterized by a more moderate use and uniform distribution of decorative elements, awareness of the independent significance of the free plane of the wall. These trends emerged in the secular buildings of Mansar.

Nature and landscape art became an organic part of classicist architecture. Nature acts as a material from which the human mind can create correct forms, architectural in appearance, mathematical in essence. The main exponent of these ideas is Le Nôtre.

In the fine arts, the values ​​and rules of classicism were outwardly expressed in the requirement for clarity of plastic form and ideal balance of composition. This determined the priority of linear perspective and drawing as the main means of identifying the structure and the “idea” of the work embedded in it.

Classicism penetrated not only the sculpture and architecture of France, but also Italian art.

Public monuments became widespread in the era of classicism; they gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms.

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien sudden movements, external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality

4. Music and classicism

Classicism in music was formed in the 18th century on the basis of the same set of philosophical and aesthetic ideas as classicism in literature, architecture, sculpture and the visual arts. No ancient images were preserved in music; the formation of classicism in music occurred without any support.

The brightest representatives of classicism are the composers of the Vienna Classical School Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. Their art admires the perfection of compositional technique, the humanistic orientation of creativity and desire, especially noticeable in the music of V.A. Mozart, to display perfect beauty through music. The very concept of the Vienna Classical School arose shortly after the death of L. Van Beethoven. Classical art is distinguished by a delicate balance between feelings and reason, form and content. The music of the Renaissance reflected the spirit and breath of its era; in the Baroque era, the subject of display in music was the human condition; the music of the Classical era glorifies the actions and deeds of man, the emotions and feelings he experiences, the attentive and holistic human mind.

A new bourgeois musical culture is developing with its characteristic private salons, concerts and opera performances, open to any public, a faceless audience, publishing activities and music criticism. In this new culture, the musician has to assert his position as an independent artist.

The heyday of Classicism began in the 80s of the eighteenth century. In 1781, J. Haydn created several innovative works, including his String Quartet op. 33; The premiere of V.A.’s opera is taking place. Mozart's "The Abduction from the Seraglio"; F. Schiller's drama "The Robbers" and I. Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" are published.

In the era of Classicism, music is understood as a supra-national art, a kind of universal language understandable to everyone. Arises new idea about the self-sufficiency of music, which not only describes nature, entertains and educates, but is also capable of expressing true humanity using a simple and understandable metaphorical language.

The tone of the musical language changes from sublimely serious, somewhat gloomy, to more optimistic and joyful. For the first time, the basis of a musical composition is an imaginative melody, free from empty bombast, and a dramatic contrasting development, embodied in a sonata form based on the opposition of the main musical themes. The sonata form predominates in many works of this period, including sonatas, trios, quartets, quintets, symphonies, which at first did not have strict boundaries with chamber music, and three-movement concerts, mostly for piano and violin. New genres are developing - divertissement, serenade and cassation.

Conclusion

classicism art literature music

In this work, I examined the art of the Classical era. When writing the work, I read many articles touching on the topic of classicism, and I also looked at many photographs depicting paintings, sculptures, and architectural structures of the classicism era.

I believe that the material I have provided is sufficient for a general understanding of this issue. It seems to me that in order to develop a broader knowledge in the field of classicism, it is necessary to visit fine art museums, listen to musical works of that time and become familiar with at least 2-3 literary works. Visiting museums will allow you to feel the spirit of the era much more deeply, to experience those feelings and emotions that the authors and the ends of the works tried to convey to us.

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1. Introduction.Classicism as an artistic method...................................2

2. Aesthetics of classicism.

2.1. Basic principles of classicism.........................…………….….....5

2.2. Picture of the world, concept of personality in the art of classicism......5

2.3. The aesthetic nature of classicism.................................................... ........9

2.4. Classicism in painting......................................................... .........................15

2.5. Classicism in sculpture......................................................... .......................16

2.6. Classicism in architecture................................................................... .....................18

2.7. Classicism in literature................................................................... .......................20

2.8. Classicism in music......................................................... ...............................22

2.9. Classicism in the theater................................................... ...............................22

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism.................................................... ....22

3. Conclusion……………………………………...…………………………...26

Bibliography..............................…….………………………………….28

Applications ........................................................................................................29

1. Classicism as an artistic method

Classicism is one of the artistic methods that actually existed in the history of art. Sometimes it is referred to by the terms “direction” and “style”. Classicism (French) classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

The concept of classicism as a creative method presupposes in its content a historically determined method of aesthetic perception and modeling of reality in artistic images: the picture of the world and the concept of personality, the most common for the mass aesthetic consciousness of a given historical era, are embodied in ideas about the essence of verbal art, its relationship with reality , its own internal laws.

Classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions. The most common research belief connects classicism with the historical conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a unified national-territorial statehood, in the formation of which the centralizing role belongs to the absolute monarchy.

Classicism is an organic stage in the development of any national culture, despite the fact that different national cultures go through the classicist stage at different times, due to the individuality of the national version of the formation of a general social model of a centralized state.

The chronological framework of the existence of classicism in different European cultures is defined as the second half of the 17th - the first thirty years of the 18th century, despite the fact that early classicist trends were noticeable at the end of the Renaissance, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Within these chronological limits, French classicism is considered the standard embodiment of the method. Closely connected with the heyday of French absolutism in the second half of the 17th century, it gave European culture not only great writers - Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, Voltaire, but also a great theorist of classicist art - Nicolas Boileau-Dépreau. Being himself a practicing writer who earned fame during his lifetime for his satires, Boileau was mainly famous for the creation of the aesthetic code of classicism - the didactic poem “Poetic Art” (1674), in which he gave a coherent theoretical concept of literary creativity, derived from the literary practice of his contemporaries. Thus, classicism in France became the most self-conscious embodiment of the method. Hence its reference value.

The historical prerequisites for the emergence of classicism connect the aesthetic problems of the method with the era of aggravation of the relationship between the individual and society in the process of the formation of autocratic statehood, which, replacing the social permissiveness of feudalism, seeks to regulate by law and clearly delimit the spheres of public and private life and the relationship between the individual and the state. This determines the meaningful aspect of art. Its basic principles are motivated by the system of philosophical views of the era. They form a picture of the world and a concept of personality, and these categories are embodied in a set of artistic techniques of literary creativity.

The most general philosophical concepts present in all philosophical movements of the second half of the 17th - late 18th centuries. and directly related to the aesthetics and poetics of classicism are the concepts of “rationalism” and “metaphysics”, relevant for both idealistic and materialistic philosophical teachings of this time. The founder of the philosophical doctrine of rationalism is the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). The fundamental thesis of his doctrine: “I think, therefore I exist” - was realized in many philosophical movements of that time, united by the common name “Cartesianism” (from the Latin version of the name Descartes - Cartesius). In essence, this is an idealistic thesis, since it brings out the material existence from an idea. However, rationalism, as the interpretation of reason as the primary and highest spiritual ability of man, is equally characteristic of the materialist philosophical movements of the era - such, for example, as the metaphysical materialism of the English philosophical school of Bacon-Locke, which recognized experience as a source of knowledge, but put it below the generalizing and analytical activity of the mind, extracting from the multitude of facts obtained by experience the highest idea, a means of modeling the cosmos - the highest reality - from the chaos of individual material objects.

The concept of “metaphysics” is equally applicable to both varieties of rationalism - idealistic and materialistic. Genetically, it goes back to Aristotle, and in his philosophical teaching it denoted a branch of knowledge that explores the highest and unchangeable principles of all things, inaccessible to the senses and only rationally and speculatively comprehended. Both Descartes and Bacon used the term in the Aristotelian sense. In modern times, the concept of “metaphysics” has acquired additional meaning and has come to mean an anti-dialectical way of thinking that perceives phenomena and objects without their interrelation and development. Historically, this very accurately characterizes the peculiarities of thinking of the analytical era of the 17th-18th centuries, the period of differentiation of scientific knowledge and art, when each branch of science, standing out from the syncretic complex, acquired its own separate subject, but at the same time lost connection with other branches of knowledge.

2. Aesthetics of classicism

2.1. Basic principles of classicism

1. Cult of reason 2. Cult of civic duty 3. Appeal to medieval subjects 4. Abstraction from the depiction of everyday life, from historical national identity 5. Imitation of ancient models 6. Compositional harmony, symmetry, unity of a work of art 7. Heroes are bearers of one main feature, given without development 8. Antithesis as the main technique for creating a work of art

2.2. Picture of the world, concept of personality

in the art of classicism

The picture of the world generated by the rationalistic type of consciousness clearly divides reality into two levels: empirical and ideological. The external, visible and tangible material-empirical world consists of many separate material objects and phenomena that are in no way connected with each other - it is a chaos of individual private entities. However, above this chaotic multitude of individual objects, there is their ideal hypostasis - a harmonious and harmonious whole, a universal idea of ​​the universe, which includes the ideal image of any material object in its highest, purified from particulars, eternal and unchanging form: in the way it should be according to the original plan of the Creator. This universal idea can only be comprehended rationally and analytically by gradually purifying an object or phenomenon from its specific forms and appearance and penetrating into its ideal essence and purpose.

And since design precedes creation, and thinking is an indispensable condition and source of existence, this ideal reality has the highest primary character. It is easy to notice that the main patterns of such a two-level picture of reality are very easily projected onto the main sociological problem of the period of transition from feudal fragmentation to autocratic statehood - the problem of the relationship between the individual and the state. The world of people is a world of individual private human beings, chaotic and disorderly, the state is a comprehensive harmonious idea that creates a harmonious and harmonious ideal world order out of chaos. It is this philosophical picture of the world of the 17th-18th centuries. determined such substantive aspects of the aesthetics of classicism as the concept of personality and the typology of conflict, universally characteristic (with the necessary historical and cultural variations) for classicism in any European literature.

In the field of human relations with the outside world, classicism sees two types of connections and positions - the same two levels from which the philosophical picture of the world is formed. The first level is the so-called “natural man”, a biological being, standing alongside with all objects of the material world. This is a private entity, possessed by selfish passions, disorderly and unrestricted in its desire to ensure its personal existence. At this level of human connections with the world, the leading category that determines the spiritual appearance of a person is passion - blind and unrestrained in its desire for realization in the name of achieving individual good.

The second level of the concept of personality is the so-called “social person”, harmoniously included in society in his highest, ideal image, aware that his good is an integral part of the good of the general. A “social man” is guided in his worldview and actions not by passions, but by reason, since reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, giving him the opportunity for positive self-determination in the conditions of human community, based on the ethical norms of consistent community life. Thus, the concept of human personality in the ideology of classicism turns out to be complex and contradictory: a natural (passionate) and a social (reasonable) person is one and the same character, torn by internal contradictions and in a situation of choice.

Hence the typological conflict of the art of classicism, which directly follows from such a concept of personality. It is quite obvious that the source of a conflict situation is precisely the character of a person. Character is one of the central aesthetic categories of classicism, and its interpretation differs significantly from the meaning that is given to the term “character” modern consciousness and literary criticism. In the understanding of the aesthetics of classicism, character is precisely the ideal hypostasis of a person - that is, not the individual makeup of a specific human personality, but a certain universal view of human nature and psychology, timeless in its essence. Only in this form of an eternal, unchanging, universal attribute could character be an object of classicist art, unambiguously attributed to the highest, ideal level of reality.

The main components of character are passions: love, hypocrisy, courage, stinginess, sense of duty, envy, patriotism, etc. It is by the predominance of one passion that a character is determined: “lover”, “miserly”, “envious”, “patriot”. All these definitions are precisely “characters” in the understanding of classicist aesthetic consciousness.

However, these passions are unequal to each other, although according to the philosophical concepts of the 17th-18th centuries. all passions are equal, since they are all from human nature, they are all natural, and no passion on its own can decide which passion is consistent with the ethical dignity of a person and which is not. These decisions are made only by reason. Despite the fact that all passions are equally categories of emotional spiritual life, some of them (such as love, stinginess, envy, hypocrisy, etc.) are less and more difficult to agree with the dictates of reason and are more associated with the concept of selfish good. Others (courage, sense of duty, honor, patriotism) are more subject to rational control and do not contradict the idea of ​​the common good, the ethics of social relations.

So it turns out that rational and unreasonable passions, altruistic and selfish, personal and social, collide in conflict. And reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, a logical and analytical tool that allows one to control passions and distinguish good from evil, truth from lies. The most common type of classic conflict is a conflict situation between personal inclination (love) and a sense of duty to society and the state, which for some reason excludes the possibility of realizing love passion. It is quite obvious that by its nature this conflict is psychological, although a necessary condition for its implementation is a situation in which the interests of man and society collide. These most important ideological aspects of the aesthetic thinking of the era found their expression in the system of ideas about the laws of artistic creativity.

2.3. The aesthetic nature of classicism

The aesthetic principles of classicism have undergone significant changes during its existence. A characteristic feature of this trend is admiration for antiquity. Art Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome was considered by classicists as an ideal model of artistic creativity. “Poetics” of Aristotle and “The Art of Poetry” of Horace had a huge influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. Here we find a tendency to create sublimely heroic, ideal, rationalistically clear and plastically completed images. As a rule, in the art of classicism, modern political, moral and aesthetic ideals are embodied in characters, conflicts, situations borrowed from the arsenal of ancient history, mythology, or directly from ancient art.

The aesthetics of classicism guided poets, artists, and composers to create works of art distinguished by clarity, logic, strict balance and harmony. All this, according to classicists, was fully reflected in ancient artistic culture. For them, reason and antiquity are synonymous. The rationalistic nature of the aesthetics of classicism manifested itself in the abstract typification of images, strict regulation of genres, forms, in the interpretation of the ancient artistic heritage, in the appeal of art to reason rather than to feelings, in the desire to subordinate the creative process to unshakable norms, rules and canons (norm - from the Latin. norma – guiding principle, rule, pattern; generally accepted rule, pattern of behavior or action).

Just as the aesthetic principles of the Renaissance found their most typical expression in Italy, so in France in the 17th century. – aesthetic principles of classicism. By the 17th century Italian artistic culture has largely lost its former influence. But the innovative spirit of French art clearly emerged. At this time, an absolutist state was formed in France, which united society and centralized power.

The strengthening of absolutism meant the victory of the principle of universal regulation in all spheres of life, from economics to spiritual life. Debt is the main regulator of human behavior. The state personifies this duty and acts as a kind of entity alienated from the individual. Submission to the state, fulfillment of public duty is the highest virtue of an individual. Man is no longer thought of as free, as was typical of the Renaissance worldview, but as subject to norms and rules alien to him, limited by forces beyond his control. The regulating and limiting force appears in the form of the impersonal mind, to which the individual must submit and act according to its commands and instructions.

The high rise in production contributed to the development of the exact sciences: mathematics, astronomy, physics, and this, in turn, led to the victory of rationalism (from the Latin ratio - reason) - a philosophical trend that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.

Ideas about the laws of creativity and the structure of a work of art are determined to the same extent by the epochal type of worldview as the picture of the world and the concept of personality. Reason, as the highest spiritual ability of man, is conceived not only as an instrument of knowledge, but also as an organ of creativity and a source of aesthetic pleasure. One of the most striking leitmotifs of Boileau’s “Poetic Art” is the rational nature of aesthetic activity:

French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most typical representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

Following Aristotle, classicism considered art to be an imitation of nature:

However, nature was by no means understood as a visual picture of the physical and moral world, presented to the senses, but rather as the highest intelligible essence of the world and man: not a specific character, but its idea, not a real historical or modern plot, but a universal human conflict situation, not given landscape, but an idea harmonious combination natural realities in ideally beautiful unity. Classicism found such an ideally beautiful unity in ancient literature - it was precisely this that was perceived by classicism as the already achieved pinnacle of aesthetic activity, the eternal and unchanging standard of art, which recreated in its genre models that very highest ideal nature, physical and moral, which art should imitate. It so happened that the thesis about imitation of nature turned into a prescription to imitate ancient art, where the term “classicism” itself came from (from the Latin classicus - exemplary, studied in class):

Thus, nature in classic art appears not so much reproduced as modeled on a high model - “decorated” with the generalizing analytical activity of the mind. By analogy, one can recall the so-called “regular” (i.e., “correct”) park, where the trees are trimmed in the form of geometric shapes and symmetrically planted, the paths have the correct shape, sprinkled with multi-colored pebbles, and the water is enclosed in marble pools and fountains. This style of gardening art reached its peak precisely in the era of classicism. The desire to present nature as “decorated” also results in the absolute predominance in literature of classicism of poetry over prose: if prose is identical to simple material nature, then poetry, as a literary form, is certainly an ideal “decorated” nature.”

In all these ideas about art, namely as a rational, ordered, standardized, spiritual activity, the hierarchical principle of thinking of the 17th-18th centuries was realized. Within itself, literature also turned out to be divided into two hierarchical series, low and high, each of which was thematically and stylistically associated with one - material or ideal - level of reality. Low genres included satire, comedy, and fable; to the highest - ode, tragedy, epic. In low genres, everyday material reality is depicted, and a private person appears in social connections (while, of course, both the person and reality are still the same ideal conceptual categories). In high genres, man is presented as a spiritual and social being, in the existential aspect of his existence, alone and along with the eternal fundamentals of questions of existence. Therefore, for high and low genres, not only thematic, but also class differentiation turned out to be relevant based on the character’s belonging to one or another social stratum. The hero of low genres is a middle-class person; high hero - a historical figure, a mythological hero or a fictional high-ranking character - usually a ruler.

In low genres, human characters are formed by base everyday passions (stinginess, hypocrisy, hypocrisy, envy, etc.); in high genres, passions acquire a spiritual character (love, ambition, vindictiveness, a sense of duty, patriotism, etc.). And if everyday passions are clearly unreasonable and vicious, then existential passions are divided into reasonable - social and unreasonable - personal, and the ethical status of the hero depends on his choice. He is unambiguously positive if he prefers a reasonable passion, and unambiguously negative if he chooses an unreasonable one. Classicism did not allow halftones in ethical assessment - and this also reflected the rationalistic nature of the method, which excluded any confusion of high and low, tragic and comic.

Since in the genre theory of classicism those genres that reached the greatest flourishing in ancient literature were legitimized as the main ones, and literary creativity was thought of as a reasonable imitation of high models, to the extent that the aesthetic code of classicism acquired a normative character. This means that the model of each genre was established once and for all in a clear set of rules, from which it was unacceptable to deviate, and each specific text was aesthetically assessed according to the degree of compliance with this ideal genre model.

The source of the rules were ancient examples: the epic of Homer and Virgil, the tragedy of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Seneca, the comedy of Aristophanes, Menander, Terence and Plautus, the ode of Pindar, the fable of Aesop and Phaedrus, the satire of Horace and Juvenal. The most typical and illustrative case of such genre regulation is, of course, the rules for the leading classic genre, tragedy, drawn both from the texts of ancient tragedians and from Aristotle’s Poetics.

For the tragedy were canonized poetic form(“Alexandrian verse” - iambic hexameter with paired rhyme), a mandatory five-act structure, three unities - time, place and action, high style, historical or mythological plot and conflict, suggesting a mandatory situation of choice between reasonable and unreasonable passion, and the choice process itself was supposed to constitute the action of the tragedy. It was in the dramatic section of the aesthetics of classicism that the rationalism, hierarchy and normativity of the method were expressed with the greatest completeness and obviousness:

Everything that was said above about the aesthetics of classicism and the poetics of classicist literature in France applies equally to almost any European variety of the method, since French classicism was historically the earliest and aesthetically most authoritative embodiment of the method. But for Russian classicism, these general theoretical principles found a unique refraction in artistic practice, since they were determined by the historical and national characteristics of the formation of the new Russian culture of the 18th century.

2.4. Classicism in painting

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king." Although private clients favored various variants of Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“The Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).

In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David’s artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor (“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Itinerants, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

2.5. Classicism in sculpture

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov as Mars, and Polina Borghese as Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (these are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

2.6. Classicism in architecture

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" ( largest representative- John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).

2.7. Classicism in literature

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus,” the greatest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art.” Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made alexandrines the main form of English poetry. English prose of the classical era (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by a Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of society itself. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: unity of time (the action takes place on one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with Rousseau’s proclaimed call for closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena were growing in classicism at the end of the 18th century; The absolutization of reason is replaced by the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature of the era of Sturm and Drang, represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw art as the main force of education person.

2.8. Classicism in music

The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

The music of the Classical era glorifies the actions and deeds of man, the emotions and feelings he experiences, and the attentive and holistic human mind.

The theatrical art of classicism is characterized by a solemn, static structure of performances and measured reading of poetry. The 18th century is often called the “golden age” of theater. The founder of European classical comedy is the French comedian, actor and theater figure, reformer of stage art Moliere (name: Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) (1622-1673). For a long time, Moliere traveled with a theater troupe around the province, where he became acquainted with stage technology and the tastes of the public. In 1658, he received permission from the king to play with his troupe at the court theater in Paris. Based on the traditions of folk theater and the achievements of classicism, he created the genre of social comedy, in which slapstick and plebeian humor were combined with grace and artistry. Overcoming the schematism of the Italian comedies dell'arte (Italian commedia dell'arte - comedy of masks; the main masks are Harlequin, Pulcinella, the old merchant Pantalone, etc.), Moliere created life-like images. He ridiculed the class prejudices of the aristocrats, the narrow-mindedness of the bourgeoisie, the hypocrisy of the nobles ( "The Tradesman in the Nobility", 1670). With particular intransigence, Moliere exposed hypocrisy, hiding behind piety and ostentatious virtue: “Tartuffe, or the Deceiver” (1664), “Don Juan” (1665), “The Misanthrope” (1666). Moliere's artistic heritage had a profound influence on the development of world drama and theater. The most mature embodiment of the comedy of manners is recognized as “The Barber of Seville” (1775) and “The Marriage of Figaro” (1784) by the great French playwright Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais (1732-1799). They depict the conflict between the third estate and the nobility. Operas by V.A. were written based on the plots of the plays. Mozart (1786) and G. Rossini (1816).

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism

Russian classicism arose in similar historical conditions - its prerequisite was the strengthening of autocratic statehood and national self-determination of Russia starting from the era of Peter I. The Europeanism of the ideology of Peter's reforms aimed Russian culture at mastering the achievements of European cultures. But at the same time, Russian classicism arose almost a century later than French: by the middle of the 18th century, when Russian classicism was just beginning to gain strength, in France it reached the second stage of its existence. The so-called “Enlightenment classicism” - a combination of classicist creative principles with the pre-revolutionary ideology of the Enlightenment - in French literature flourished in the work of Voltaire and acquired an anti-clerical, socially critical pathos: several decades before the Great French Revolution, the times of apology for absolutism were already distant history. Russian classicism, due to its strong connection with secular cultural reform, firstly, initially set itself educational tasks, trying to educate its readers and instruct monarchs on the path of public good, and secondly, acquired the status of a leading direction in Russian literature towards that time when Peter I was no longer alive, and the fate of his cultural reforms was jeopardized in the second half of the 1720s - 1730s.

Therefore, Russian classicism begins “not with the fruit of spring - ode, but with the fruit of autumn - satire,” and social-critical pathos is inherent in it from the very beginning.

Russian classicism also reflected a completely different type of conflict than Western European classicism. If in French classicism the socio-political principle is only the soil on which the psychological conflict of rational and unreasonable passion develops and the process of free and conscious choice between their dictates is carried out, then in Russia, with its traditionally anti-democratic conciliarity and the absolute power of society over the individual, the situation was completely different. otherwise. For the Russian mentality, which had just begun to comprehend the ideology of personalism, the need to humble the individual before society, the individual before the authorities, was not at all such a tragedy as for the Western worldview. The choice, relevant for the European consciousness as an opportunity to prefer one thing, in Russian conditions turned out to be imaginary, its outcome was predetermined in favor of society. Therefore, the situation of choice itself in Russian classicism lost its conflict-forming function, and was replaced by another.

The central problem of Russian life in the 18th century. There was a problem of power and its succession: not a single Russian emperor after the death of Peter I and before the accession of Paul I in 1796 came to power by legal means. XVIII century - this is an age of intrigue and palace coups, which too often led to absolute and uncontrolled power of people who did not at all correspond not only to the ideal of an enlightened monarch, but also to ideas about the role of the monarch in the state. Therefore, Russian classic literature immediately took a political-didactic direction and reflected precisely this problem as the main tragic dilemma of the era - the inconsistency of the ruler with the duties of the autocrat, the conflict of the experience of power as an egoistic personal passion with the idea of ​​power exercised for the benefit of his subjects.

Thus, the Russian classic conflict, having preserved the situation of choice between reasonable and unreasonable passion as an external plot pattern, was entirely realized as socio-political in nature. The positive hero of Russian classicism does not humble his individual passion in the name of the common good, but insists on his natural rights, defending his personalism from tyrannical attacks. And the most important thing is that this national specificity of the method was well understood by the writers themselves: if the plots of French classic tragedies are drawn mainly from ancient mythology and history, then Sumarokov wrote his tragedies based on plots from Russian chronicles and even on plots from not so distant Russian history.

Finally, another specific feature of Russian classicism was that it did not rely on such a rich and continuous tradition of national literature as any other national European variety of method. What any European literature had at the time of the emergence of the theory of classicism - namely, a literary language with an ordered stylistic system, principles of versification, a defined system of literary genres - all this had to be created in Russian. Therefore, in Russian classicism, literary theory was ahead of literary practice. The normative acts of Russian classicism - reform of versification, reform of style and regulation of the genre system - were carried out between the mid-1730s and the end of the 1740s. - that is, mainly before a full-fledged literary process in line with classicist aesthetics unfolded in Russia.

3. Conclusion

For the ideological premises of classicism, it is essential that the individual’s desire for freedom is considered here to be as legitimate as the need of society to bind this freedom by laws.

The personal principle continues to retain that immediate social significance, that independent value with which the Renaissance first endowed it. However, in contrast, now this principle belongs to the individual, along with the role that society now receives as a social organization. And this implies that any attempt by an individual to defend his freedom in spite of society threatens him with the loss of the fullness of life connections and the transformation of freedom into an empty subjectivity devoid of any support.

The category of measure is a fundamental category in the poetics of classicism. It is unusually multifaceted in content, has both a spiritual and plastic nature, is in contact with, but does not coincide with, another typical concept of classicism - the concept of norm - and is closely connected with all aspects of the ideal affirmed here.

Classical reason, as the source and guarantor of balance in nature and the life of people, bears the stamp of poetic faith in the original harmony of all things, trust in the natural course of things, confidence in the presence of an all-encompassing correspondence between the movement of the world and the formation of society, in the humanistic, human-oriented nature of this communications.

I am close to the period of classicism, its principles, poetry, art, creativity in general. The conclusions that classicism makes regarding people, society, and the world seem to me to be the only true and rational ones. Measure, as the middle line between opposites, order of things, systems, and not chaos; a strong relationship between man and society against their rupture and enmity, excessive genius and selfishness; harmony against extremes - in this I see the ideal principles of existence, the foundations of which are reflected in the canons of classicism.

List of sources

Classicism in architecture and urban planning.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

In Venice, Palladio, commissioned by the Church, completed several projects and built a number of churches (San Pietro in Castello, 1558; cloister of the church of Santa Maria della Carita [now the Accademia Museum]; façade of the church of San Francesco della Vigna, 1562; San Giorgio Maggiore on the same island, 1565 [completed by V. Scamozzi by 1610]; "Il Redentore", that is, [the church of] the Savior, on the island of Giudecca, 1576-1592; Santa Maria della Presentatione, or "Le Citelle"; Santa Lucia, dismantled in mid-19th century during the construction of a railway station). If Palladio's villas as a whole are united by the impression of harmony and tranquility of forms, then in his churches the main thing is the dynamics of forms, sometimes excited pathos.

Robert Adam (working in collaboration with his brother James) became the most sought after architect in Britain. Connoisseurs of beauty admired the freedom with which he combined classical elements previously considered incompatible. A fresh approach to the arrangement of familiar architectural techniques (thermal window, serliano) testified to Adam’s deep penetration into the essence of ancient art. Buildings: Kedleston Hall, Syon House, Register House, Osterley Park.

Classicism in painting.

The few paintings of Agostino Carracci (the best of them are the frescoes in the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, executed together with Brother Annibale, “The Communion of St. Jerome” and “The Assumption of the Virgin” in the Pinacoteca of Bologna) are distinguished by the correctness of the drawing and a light, cheerful color.

Agostino was a more famous engraver than his brother Annibale. Imitating Cornelis Cort, he achieved great heights in the skill of engraving. The most famous of his engravings are: “The Crucifixion” (with Tintoretto, 1589), “Aeneas and Anchises” (with Barocchio, 1595), “The Virgin and Child” (with Correggio), “The Temptation of St. Anthony", "St. Jerome" (with Tintoretto), as well as some engravings from his own works.

Claude Lorrain with great skill depicted the play of the sun's rays at different hours of the day, the freshness of the morning, the midday heat, the melancholic flicker of twilight, the cool shadows of warm nights, the shine of calm or slightly swaying waters, the transparency of clean air and the distance covered with light fog. In his work, two styles can be distinguished: paintings dating back to the early period of his activity are painted strongly, thickly, in warm colors; later ones - more smoothly, in a coldish tone. The figures with which his landscapes are usually animated.

Lorrain, unlike Poussin, went beyond the metaphysical (read academic) landscape. Light is always important in his work. He is the first to study the problem of solar illumination, morning and evening; the first who became seriously interested in the atmosphere and its light saturation. His work influenced the development of European landscape painting, in particular William Turner

Classicism in music

Music of the classical period, or music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music between approximately 1730 and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for more detail on the issues associated with distinguishing these frames). The concept of classicism in music is firmly associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and who determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

Distinctive feature Mozart's creativity is an amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of lasting significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many connections with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.

Mozart is one of the greatest melodists. Its melody combines the features of Austrian and German folk songs with the melodiousness of the Italian cantilena. Despite the fact that his works are distinguished by poetry and subtle grace, they often contain melodies of a masculine nature, with great dramatic pathos and contrasting elements. The most popular operas were “The Marriage of Figaro”, “Don Giovanni” and “The Magic Flute”.

Questions and tasks:

1) Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

There are two stages in the development of classicism: the 17th century. and XVIII - early XIX centuries. In the 18th century

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, music - classicism is represented.

2) From a monument building they come to a building expressing a certain social function, the unity of such functions creates an urban organism, and its structure is the coordination of these functions. Since social coordination is based on the principles of rationality, urban plans become more rational, that is, they follow clear rectangular or radial geometric patterns that consist of wide and straight streets, large square or circular areas. The idea of ​​the relationship between human society and nature is expressed in the city by the introduction of wide areas of greenery, most often parks near palaces or gardens of former monasteries that became state-owned after the revolution. Reducing architecture only to the fulfillment of urban planning tasks entails simplification and typification of its forms.

3) The architect of classicism rejects the “whipped cream” of baroque and insists on the standards of harmony, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Actually, for him there was no question whether art was objective or not. Of course, objectively, but he himself serves eternity and everything that is unchangeable. Hence the focus on the order system, regularity of layout and symmetry. Man, as we remember, this sounds proud. And regularity and clarity is precisely what distinguishes human creation from the spontaneous asymmetry of nature. For buildings and parks, all this meant the appearance of rows of columns stretching into perspective, perfectly trimmed bushes and tens of meters of perfect sculptures. And curls, architectural folds and ruffles are from the evil one. The architect of classicism was most often a tourist and traveled to Italy and Greece to look at the ruins, works of Palladio, Scamozzi and drawings by Piranesi, and then carried this knowledge to his own country. This, in particular, happened with Inigo Jones, who was responsible for the introduction of classicism in Britain, and with Robert Adam, who changed the face of Scotland. The Germans Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, having gone crazy over the beauty of the Parthenon, built up Munich and Berlin in the neo-Greek spirit with grandiose museums and other public buildings.

The French Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé created their own versions of classicism: the first increasingly mastered the spaces around the building, while Ledoux and Boullé were carried away by the radical geometrization of forms. The French (and after them the Russians), of all Europeans, turned out to be the most sensitive to the luxury of imperial Rome and did not hesitate to copy triumphal arches and columns.

4) See question #3.

5) A distinctive feature of Mozart’s work is the amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of lasting significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many connections with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.

6) Nicolas Poussin. Master of hammered, rhythmic composition. He was one of the first to appreciate the monumentality of local color.

Born in Normandy, he received his initial artistic education in his homeland, and then studied in Paris, under the guidance of Quentin Varenne and J. Lallemand. In 1624, already a fairly well-known artist, Poussin went to Italy and became close friends in Rome with the poet Marino, who instilled in him a love of studying Italian poets, whose works provided Poussin with abundant material for his compositions. After Marino's death, Poussin found himself in Rome without any support. His circumstances improved only after he found patrons in the person of Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Cavalier Cassiano del Pozzo, for whom he wrote The Seven Sacraments. Thanks to a series of these excellent paintings, Poussin was invited by Cardinal Richelieu to Paris in 1639 to decorate the Louvre Gallery. Louis XIII elevated him to the title of his first painter. In Paris, Poussin had many orders, but he formed a party of opponents in the persons of the artists Vouet, Brequier and Mercier, who had previously worked on decorating the Louvre. The Vue school, which enjoyed the patronage of the queen, was especially intriguing against him. Therefore, in 1642, Poussin left Paris and returned to Rome, where he lived until his death.

Poussin was especially strong in landscape. Taking advantage of the results achieved in this type of painting by the Bolognese school and the Dutch living in Italy, he created the so-called “heroic landscape”, which, being arranged in accordance with the rules of a balanced distribution of masses, with its pleasant and majestic forms, served as a stage for him to depict an idyllic golden age . Poussin's landscapes are imbued with a serious, melancholic mood. In depicting figures, he adhered to the antiquities, through which he determined the further path that the French school of painting followed after him. As a history painter, Poussin had deep knowledge drawing and a gift for composition. In the drawing he is distinguished by strict consistency of style and correctness.

“The Generosity of Scipio”, “The Shepherds of Arcadia”, “Tancred and Erminia”.

The generosity of Scipio.

A painting based on the capture of New Carthage (modern Cartagena), the Spanish stronghold of the Punics during the Second Punic War, which Scipio captured along with countless treasures, hostages from Spanish tribes and a large supply of provisions. By the way, I captured it in one day.

Actually, Scipio’s generosity lay in the fact that he freed the hostages and organized their sending home, and also preserved the honor of noble girls from these Spanish tribes, which won the friendship and favor of many Spaniards who went over to the side of Rome.

No. 21 Worldview foundations in educational culture. Enlightenment in Europe and America

The formation of a new ideology is associated with the formation of a new social stratum. Convinced of the ideas of rationalism, educated. Not aristocrats. They note the poverty and humiliation of the people, the decomposition of the upper strata and set themselves the goal of changing the situation, using a scientific worldview that can influence the mass mood. (They are troublemakers and slaves)

They advocate for the recognition of individual rights, and this is how natural law doctrines appear. They appear in the teachings of Hobbes, Locke, and Grotius in the 18th century. Hobbes's original idea of ​​natural law is that human nature is evil and selfish. “Man is a wolf to man,” the natural state is “a war of all against all.” In this war, man is guided by his natural law - the law of force. Natural law is opposed to natural laws, which are the rational moral principle of man. Laws of self-preservation and satisfaction of needs. Since the war of all against all threatens humanity with self-destruction, there is a need to change the state of nature to a civil one. A social contract must be concluded. People voluntarily cede some of their rights and freedoms to the state and agree to comply with the laws. Thus the natural law of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws. Thus, the state is a necessary condition for culture. Locke believed that truth does not lie in the state public life, but in the person himself. People unite in society to guarantee a person's natural rights. This, according to Locke, is the right to life, property, and work. Labor and property give people freedom and equality. The state is obliged to protect freedom privacy person. From the very beginning, natural law theories had an anti-church and anti-feudal orientation, as the natural origin of law was emphasized. Which opposes the theory of divine right in which religion is the source of the feudal state and social inequality. The term enlightenment is used for the first time by Aviary. Priority in the development of education belongs to France. And Herder, together with Voltaire, came up with this hat - enlightenment. Kant wrote that enlightenment is a way out of a person’s state of minority, in which he was by his own free will. A minor of one's own free will is one whose causes lie not in deficiencies of reason, but in a lack of determination and courage to use it without the guidance of someone else. The motto of enlightenment according to Kant is to have the courage to use your own mind.

The ideas of enlightenment are based on the ideas of rationalism. It is no coincidence that literature and art glorify reason, the power of the human mind - this is an optimistic worldview. Belief in the power of the human mind. Pauvillon - “Wonders of the Human Mind.” At the center of the Enlightenment concept of man is the idea of ​​a natural man, and Daniel Defoe’s novel “Robinson Crusoe” - a man in a state of nature - played a huge role in its formation. This is a story about the life of humanity, which has passed the path from savagery to civilization. It is the natural state that educates Robinson. J.-J. took over the baton from him. Rousseau. In a treatise on reasoning about the sciences and arts, he reports that natural man is enlightened, but not by the sciences and arts, which despots need to break the resistance of people. Civilization was able to create only happy slaves; Rousseau contrasts them with the savages of America. Relying only on hunting, they are invincible. No yoke can be placed on people who have no needs. Rousseau also develops the concept of the natural man in treatises on the origin and foundations of inequality between people and on the social contract. The origin of inequality is explained historically. Voltaire and Montesquieu sharply criticized the idea of ​​the sacred power of the clergy. God discredited himself because for a long time his name was used by oligarchs to deceive the people and strengthen their power. Then the enlighteners worked on developing social utopias.

First, the reconstruction of society is built, and then the theory of a universal society. Everyone tried to determine the natural state of man, which was seen in social reality material well-being. Rousseau believed that in a state of material well-being and wealth, human abilities develop, ideas expand, feelings are ennobled, and the soul is elevated.

Claude Helvetius formulated the concept of virtue, which for him is measured by usefulness, and not by self-denial, as it was in Christian morality. That is, a person should enjoy life, and not serve God with the self-denial characteristic of a Christian. This idea was supported by the English educator Bentham, who believed that virtue should be based on personal benefit, taking into account the public interests of society. Thus begins a new stage in the development of enlightenment, which in general has undergone evolution: from scattered attempts to establish the idea of ​​enlightenment, to the unification of the forces of enlighteners; from Walter's deism to the atheism of Denis Diderot. From the idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy, a passion for the English system to the development of a revolutionary change in the French social system to the establishment of the idea of ​​a republic, the principle of equality. The most important slogan is “Freedom, equality, fraternity.” In general, educators create a harmonious picture of the world because it is optimistic. The idea of ​​universality, world culture is being formed. The most famous was Johann Herder. He affirms the equality of cultures of different peoples and eras. At the same time, the ground appears for the development of Eurocentrism. For a long time, Europeans did not know foreign cultures, and when they conquered the peoples of America and Australia, they acted as conquerors. They ignored the culture of their enemies. Whereas with the development of the idea of ​​universality, comparing cultures as equals, however, one’s own turns out to be more important, superior to someone else’s. The development of Rousseau's ideas by the French revolution testified to a new attitude towards man, therefore, in social terms, ideas began to appear that contradicted the ideas of slavery.

Thomas Pen's Rights of Man was published in 1791.

"A Vindication of the Rights of Women" by Ounstonecraft, 1792. Denmark was the first country to ban slavery. Then in 1794 France banned it. In 1807, slavery was abolished in the British Empire. The ideas of the Enlightenment determined the development of American culture. Philadelphia becomes the center of education in America; the first library in America and the first legal journal were created here. The first medical school and hospital, the educational activities of Benjamin Franklin, who formulated the classical principles of bourgeois morality, are associated with this city. A hero of modern times is a person who owes everything only to himself. He is characterized by sobriety of mind, rationality, focus on real life, with its material joys. It is to him that many aphorisms speak of bourgeois culture and bourgeois morality: “Time is money,” “Thrift and work lead to wealth,” etc.

The educational culture is based on the ideas of Cottan Mather and Jonathan Edwards.

The ideology of enlightenment contributed to the development of education. Enlightenmentists believe that education in the spirit of modern science, modern knowledge can improve people's lives; it is no coincidence that Diderot united the forces of the enlighteners Voltaire and Montesquieu in creating explanatory dictionary or Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts.

Gradually, a more favorable situation for obtaining an education is developing in America than in the old world. This explains the appearance of the founding fathers of the republic.

Thomas Jefferson author of the Declaration of Independence. He became the American interpreter of Locke's teachings. He saw the purpose of the state as protecting human rights: the rights to life, property, freedom, happiness. The people can overthrow the state. The main thing is to distribute power correctly. Freedom is intertwined with responsibilities.

Disappointment in the ideals of enlightenment was expressed in Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels - a satire on the ideas of enlightenment. Swift doubted scientific progress.

The Age of Enlightenment lasted about 100 years, then came the reaction to the results of the French Revolution. The thinking part of European humanity felt that the ideal of man, formed by the culture of renaissance, did not correspond to reality.

№22,23 Romanticism as a cultural paradigm, Romanticism in Europe

In the 18th century, pre-romanticism was formed, a special role in the formation of which was played by J. - J. Rousseau, primarily with the famous confession. The age of reason spoke about the primacy of feeling, about the uniqueness of each person. In Germany, romanticism is fueled by the ideas of the literary and social movement “Storm and Drang”. The works of early Goethe, Schiller. Important sources include the philosophy of Fichte with his absolutization of creative freedom. And Arthur Schopenhauer with his idea of ​​a blind, unreasonable will that creates the world according to its own will. The reality seemed unfavorable, sometimes terrible, and this could not be corrected by reason. The worldview of romantics is irrational. The idea of ​​the existence of otherworldly forces is a product of fantasy, not controlled by the enlightenment mind. This trend manifested itself in the work of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. It reflects new themes, questions the worship of the human rational principle, the belief in original humanity. Human affairs cast deep doubt on previous assertions. Goya refuses to divide life into right and wrong, high and low. The experience of the new era, shaken by revolution and wars, refuted the idea that the dark and light principles are incompatible. Life turned out to be more complicated and everything that exists - people, history, man, with his dreams, fantasies, are involved in a continuous process of change and formation. On the one hand, Goya shows courage, perseverance, greatness of soul, on the other hand, he knows how to show crime, inhumanity. Romanticism arises as a reaction to the French Revolution, to the idea of ​​their cult of reason. And also the reason for its development is the national liberation movement. Initially, the term romanticism was used in the literature of the German-Roman peoples; later it covered music and the visual arts. The idea of ​​dual worlds, that is, the comparison and contrast of the real and depicted worlds, became fundamental to romantic art. Real life or the prose of life, with its lack of spirituality and utilitarianism, is regarded as an illusion unworthy of man, opposed to the real world. The affirmation of the development of a beautiful ideal as a reality realized at least in dreams is the main feature of romanticism. Modern reality is rejected as the repository of all vices, so the romantic runs away from it. Escape is carried out in the following directions:

1. Going into nature, therefore nature is a tuning fork of emotional experiences, the embodiment of real freedom, hence the interest in the countryside, criticism of the city. Interest in folklore, ancient myths, tales, epics.
2. Escape to exotic countries, bourgeois civilization unspoiled in the opinion of romantics.
3. In the absence of a real territorial address of flight, it is invented, constructed in the imagination.
4. Escape to another time. Most of all, romanticism strives to escape into the Middle Ages. There is a beautiful knightly ideal there.

It is in the life of the heart that romantics see the opposite of the heartlessness of the outside world. A romantic portrait, a self-portrait, develops in painting. The heroes of the portraits are extraordinary creative personalities. Poets, writers who have an extraordinary inner world. The image of the inner world becomes dominant. One of the first images of a free personality was embodied by the writer and poet Byron, “The Journey and Pilgrimage of Chaid Harold.” The image of a free personality was called the Byronic hero. He is characterized by such traits as loneliness and self-centeredness. Free from society, this hero is unhappy. Independence is more valuable to him than comfort and peace. The theme of loneliness is reflected in the work of Caspar David Friedrich when he depicts lonely human figures against the backdrop of nature. Hector Berlioz becomes the founder of French. In this regard, it becomes a fantastic symphony. Fantastic is the reflection of the inner world of the lyrical hero, a lonely, unrecognized fugitive poet, tormented by unrequited love. The romantic worldview was expressed in two versions: 1) the world seemed to be an endless, faceless cosmic subjectivity, the Creative energy of the spirit being the beginning of the creation of world harmony. This is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, and sublime feeling. 2) Human subjectivity is considered, which is in conflict with the outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism.

National forms of romanticism, if they have common features, are original. So German romanticism is serious, mystical. In Germany, the theory and aesthetics of romanticism took shape (Fichte, Schopenhauer). At the same time, masterpieces in music and literature are born here, aimed at self-deepening. French romanticism is impetuous and freedom-loving. First of all, it manifested itself in genre painting. In historical and everyday painting, in the genre of portraiture, in novelism. Sentimental, sensual English novelism used fantastic, allegorical, symbolistic forms of depicting the world, irony, and the grotesque.

The founder of French romanticism is Theodore Géricault. He overcomes the influence of classicism, his works reflect the diversity of nature. Introducing human living into the composition, Gericault strives for the most vivid disclosure of a person’s inner experiences and emotions. Having retained the classicist craving for generalization and heroic images, Gericault for the first time in French painting embodied a keen sense of the conflict of the world. He embodies the dramatic phenomena of modernity, strong passion. Geriot's early works reflected the heroics of the Napoleonic Wars. “Officer of the mounted rangers of the imperial guard going on the attack,” “Wounded cuirassier leaving the battlefield.” Dynamic composition and color. One of the central works of Gericault is “The Raft of Medusa”. It was written on a topical story about the lost frigate “Medusa”. Gericault gives a historical, symbolic meaning to a private event. The work reveals a complex range of feelings. From complete despair to complete apathy and passionate hope for salvation. The idea of ​​a romantic artist as a free, independent person, a deeply emotional person. Géricault expressed this in a series of his portraits. (Portrait of twenty-year-old Delacroix) and self-portraits. The series of portraits of mentally ill people is significant. Géricault's tradition was taken up by Eugene Delacroix. “Dante and Virgil” or “Dante’s Boat”) The same passion and protest against all violence marked his later works. “Massacre on Yosa” or “Greece on the ruins of Messalonga”) Reflects the events of the defense of the Greeks from the Turkish invasion. “Freedom on the Barricades” was written on the topic of contemporary events. Its romantic, revolutionary symbolism is expressed by the allegorical figure of freedom, with developing knowledge in hand. A number of works are inspired by travel through North Africa. “Algerian women in their chambers”, “Jewish wedding in Morocco”, “Lion hunt in Morocco”. Delacroix was fond of racing and horses. Delacroix paints portraits of composers (Chopin, Paganini). The expression of romanticism in German painting was the work of K.D. Friedrich. Already in his early works the complete mystical atmosphere of his art was determined. These are such paintings as “Hun Tomb in the Snow”, Cross in the Mountains”, “Monk by the Sea”. He depicts the viewer as a figure detachedly contemplating the landscape. A mysteriously silent nature is revealed to this contemplator. Various symbols of supernatural existence. (Sea horizon, mountain peak, ship, distant city, travel crucifix, cross, cemetery) For Friedrich, nature is the bearer of deep, religious experiences. The landscape was used as a means of displaying deep emotional experiences. There are four ages of life in the programmatic work. Figures of people of various ages are depicted on a deserted Arctic shore and four ships approaching the shore. This is how the artist depicted the passage of time, the passage of time, the doomed mortality of man. The scene itself against the backdrop of sunset evokes a keen sense of melancholy nostalgia. The title of another work speaks for itself, “The Collapse of Hope.” The Pre-Raphaelites are a brotherhood of English artists. (Rosetti, Milles, Hunt). Economic crises and revolutions of the 1840s did not affect England. This is the heyday of British capitalism. The aesthetic dictate of England. The name Pre-Raphaelites appeared due to the fact that members of the society worshiped the art of the pre-Cinquecento. They rely primarily on Quattrocento and Trecento. Pre-Raphaelite painting became a reaction to the pragmatism of the bourgeois world and was a critique of capitalism from the standpoint of beauty. This is an attempt to create a better reality based on spiritual, physical, social harmony. The divine meaning of ideal beauty, the universal meaning of existence, high spirituality are revealed in surrounding a person nature and Everyday life. Interest in the Middle Ages was due to the desire for religious renewal. “The Bride” - Rosetti, the image of femininity appears. Hunt’s paintings are permeated with symbolism. “The Hired Shepherd” The death’s head is a symbol of retribution, the apple is a symbol of temptation. "Woke Shame" Hunt. The “Lamp of the World” depicts Christ walking. "The Scapegoat" is an allegory of Christ in the desert. Milles “Christ in his parents’ house”, the painting was also called “carpenter’s workshop”. Romanticism in America arose under the influence of European culture. There was a tendency to romanticize the American Revolution, which was presented as a path to the highest degree of development and placed the United States at the head of world progress. Thus, the exclusivity of America's path was asserted. The biographical genre is developing. Washington became the first hero. The father of American biography is Gerard Sparks. He created 12 volumes on Washington, 10 volumes on Franklin. The rapid industrialization of the northern states was destroying the traditional.

No. 24 Value system and culture of industrial society

Democratic principles in social structure, development of experimental science and industrialization. This was created back in the 17th century. The result of the industrial revolution was the emergence of industrial society. The ideals of which are labor, production, science, education, democracy. Saint-Simon dreams of a society organized like a huge factory headed by industrialists and scientists. The factory at this time changed the manufactory, leading to an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. The introduction of technical innovations was accompanied by the consolidation of enterprises and the transition to the production of mass, standardized products. Mass production led to urbanization. (urban growth) The United States has demonstrated the prospect of accelerated development of capitalism. The process became all-encompassing and more homogeneous, the process of turning history into world history. The formation of culture as unity, diversity of national cultures and art schools. Traditional countries, such as Japan, are also included in this process. The problem of cultural dialogue acquires a special flavor. A new value system is emerging. Sensitivity is based on benefit, prosperity, comfort. Progress is identified with economic progress. At the same time, the principle of benefit transforms the concept of truth. The essence is what is convenient and useful. Etiquette takes on a utilitarian character. Regulation of relationships between free partners through means of purchase and sale. The seller must be polite and courteous, but the buyer is not. Attention is paid only to those who are useful. Relationships are formalized.

from lat. classicus, lit. - belonging to the first class of Roman citizens; in a figurative sense - exemplary) - arts. direction and the corresponding aesthetic. theory, the emergence of which dates back to the 16th century, its heyday - to the 17th century, its decline - to the beginning of the 19th century. K. is the first direction in art in the history of modern times, in which aesthetic. theory preceded the arts. practice and dictated its laws to it. K.'s aesthetics are normative and boil down to the following. provisions: 1) the basis of the arts. creativity is the mind, the requirements of which must be subordinated to all components of art; 2) the goal of creativity is to know the truth and reveal it in an artistic and visual form; there can be no discrepancy between beauty and truth; 3) art must follow nature, “imitate” it; what is ugly in nature should become aesthetically acceptable in art; 4) art is moral by its very nature and by the entire structure of art. the work affirms the moral ideal of society; 5) cognitive, aesthetic. and ethical the quality of the claim dictates the definition. art system. techniques that best contribute to practical implementation of the principles of K.; the rules of good taste determine the characteristics, norms and limits of each type of art and each genre within a given type of art; 6) arts. the ideal, according to K. theorists, is embodied in antiquity. claim. Therefore the best way to achieve the arts. perfection - imitate classical examples. art of antiquity. Title "K." comes from the principle of imitation of antiquity adopted by this direction. classics. K. is partly characteristic of ancient aesthetics: theorists of imperial Rome came out with demands to imitate the Greek. samples, be guided in the process by the principles of reason, etc. The cult of antiquity re-emerges during the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity intensifies. a culture partially destroyed and partially forgotten in the Middle Ages. Humanists studied the monuments of antiquity, trying to find support in the pagan worldview of antiquity in the struggle against spiritualism and scholasticism of the Middle Ages. feud. ideology. “In manuscripts saved during the fall of Byzantium, in ancient statues dug out of the ruins of Rome, he appeared before the astonished West. new world– Greek antiquity; before her bright images the ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared" (F. Engels, see K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 20, pp. 345–46). Essential for the formation of aesthetic The theories of humanism of the Renaissance included the study of treatises on the poetics of Aristotle and Horace, which were accepted as a set of indisputable laws of art. In particular, great development began already in the 16th century. the theory of drama, primarily tragedy, and the theory of epic. poems, to which the Crimea is given primary attention in the surviving text of Aristotle's Poetics. Minturpo, Castelvetro, Scaliger and other commentators on Aristotle lay the foundations of the poetics of K. and established the arts typical for this. directions rules of composition of drama and epic, as well as other lit. genres. B will depict. In art and architecture there is a turn from the Gothic of the Middle Ages to the antique style. samples, which is reflected in the theoretical. works on art, in particular by Leon Battista Alberti. In the Renaissance, however, aesthetic. K.'s theory experienced only the initial period of its formation. It was not recognized as a universally obligatory art. practice largely deviated from it. As in literature, drama, and in depiction. art and architecture, arts. the achievements of antiquity were used to the extent that they corresponded to the ideological and aesthetic. aspirations of figures in the art of humanism. In the 17th century K. is transformed into an indisputable doctrine, and adherence to it becomes mandatory. If First stage The formation of K. takes place in Italy, then the design of K. into a complete aesthetic. The doctrine was accomplished in France in the 17th century. Socio-political The basis of this process was the regulation of all spheres of life, carried out by the absolutist state. Cardinal Richelieu created an Academy in France (1634), which was charged with monitoring the purity of the French. language and literature. The first document that officially approved the doctrine of K. was “The opinion of the French Academy on the tragicomedy (P. Corneille) “The Cid”” (“Les sentiments de l´Acad?mie fran?aise sur la tragi-com?die du Cid”, 1638 ), where the rules of three unities in drama were proclaimed (unity of place, time and action). Simultaneously with K.'s establishment in literature and theater, he also conquered the spheres of architecture, painting and sculpture. In France, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is being created, at its meetings the rules of painting and sculpture are formulated. lawsuit-wah. In France, 17th century. K. finds its classic. form not only due to the state. support, but also due to the general nature of the development of spiritual culture of that time. The defining aspect of the content of K.'s claim was the idea of ​​establishing statehood. It arose as a counterweight to the feud. separatism and in this respect represented a progressive principle. However, the progressiveness of this idea was limited, because it boiled down to an apology for the monarchy. autocracy. The bearer of the principle of statehood was the absolute monarch and his person embodied humanity. ideal. The stamp of this concept lies on the entire art of K., which was even later sometimes called “court K.”. Although the king's court was indeed the center from which ideological ideas emanated. directives of the lawsuit, K. as a whole was by no means only a noble-aristocratic. claim K.'s aesthetics are under the meaning. influenced by the philosophy of rationalism. Ch. representative of the French rationalism of the 17th century. R. Descartes had a decisive influence on the formation of aesthetics. doctrines of K. Ethical. K.'s ideals were aristocratic only in appearance. Their essence was humanistic. ethics that recognized the need for compromise with the absolutist state. However, within the limits of what was available to them, K.’s supporters fought against the vices of the noble-monarchist. society and cultivated a sense of morality. everyone's responsibility to society, including the king, who was also portrayed as a person who renounced personal interests in the name of the interests of the state. This was the first form of the civic ideal available at that stage of society. development, when the rising bourgeoisie was not yet strong enough to oppose the absolutist state. On the contrary, using it internally. contradictions, primarily the struggle of the monarchy against the self-will of the nobility and the Fronde, leading figures of the bourgeois-democratic. cultures supported the monarchy as a centralizing state. a beginning capable of moderating feud. oppression or, at least, bring it into some kind of framework. If in some types and genres of art and literature external pomp and elation of form prevailed, then in others freedom was allowed. According to the nature of the class state, there was also a hierarchy of genres in art, which were divided into higher and lower. Among the lowest in literature were comedy, satire, and fable. However, it was in them that the most democratic developments received a vivid development. trends of the era (Moliere's comedies, Boileau's satires, La Fontaine's fables). But even in the high genres of literature (tragedy) both contradictions and advanced morals were reflected. ideals of the era (early Corneille, the work of Racine). In principle, K. claimed to have created an aesthetic. a theory imbued with a comprehensive unity, but in practice the arts. The culture of the era is characterized by striking contradictions. The most important of them was the constant discrepancy between modern. content and antique the shape into which it was squeezed. Heroes of classicist tragedies, despite the antiquity. names were 17th century French. by way of thinking, morals and psychology. If such a masquerade was occasionally beneficial for covering up attacks against the authorities, at the same time it prevented the direct reflection of modern times. reality in the “high genres” of classicism. lawsuit Therefore, the greatest realism is characteristic of the lower genres, in which the depiction of the “ugly” and “base” was not prohibited. Compared to the multifaceted realism of the Renaissance, K. represented a narrowing of the sphere of life covered by the arts. culture. However, aesthetic. K.'s theory is credited with revealing the importance of the typical in art. True, the principle of typification was understood in a limited way, because its implementation was achieved at the cost of the loss of the individual principle. But the essence of life phenomena is human. characters receive such an embodiment in K., which makes both cognitive and educational activities truly possible. product function. Their ideological content becomes clear and precise, the intelligibility of ideas gives the works of art a direct ideological quality. character. The lawsuit turns into a tribune of moral, philosophical, religious. and political ideas. Feudal crisis. monarchy gives birth to a new form of anti-feud. ideologies – enlightenment. A new variation of this art is emerging. directions – so-called educational K., which is characterized by the preservation of all aesthetics. principles of K. 17th century. The poetics of enlightenment poetry, as it was finally formulated by Boileau (the poetic treatise “Poetic Art” - “L´art po?tique”, 1674), remains a code of inviolable rules for the enlightenment classicists, led by Voltaire. New in K. 18th century. is primarily its socio-political. orientation. An ideal civic hero emerges, caring not about the good of the state, but about the good of society. Not serving the king, but caring for the people becomes the center of moral and political politics. aspirations. Voltaire's tragedies, Addison's "Cato", Alfieri's tragedies, and to some extent Russian. classicists of the 18th century (A. Sumarokov) affirm life concepts and ideals that conflict with the principles of feudalism. statehood and abs. monarchy. This civic current in France is transformed in France on the eve and during the first burgh. revolution in K. republican. The reasons that led to the renewal of K. during the French period. bourgeois revolutions were deeply revealed by Marx, who wrote: “In the classically strict traditions of the Roman Republic, the gladiators of bourgeois society found ideals and art forms , illusions they need in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle, in order to maintain their inspiration at the height of the great historical tragedy" ("The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte", see K. Marx and F. Engels, Op. , 2nd ed., vol. 8, p. 120). The republican style of the period of the first bourgeois revolution was followed by the style of the Napoleonic Empire, which created the “Empire” style. All this was a historical masquerade, covering up the bourgeois content of the social revolution that was taking place at that time. The culture of the 18th century was freed from certain features of dogmatism inherent in the poetics of the 17th century. It was during the Enlightenment, in connection with a deeper study of art and classical antiquity, that the cult of antiquity in plastic art acquired especially great development. In Germany Winckelmann and then Lessing establish that the aesthetic charm of the monuments of antiquity is connected with the political structure of the Greek polis: only democracy and the psychology of a free citizen can give birth to such beautiful art. theoretical thoughts, the idea of ​​a connection between aesthetics is affirmed. ideal and political. freedom, which received the clearest expression in F. Schiller’s “Letters on Aesthetic Education” (“?ber die ?sthetische Erziehung lier Menschen, in einer Reihe von Briefen”, 1795). However, for him this idea appears in an idealistically perverted form: civil freedom is achieved through aesthetics. education. This formulation of the question was associated with the backwardness of Germany and the lack of prerequisites for bourgeoisie. coup. However, even in this form, late mute. classicism, so-called Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller represented a progressive, albeit limited, ideological art. phenomenon. In general, K. was an important stage in the development of artistic practice and theoretical theory. thoughts. In antiquity the shell was put on by the advanced bourgeois-democratic. ideology of the era of the rise of the bourgeoisie. society. The constraining nature of the doctrinaire teachings of the classicists was already clear at the end of the 17th century, when Saint-Evremond rebelled against it. In the 18th century Lessing dealt crushing blows precisely to dogmatism. elements of K., protecting, however, the “soul” of K., his beautiful ideal of a free, harmoniously developed person. This was precisely the core of the Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller. But in the first third of the 19th century, after the victory and approval of the bourgeoisie. building in the West Europe, K. is losing its importance. The collapse of enlightenment illusions about the advent of the kingdom of reason after the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution makes clear the illusory nature of the classic. ideal in the kingdom of the bourgeois. prose. Historical The role of overthrowing K. was performed by the aesthetics of romanticism, which opposed the dogmas of K. The struggle against K. reached its greatest severity in France at the end of 1820 - early. 1830, when the romantics won ended. victory over K. as an art. direction and aesthetic. theory. This, however, did not mean the complete disappearance of K.’s ideas in art. At the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20th centuries. aesthetic movements of the West. Europe there are relapses of the department. ideas, the roots of which go back to K. They are anti-realistic. and aesthetic character ("neoclassical" trends in French poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century) or serve as a mask for ideological. reactions, eg. in the theories of the decadent T. S. Eliot after the 1st World War. The most stable were the aesthetic ones. K.'s ideals in architecture. Classic the architectural style was repeatedly reproduced in architectural construction in the 1930s and 40s, e.g. in the development of architecture in the USSR. Lit.: Marx K. and Engels F., On Art, vol. 1–2, M., 1957; Plekhanov G.V., Art and literature, [Sb. ], M., 1948, p. 165–87; Kranz [E. ], Experience in the philosophy of literature. Descartes and French Classicism, trans. [from French ], St. Petersburg, 1902; Lessing G. E., Hamburg Drama, M.–L., 1936; Pospelov G.N., Sumarokov and the Russian problem. classicism, "Uch. Zap. Moscow State University", 1948, issue. 128, book. 3; Kupreyanova E. N., On the issue of classicism, in the book: XVIII century, collection. 4, M.–L., 1959; Ernst F., Der Klassizismus in Italien, Frankreich und Deutschland, Z., 1924; Peyre H., Qu´est-ce que le classicisme?, P., 1942; Kristeller P. O., The classics and Renaissance thought, Camb., (Mass.), 1955. A. Anikst. Moscow.