International trade is based. History of the development of international trade

Trade, in a general sense, is a human activity associated with the exchange of goods and services between producers and consumers.

Foreign trade is the process of exchange of goods and services between national economies (producing countries and consuming countries).

Subjects of foreign trade, i.e. those who carry out the international exchange of goods and services are private and public enterprises and organizations that sell and buy goods and services outside the national market.

International trade is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

Thus, international trade is a set of operations for the exchange of goods and services between foreign trade entities of all countries of the world.

International trade differs from domestic trade in that:

1) resources at the international level are less mobile than within the country;

2) each country has its own currency;

3) international trade is more subject to political control.

The international exchange of goods and services is carried out within two counter directions of movement of these goods and services:

Their sale by manufacturers (export);

Their purchase by consumers (import).

The market is a meeting place between buyer and seller, a system of interaction between supply and demand.

Development material production and the formation of a commodity economy based on the division of labor created objective conditions for the emergence of national domestic markets - a set of purchase and sale transactions during which domestic producers sell goods and services within their country.

Countries around the world are provided with economic resources to varying degrees. This, first of all, determines the emergence and development of international trade. Throughout history, international trade has constantly developed and expanded. Stable trade relations between different states began to form. The established domestic markets gradually went beyond national borders and began to form international markets, which represented those parts of national markets that were directly connected with foreign markets. Thus, international trade began to be systematized, and a world market began to form.

The world market is a sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries, based on the international division of labor. It represents a set of national markets of all countries, economic relations between which are determined by international trade.

In the process of development of the world market, a system of world prices was formed.

World price is the monetary expression of the global value of a product sold on the world market. The world price serves to determine the prices at which most trade transactions in the world are concluded.

World prices are formed under the influence of the relationship between world demand and world supply for a particular product. The formation of world prices is influenced by the world's leading manufacturers and suppliers (sellers), who have a significant share in the total global volume of these products and constantly maintain their leading position in these commodity markets.

The world market is a combination of world demand and world supply, which materialize in two counter flows of goods and (or) services - export and import.

The economic efficiency of exports is determined by the fact that foreign trade entities sell on the world market those products whose production costs are lower than the global ones. The size of the winnings depends on the ratio of national and world prices of a given product.

When importing goods, a country acquires goods the production of which is currently not economically profitable. The economic efficiency of imports refers to the economic gain that a country receives due to the rapid satisfaction of its needs for certain goods through imports and the release of resources spent on the production of similar goods within the country.

In the pre-industrial era and in the early stages of industrialization of the leading countries of the world, international trade was dominated by agricultural products, mining products and textiles (2/3 of world trade in material goods). Raw materials and food were exported from agricultural countries, finished products, mainly for consumer purposes, from industrial countries.

Later, with the transition of advanced countries to machine production, finished products began to play a leading role in world trade (75% of world trade in material goods). Competition confronted manufacturers with the need to constantly update production technology, reduce production costs, and improve the consumer properties of products.

Later, the role of machinery and equipment in world trade increased. Overall, trade in machinery and equipment accounts for 1/3 of all modern world trade in physical goods.

The structure of trade is very diverse in various countries Oh. Poorer developing countries tend to export food and raw materials and import manufactured goods.

Industrialized countries import raw materials and export processed products.

The export and import of services (invisible exports) play an important role in international trade:

1) all types of international and transit transport;

2) foreign tourism;

3) telecommunications;

4) banking and insurance;

5) software computer technology;

6) health care and education services, etc.

Over the past two decades, global exchange of services has increased three times faster than the exchange of goods. According to experts, the service sector currently accounts for 20% of all modern world trade.

Competition in the world market is a struggle between subjects of foreign trade of states for the best conditions on the world market, i.e. for increasing the volume of exported goods and services at competitive prices (maximum exceeding costs)

The natural properties of many goods (beef, oranges, mineral fuels) are more or less similar. The main factor in their competitiveness is the price, which is based on the costs of production, storage and transportation. These costs are determined by the cost of labor and the level of labor productivity, which largely depends on the technical equipment of production. The main form of struggle for markets for such goods is price competition.

The basis of competition in the market of finished products is the consumer properties of the product, quality (a set of properties that satisfy the needs or expectations of individual needs). The ratio of quality and price of purchased finished products usually depends on the volume of means of payment of the importer (on the average level of income in the country). Consumer goods best quality are imported mainly into countries with the highest per capita incomes, products of average quality - into countries with moderate incomes, etc.

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose during the emergence of the world market in the 16th-18th centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of the New Age.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, author of the economic treatise “Power of the Popular Masses in Northern Italy.”

Advantages of countries participating in international trade:

• the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, the creation of opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, an increase in the level of equipment utilization, and an increase in the efficiency of the introduction of new technologies;
• an increase in export supplies entails an increase in employment;
• international competition creates the need to improve enterprises;
• export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation aimed at industrial development.

Theories of international trade

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of ​​what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the directions of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of existing resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce and improve the level of well-being of the population.

Many famous economists have dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's Theory of Absolute Advantage, D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill's Theory of Comparative Advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin Theory, Leontief Paradox, Product Life Cycle Theory, M. Porter's Theory, Rybczynski Theorem, and Samuelson and Stolper Theory.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of initial accumulation of capital and great geographical discoveries, and was based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves was the basis for the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, once used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be used again for international exchange.

Trading was viewed as a zero-sum game, where the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of another, and vice versa. To obtain maximum benefits, it was proposed to strengthen government intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and limit imports by introducing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

• the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
• recognition of the benefits of bringing gold and other precious metals into the country in order to improve its welfare;
• money is a stimulus for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the supply of money increases the volume of the commodity supply;
• protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;
• restrictions on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the outflow of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. In his work “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,” in a polemic with mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade because they can benefit from it, regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country must specialize in the production of that product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. Refusal to produce goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in overall production volumes and an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If a country can produce a particular good more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries because the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the country's productivity as well as the skill of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide stimulation for the production of more effective methods work.

Natural advantages for a particular country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a particular country: production technology, that is, the ability to produce a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantage by D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his work “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are distributed unevenly between countries, and secondly, the effective production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchanges. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - this is D. Ricardo’s law of comparative advantage. According to Ricardo, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. Thus, comparative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries involved in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case would be the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of producing both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his work “Foundations of Political Economy,” explained the price at which exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the totality of each country's exports allows it to pay for the totality of its imports - this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land productive, along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries have a tendency to export those goods for the production of which the factors of production available in abundance in the country are used, and, conversely, to import goods for the production of which relatively rare factors are needed; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize “factor prices”; third, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries, machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to mutual trade of “similar” goods between “similar” countries.

Leontief's paradox. These are studies by an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontiev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decline. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The solution to Leontief's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the product is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in labor intensity throughout the American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle theory. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product, from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it, goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

• product development. The company finds and implements new idea goods. At this time, sales volume is zero, costs rise.
• bringing the product to market. There is no profit due to high costs for marketing activities, sales volume is growing slowly;
• rapid market penetration, increased profits;
• maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, since the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;
• decline Decline in sales and reduction in profits.

M. Porter's theory. This theory introduces the concept of country competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter’s point of view, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economic system. National competitiveness is determined by the capacity of industry. At the heart of the explanation competitive advantage The role of the home country lies in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

• government influence on factor conditions;
• government influence on demand conditions;
• government impacts on related and supporting industries;
• government influence on firm strategy, structure, and competition.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. Artificial dominance of enterprises through government support, from Porter’s point of view, is a negative solution that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the USA in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybczynski's theorem. The theorem states that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of other products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain constant. Factor prices can remain constant only if the ratio of factors used in two industries remains constant. In the case of growth of one factor, this can only occur if production in the industry in which that factor is intensively used is increased and production in another industry is reduced, which will lead to the release of the fixed factor, which will become available for use along with the growing factor in the expanding industry .

Samuelson and Stolper theory. In the middle of the 20th century. (1948), American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of production factors, identical technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of production factors between countries. The authors base their concept on Ricardo's model with additions from Heckscher and Ohlin and view trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the development gap between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of labor products in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade turnover, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer and their export abroad. Import is the purchase of goods from foreign sellers with their import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high pace. Among the main trends in the development of international trade, the following can be identified:

1. There is a preferential development of trade in comparison with sectors of material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, during the period from the 50s to the 90s of the 20th century, the world's GDP grew approximately 5 times, and merchandise exports - no less than 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - was $12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% is fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products is about 9%, clothing and textiles are 3%.

3. Among the changes in geographical direction International trade flows have seen an increasing role for developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the emergence of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from among them) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade turnover, and by 2001 - already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the 20th century, uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become evident. In the 1960s Western Europe- the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than US exports. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to become a leader in terms of competitiveness. During the same period, the “new industrial countries” of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - joined it. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States took a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. Exports of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. US dollars. The share of the goods group is 80%, and services - 20% of the total trade volume in the world.

4. The most important area of ​​development of foreign trade is intra-company trade within TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding, in several ways. The first is cross-border delivery, such as distance learning. Another way of supplying services - consumption abroad - involves the movement of the consumer or the movement of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third method is a commercial presence, for example, the operation of a foreign bank or restaurant in the country. And the fourth way is the movement of individuals who are service providers abroad, for example, doctors or teachers. The leaders in trade in services are the most developed countries of the world.

Regulation of international trade

Regulation of international trade is divided into government regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

Methods of government regulation of international trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods are reduced to the use of customs duties - special taxes levied on products of international trade. Customs tariffs are fees levied by the state for processing the transportation of goods and other valuables abroad. This fee, called duty, is taken into account in the price of the product and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the import of foreign goods into the country; export duties are used less frequently.

According to the form of calculation, duties are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the product;

b) specific, charged in the form of a certain amount of money per volume, weight or unit of goods.

The most important goals of using import duties are both direct restriction of imports and restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - the sale of goods on the foreign market at prices lower than those existing for an identical product on the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a set of direct and indirect restrictions on foreign economic activity through an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

• quotas (provisioning) - the establishment of quantitative parameters within which it is possible to carry out certain foreign trade operations. In practice, quotas are usually established in the form of lists of goods, the free import or export of which is limited to a percentage of the volume or value of their national production. When the quantity or amount of the contingent is exhausted, the export (import) of the corresponding product is terminated;
• licensing – issuing special permits (licenses) to business entities to conduct foreign trade operations. It is often used in conjunction with quotas to control license-based quotas. In some cases, the licensing system acts as a type of customs taxation applied by a country to generate additional customs revenue;
• embargo – a ban on export-import operations. It may apply to a specific group of goods or be introduced in relation to individual countries;
• currency control is a restriction in the monetary sphere. For example, a financial quota may limit the amount of currency an exporter can receive. Quantitative restrictions may apply to the volume of foreign investment, the amount of foreign currency exported by citizens abroad, etc.;
• taxes on export-import transactions - taxes as non-tariff measures that are not regulated by international agreements, such as customs duties, and are therefore levied on both domestic and foreign goods. State subsidies for exporters are also possible;
• administrative measures that are mainly related to restrictions on the quality of goods sold on the domestic market. National standards occupy an important place. Failure to comply with country standards may lead to a ban on the import of imported products and their sale on the domestic market. Similarly, the system of national transport tariffs often creates advantages in paying for the transportation of goods to exporters compared to importers. In addition, other forms of indirect restrictions can also be used: the closure of certain ports and railway stations for foreigners, orders to use a certain share of national raw materials in the production of products, a ban on the purchase government organizations imported goods in the presence of national analogues, etc.

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy has led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for carrying out international trade transactions and monitoring their implementation by member states of these organizations.

A special role in regulating international trade is played by multilateral agreements, operating within the framework of:

• GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
• WTO();
• GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
• TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the most favored nation principle (MFN), i.e., most favored nation (MFN) treatment is established in the trade of GATT member countries, guaranteeing equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the PNB were established for countries included in economic integration groups; for countries, former colonies, which are in traditional ties with the former metropolises; for cross-border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, “exceptions” account for at least 60% of global trade in finished goods, which deprives the PNB of universality.

GATT recognizes customs tariffs as the only acceptable means of regulating the transport industry, which are reduced iteratively (from round to round). Currently they are average level is 3-5%. But even here there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff means of protection (quotas, export and import licenses, tax breaks). These include cases of application of programs to regulate agricultural production, disturbances in the balance of payments, and the implementation of regional development and assistance programs.

GATT contains the principle of refusing unilateral actions and making decisions in favor of negotiations and consultations if such actions (decisions) could lead to a restriction of free trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at negotiation rounds of all members of this Agreement. There were eight of them in total. The most significant decisions that guide the WTO in regulating MT to date were made at the last (eighth) Uruguay round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate trade goods in certain industries (including agriculture), and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that affect the country’s foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases while reducing duties on raw materials and eliminating them on some types of alcoholic beverages, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical goods - only 40% of global imports. Liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But the last and only means of regulation is customs duties.

In the field of anti-dumping measures, the concepts of “legal subsidies” and “acceptable subsidies” were adopted, which include subsidies aimed at protecting environment and regional development, provided that their size is at least 3% of the total value of imports of goods or 1% of its total value. All others are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the questions economic regulation, affecting foreign trade indirectly, the Uruguay Round included requirements for the minimum export of goods produced in the joint venture, the mandatory use of local components and a number of others.

WTO. The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the successor to the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the tasks of ensuring free trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called links. The meaning of the links is that any government decisions to increase the tariff are made simultaneously (in conjunction) with the decision to liberalize the import of other goods. The WTO is not within the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of participating countries in compliance with adopted agreements.

GATS. The regulation of international trade in services has certain specifics. This is due to the fact that services, characterized by extreme diversity of forms and contents, do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general trends that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account new aspects in its development that are introduced by TNCs that dominate it and monopolize it. Currently, the global services market is regulated at four levels: international (global), industry (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which came into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (openness and uniformity of reading of laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign producers. However, the implementation of these rules is complicated by the peculiarities of services as goods: the absence of a material form for most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that regulating the terms of trade in services means regulating the conditions for their production, and this in turn means regulating the conditions for investment in their production.

The GATS consists of three parts: a framework agreement defining general principles and rules for regulating trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries, and a list of obligations of national governments to eliminate restrictions in service industries. Thus, only one level, the regional level, falls outside the scope of GATS activities.

The GATS agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. Issues of export sales of films and television programs are excluded from the scope of its activities, which is due to the fears of individual states (European countries) of losing the identity of their national culture.

Industry regulation of international trade in services is also carried out in on a global scale, which is associated with their global production and consumption. Unlike the GATS, the organizations regulating such services are of a specialized nature. For example, civil aviation transportation is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), foreign tourism by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), and maritime transportation by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services are lifted (as, for example, in the EU) and restrictions on such trade with third countries can be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, of which trade in services may be an integral part. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

Source - World economy: tutorial/ E.G.Guzhva, M.I.Lesnaya, A.V.Kondratiev, A.N.Egorov; SPbGASU. – St. Petersburg, 2009. – 116 p.

The essence and structure of the international economy

International Economics (IE) is a component of the theory market economy, which studies the patterns of relationships between subjects from different states in the field of exchange of goods, movement of production factors, as well as financing and formation international politics. At the same time, it is a global economic mechanism, which is represented by various national economies connected by the system of international economic relations (IER).

Characteristic features of the world economy:

1. interdependence of national economies (the totality of interacting economies of different countries of the world);
2. structurality and the presence of multiple levels (establishment of constituent elements, the structure is presented on the basis of industries, associations of countries and forms of international economic relations);
3. self-development (the activities of the international economy are aimed at meeting the needs and demands of society, but there are internal contradictions, the goal may change depending on environmental conditions).

Note 1

The global economy has a complex structure. It is considered as a set of industries and as a complex of different groups of countries and a system of economic relations.

The sectoral structure of ME is a complex of homogeneous economic units, which are characterized by specific production conditions and a special purpose in the process of expanded reproduction.

Within the industry structure there are:

• primary sector: Agriculture, mining industry;
• secondary sector: construction, manufacturing;
• tertiary sector: service sector.

In international economics, there is the following classification of countries: developed countries; developing countries; countries with economies in transition.

Development and regulation of international trade

International trade occupies a special place in the system of international economic relations. The internationalization of the economy began precisely in the sphere of trade. International trade causes specialization and exchange. A country that sells its products to other countries specializes in producing certain goods in volumes above domestic demand. Surpluses are exported in exchange for goods that are in demand in the country where they are not produced at all or not in sufficient quantities.

Definition 1

International trade is a type of economic relationship between producers of goods and services from different countries, which is formed on the basis of the international division of labor

International trade is characterized by: the volume of world trade turnover; commodity structure of exports and imports; dynamics of the commodity structure; geographical structure of world trade.

Current trends in the development of international trade:

1. the development of trade in comparison with sectors of material production and the entire world economy as a whole;
2. growth of the share of manufacturing industry in the structure of international trade;
3. the geographical structure is dominated by developed countries and China;
4. development of intra-company trade within transnational corporations (TNCs);
5. expansion of trade in services (emergence distance learning, consumption abroad, commercial presence, movement of individuals as service providers abroad).

International trade is regulated by the state and through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

The methods of state regulation are:

• tariff methods - the introduction of customs duties, taxes and fees levied by the state for the transportation of goods and other valuables abroad (excise taxes, etc.);
• non-tariff methods – a complex of direct and indirect restrictions international activities through a system of economic, political and administrative measures (quotas, licensing, embargo, etc.)

The main international agreements governing activities in the field of international trade are: GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) - the predecessor of the WTO, was in force until January 1, 1995; WTO (World trade Organization); GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services); TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement).

International trade in the system of international economic relations

International trade arose and is developing on the basis of the international division of labor, the specialization of countries in the production of certain products. Foreign economic exchange of goods will allow participants in relations to increase the productivity of their production, because the need to independently produce goods and services within the country is eliminated.

Thanks to international trade, the state can specialize in those sectors of the economy in which enterprises are highly competitive and import those goods and services, the domestic production of which is inferior to foreign ones.

The key reason for countries to trade internationally is the availability of greater opportunities than in the domestic market. But when entering a foreign market, one should take into account environmental factors that can lead to the failure of foreign economic activity:

• Cultural factors (differences in language, stereotypes, norms, traditions, values, etc.);
• Economic factors (economic climate, competition structure, price, product and promotion policies);
• Political and legal factors (political forces and movements, legislation in the field of entrepreneurship and trade).

Note 2

Characteristic feature global trade is not only the opportunity to purchase and sell goods and services, but also to create joint ventures, subsequently transnational corporations. It is impossible to determine the nationality of such companies; its business units are located in countries with cheap resources (raw materials, materials, labor), and the sale of finished products is carried out in countries with high incomes.

International trade is nothing more than the process of buying and selling, which is carried out between sellers, buyers, intermediaries from different countries. The structure of international trade includes goods, and the relationship between them is called the trade balance.

The commodity structure of international trade is changing and is subject to the impact of scientific and technological progress, as well as the deepening division of labor. IN this moment the most great importance in international trade there are products that belong to Equipment, machinery, chemical products, vehicles - these are the types of products whose share is growing especially quickly. And trade in high-tech products and knowledge-intensive goods is developing very dynamically. This stimulates the exchange of services between countries, especially those of a communication, production, financial, credit, and scientific and technical nature. industrial goods is stimulated by trade in services (leasing, consulting, information and computing, engineering).

The structure of international trade indicates the ratio in the total volume of any parts, depending on the selected attribute. General structure international trade shows the ratio of imports and exports in shares or percentages. In monetary terms, the share of exports is always less than the share of imports. And in physical volume this ratio is equal to one. The commodity structure of international trade shows the share of certain goods in its total volume.

Some goods do not participate in global trade at all. Therefore, they are all divided into non-tradable and tradable. The first group are those who, for various reasons (strategic importance for the country, lack of competitiveness) do not move between different countries. And the first group is goods that can move freely.

When the structure of international trade is characterized by specialists, two groups of goods are distinguished: and raw materials.

The geographical structure of international trade is characterized by the distribution of trade turnover in the directions of various commodity flows. Currently, the situation is that countries that are industrialized and have more developed economies trade most with each other. focused on the markets of those countries that are industrialized. 25 percent of world trade turnover - this is their share in world trade. Recently, countries called newly industrialized (Asian) have been playing an increasingly important role, but oil exporting countries are losing their importance in world trade.

International trade takes different forms. Depending on the number of subjects, it can be single- or multi-subject. There is also a division based on the number of parties into bilateral and multilateral. Based on territorial scope, world trade is divided into local, regional, interregional and global. There is also a division according to the structure of connections into intra-company, intra-industry, inter-industry, horizontal, vertical and mixed.

Currently, international trade plays an important role in the economic development of many countries, as well as regions and the world community. is now considered the most powerful factor in economic growth. And now many countries are heavily dependent on international trade. Such a dynamic growth of international trade is influenced by such factors as the internationalization of production, the development of the division of labor between countries, the activities and existence of transnational corporations, TNCs, as well as scientific and technological revolution.

International trade in the international economic system.

The role of international trade in the international economic system.

International trade is an important and most developed area of ​​international economic relations, reflecting the state and prospects for the movement of various commodity forms both between national economies and within - and between transnational corporations that view the world as a single economic space.

Through international trade, the economies of different countries are connected like never before. It is a powerful factor in the development of the economies of individual countries and the international economy as a whole.

The scale of international trade is constantly growing. In modern conditions, this tendency towards an increase in international trade volumes is manifested very clearly. Trade in services also shows a clear upward trend, although the latter is developing relatively slower than trade in goods.

It is important to note that the growth of international trade volumes is noticeably faster than the growth of production volumes. This occurs due to the deepening of the international division of labor, the formation and development of the world economic division of labor, which underlies international economic integration.

All countries, one way or another, depend on international trade. But the measure of dependence is different. It is defined as the ratio of the value of international trade (exports + imports) to the domestic national product.

D manager = E + I / GNP x 100,

where E and I are exports and imports, respectively, and GNP is the country’s gross national product.

For small developed countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, etc.) this percentage varies from 45-90%. For large developed countries (Germany, Japan, England, France, etc.) - from 25-35%. For the USA this percentage is 9%. For developing countries, dependence on international trade is great. The inclusion of these countries in the international and world economic division of labor should be guided by interdependence in international trade.

Specific features of international trade.

International trade is a special area of ​​international economic relations. It has a number of specific features that distinguish international trade from intranational trade. These specific features make international trade a subject special research. The specific features of international trade usually include

Different currencies;

Political intervention and control;

Differences in the movement of factors of production between countries.

1. Different currencies. Each country uses a different currency. But we are talking not only about the existence of individual national currencies, but also about a possible change in their price ratio.

2. Political interference and control. The government actively intervenes and strictly controls international trade relations and trade-related monetary and financial relations. These interventions and controls differ markedly in extent and nature from those applied to domestic trade. The government of each sovereign country, through its trade and fiscal policies, generates its own system of duties and restrictions on imports, export subsidies, its own tax legislation, etc. The use of the above intervention and control tools is illegal within any country.

3. Differences in the movement of factors of production between countries. Capital moves within the country more freely than between countries, which is due to the presence of institutional barriers, differences in tax laws, and other measures of government regulation of the economy and business. The assumption of some ability of production factors to move between countries allows us to draw the following conclusion. International trade fills the gap created by differences in the mobility of resources within and between countries.

Economic basis of trade. Specialization and comparative advantage.

The argument for international trade is that whenever opportunity costs differ between countries, specialization and trade raise the world standard of living. It is free trade that allows all countries to specialize in the production of goods in which they have a comparative advantage. Free trade allows us to maximize global production.

International trade is based on two components:

1. Differences in the distribution of economic resources between countries. In this case, we are talking not only about human and natural, but also about investment goods.

2. Differences in technologies or combinations of resources that can ensure the efficient production of any goods.

The interaction of these 2 components can be illustrated with many examples. Thus, industrially developed countries have an obvious advantage in the production of capital-intensive goods (machinery, equipment, etc.), while underdeveloped countries have an obvious advantage in the export of agricultural products, raw materials, etc. But comparative advantages must be considered not statically, but dynamically. As national economies develop (changes in the quantity and quality of labor, volume and composition of capital, the emergence of new technologies, changes in the scale and quality of land and natural resources etc.) their role and place in the international division of labor changes. It is the principle of comparative advantage that serves as a guide for specialization. Recall that this principle states that total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity cost.

Gains from international trade.

International trade contributes to the growth of world production. Specialization based on the use of comparative advantages contributes to a more efficient allocation of world resources, and consequently to the growth of world production.

International trade increases the income and standard of living of participating countries. As a result of specialization and trade, countries have more of each type of product. Therefore, on your wages workers can purchase more goods.

Each free-trading country can exceed its production capabilities not only through its resources or the use of NTO results, but through international trade:

Through international trade, every freely trading country is able to overcome its narrow scale of production;

The effect of international specialization and trade is comparable to the possession of large volumes of the best quality resources or the introduction new technology and technology;

As a result of international trade, each freely trading country can take full advantage of geographic and human specialization. As a result, more real income can be obtained from the use of the amount of resources that the country has.

International trade stimulates competition and limits monopoly. Increased competition from foreign firms forces local firms to switch to production technologies with the lowest costs. This forces local firms to implement the latest advances in scientific and technological progress, improve product quality and ultimately promote economic growth.

Free trade gives consumers the opportunity to choose from a wider range of products.

The benefits of international specialization and trade based on the principle of comparative advantage are obvious. A nation that ignored this principle would likely pay a price of lower living standards and slower economic growth.

Bibliography

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