Global crisis: causes, directions, solutions. Geographical study of ethnic crises Glady, Igor Yurievich Ethnic Crisis

The scientific validity of the ideological beginning of globalization is considered in the article as a paramount condition for the development of globalization towards the formation of a dynamic global system. The causes of the crisis currently observed in three subsystems are investigated: political, legal and economic. The thesis is put forward that the main problem lies in the system of norms and basic values ​​of the global system. It also provides the basic principles of appropriate activities in the direction of solving the problem.

The scientific validity of the ideological foundations of globalization is considered in the article as the prime condition of development of globalization in the direction of formation of the dynamic global system. The article explores the reasons of the crisis observed in three subsystems nowadays: political, legal and economic. The author introduces the thesis that the main problem consists in the system of norms and basic values ​​of the global system. Basic principles of the corresponding activity in solving the problem are also discussed.

The process of forming a global structure - globalization

The processes of accelerating the pace of convergence of borders, the expansion of economic, energy, technological and information ties, called globalization, place political and legal actors responsible for control over system processes, before the need to act in a single system. At the same time, for the subjects playing leading role in this process, it is important not to stay away from this system. The formed global political, legal and economic system creates a favorable opportunity for solving a number of global humanitarian problems (demographic, food, environmental, etc.). In other words, the formation of a global structure or the process of globalization proceeds according to the following scheme: increasing the pace of development of economic, technological and information relations® strengthening the political and legal organization® cultural, humanitarian and ecological globalization.

Global values ​​as the basis of the global structure

What has been said above should not be understood as if globalization, leading to the creation of a global system, is an objective phenomenon that has its origin in scientific and technological progress and other economic processes. Approaching the problem precisely from such positions, some authors consider globalization not a political, but a socio-economic phenomenon (Inozemtsev 2008). At the same time, objectively determined globalization, which politicians try to follow in their strategy, is a dangerous, unpredictable, multidirectional phenomenon leading to the creation of non-progressive, uncivilized structures(currently similar structures are found on international arena). Structurization, organization, including political, striving for control over all processes, must necessarily be based on such a socio-philosophical concept that would contain not only political goals and principles, but also moral and spiritual values. Obviously, ideally, globalization should not lead to global chaos and crisis, but to an efficient, dynamic and stable global structure.

To build a system and ensure its durability, the political goals and ambitions contained in the idea on which the concept of a global system is based must take into account both modern realities and the laws of historical processes, the potential of international political actors put forward by history itself, periodically implementing the idea of ​​world domination. Otherwise, with the strengthening/weakening of the power of the state in the historically shortest (estimated in decades) terms, the system may face a crisis or it may be necessary to replace the still unformed structure with a new one.

On the other hand, in order to ensure the formation of a global system, to concretize its structure, the moral and spiritual criteria contained in the initial concept of the global system must be able to socialize in all cultural regions of the world and be in demand by the population of these regions.

The failure of the globalization of democratic values

One of the main reasons for the ineffectiveness of the basic values ​​of the modern global system was an attempt to generalize, to give the principles and procedures of a particular state structure as a kind of humanistic idea of ​​a universal character. Even Aristotle pointed out the scientific inconsistency of attempts to apply a universal structure (for example, democracy. - V. G.) to different countries. Another reason should be recognized as attempts to manipulate these idealized principles of statehood, turning them through forceful pressure or concessions into an instrument for ensuring one's own interests in interstate relations. In other words, another reason for the ineffectiveness of the basic values ​​of the modern global system is the desire to elevate an idea that is incapable of generalization to the level of international legal norms and then use it to discredit it.

Democratic values ​​have not become universal. For various objective and subjective reasons (the illegitimate nature of power, the desire of an individual or group to forcibly remain in power; the existing government ensures the interests of strong powers in the region and, as a response, the protection of this government by international political players [Egypt], etc. .) the use of such a system in some countries of Europe and Asia, the Middle East, Latin America is not possible both at this stage and in the future. However, if the people are not the source of power, if the people's will is not realized, then there can be no question of democracy. Of interest is the fact that the states - adherents of the principles of globalization in the name of ensuring their interests in the region and preserving international relations forced to come to terms with the situation. By justifying, in fact, the oblivion of democratic values, these forces endanger the global system based on this idea. On the other hand, in a number of countries, due to their geographical location and regional positions, taking into account demographic indicators and historically existing problems in relations with neighboring countries, the process of democratization may pose a threat national security, territorial integrity, internal order and stability. For this reason, the change of governments of these countries cannot be regarded as a manifestation of democracy. Thus, these values ​​are potentially incapable of acquiring the status of universal ones.

Apparent structure and causes of the crisis

A number of researchers and experts tend to view the global crisis as a historical consequence of globalization. In this case, globalization is perceived as a commonality, unification, blurring of boundaries (economic, cultural, ideological, etc.). However, regardless of the degree of unification of relations, the deepening of interstate relations and the interconnection of different regions of the world, such integrity is not able to ensure the functioning of the global system as united state, since the heterogeneity, the sovereignty of international actors are preserved. At the same time, the crisis that has arisen in the political, legal and economic structures of the state cannot be explained by its cultural or economic community. If the state is experiencing a crisis in all its subsystems (political, economic and legal), then it is obvious that the problem lies in the lack of agreement and harmony both in the system of values, norms and rules, and between these three subsystems. By undermining the ties between these three subsystems, individual and group interests put the system not only under the threat of disintegration, but, most importantly, contribute to the alienation of fundamental values. The same thing happens with the global system. Currently, all these systems are experiencing crisis phenomena. Therefore, it is impossible to restore the system on the basis of alienated norms and values.

The fall in the authority of priority values ​​and the subsequent fall in authority international law(provoked by the dominant political forces that relegated values ​​to the background in order to protect their own strategic, economic, religious-psychological, group and individual interests) ultimately lead to a political, legal and economic crisis. Economic processes can unfold only on the basis of sustainable and long-term trust. In turn, long-term trust is based not on confrontation, but on current strategic and regional interests and values.

Preservation of the authority and role of the priority value by the dominant forces is associated with the promotion of the problem of its protection, which in turn is possible only in the process of competition of this value with other values. If the elimination of the opposite is initially and is accompanied by a sharp jump global economy, the deployment of globalization processes around one value (within 20 years after the end of cold war), then in the future, deprived of its opposite and having found its fixing in law, the value begins to be alienated, to lose its authority. An ideological vacuum poses a threat to real ongoing processes, becomes a source of a serious and inevitable crisis (suffice it to refer to cases when political forces in a number of countries did not protect values ​​from encroachment, double standards were applied in relation to the basic principles of international law, etc.).

The priority of the current strategic economic interests of large economic structures, oligarchic groups to the detriment of ideological and legal principles leads to an increase in the power of the oligarchs both in the economy and in politics, which in turn contributes to the weakening and collapse, along with the norms, of the global structures themselves. The monopolization of both the economy and politics by the oligarchic group (it is impossible to ensure the stability of economic power without monopolizing politics) causes apathy along with politics in the economy. Apathy in politics, law and economics leads to a loss of confidence in international organizations, the dominant political, legal and economic structures. The need to ensure their interests in the face of loss of legitimacy forces them to use force (for example, the United States in Iraq).

The global economic crisis is not just an international political and legal crisis, but acts as a continuation of the political and economic crisis within the leading states of the world themselves. And the current economic crisis is also a consequence of monopolization political system economic oligarchs of these countries.

If in the political and legal sphere the cause of the crisis was the impossibility of universalizing democratic principles, then in the economic sphere this cause was the liberalization of the economy, which found its expression in the predominance of liberal values ​​in the economy in recent decades.

Growth of virtual finance not backed by material resources, falling authority of economic values, norms and rules of business organization, deepening economic differences between segments of the population in the absence of reliance on cultural and intellectual potential, apathy and loss of faith in the principle of economic justice, in the efficiency of entrepreneurship and business prospects activity, rising unemployment and a decline in production, the leading role of the same actors in the global economic system, etc. - all this led to a complex manifestation of the global economic crisis.

If both the political system of the state and international political relations turn into a means in the hands of the leading players, and macroeconomic and international economic processes are controlled by oligarchic groups, then this means that the crisis actually initially arose within the framework of the political system. The monopolistic activity of a certain oligarchic group that does not have a superstructure, and the creation of virtual finance by it, devoid of an appropriate material support, a decline in production and an increase in inflation naturally lead to a crisis.

The probability of the collapse of the global structure

The global political crisis is developing in two directions: 1) Preservation of the status quo of international organizations. The absence of reforms can subsequently lead to the loss of the organization's chances of survival, and an attempt to organize again is fraught with great difficulties. The world in this case will plunge into chaos; 2) Increasing pressure from the great powers demanding the provision of legally formalized control over the situation in the world, pushing their supporters into the Security Council and other organizations for this purpose, which can bring the rivalry between them to a dangerous level. In the light of what has been said, the new organization must be based on norms and principles on the basis of which it would be possible to control processes and ensure proper order in the world, even though these principles and order may serve certain political purposes.

Of course, one should take into account the proportion of political players involved in this process and determine the share of their participation in it. Otherwise, no norm and no standards will have legal force. However, this participation must be legally supported. At the same time, the norms should be selected in such a way that these subjects assume only good obligations, serve peace and order.

Ways out of the global crisis

The fact that the crisis has engulfed the entire global structure, bringing to the fore the problem of the norms and principles of each subsystem (political, economic, legal), makes it necessary to create a new philosophical and ideological system with appropriate organizational structures and international legal framework or the reconstruction of the existing one. We are talking about the development of a new ideological system and means of concretizing it, based on the synthesis and improvement of Christian democratic values. European Union, Islamic and regional principles that underlie the Organization of the Islamic Conference, and Confucianism, which is the backbone of Chinese statehood. At the same time, the problem of developing a unified philosophical concept is actualized. This goal is served by the scientific research of S. Khalilov, in particular, his search for a "universal ideal", the desire to develop the philosophical concept of "East - West" (Khalilov 2004). The new philosophical system, based on the cultural and spiritual manifestations of Islam, Buddhism and Christianity and characterized by universal content, should focus on the common values ​​of Islam, Buddhism and Christianity and acquire a spiritual and moral form, possess universal human power. In the future, on the basis of this philosophy, political principles should be developed, a structure proposed, ways of legal support and transformation of values ​​into norms found.

The general and highest values ​​should be not democratic principles and procedures, but cultural, spiritual, intellectual criteria, such as humanism, tolerance, universal values, etc. The main criterion for subsystems - states, should be civil, legitimate, social and secular nature of power. The basis of the formation of power should be based on the criterion of its progressiveness. The revision of values ​​should not be carried out in the form of a technical procedure that allows for formalism, distortion, falsification and manipulation.

Literature

Inozemtsev, V. L. 2008. Modern globalization and its perception in the world. Age of globalization 1:31-44. (Inozemtsev, V. L. 2008. Modern globalization and its understanding in the world. Age of Globalization 1: 31–44).

Khalilov, S. S. 2004. East and West: on the way to the universal ideal. Philosophical studies. Baku: Azerbaijan University. (Khalilov, S. S. 2004. East and West: On the way to the universal ideal. Philosophical Essays. Baku: Azerbaijan University).

ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Conflicts associated with the aggravation of interethnic relations have become an indispensable attribute of the modern world. They flare up on all continents of our planet: in both developed and developing countries, in the areas of distribution of any religious teachings, in areas with different levels of income and education.

Numerous hotbeds of ethnic conflicts - from global (Kurdish, Palestinian, Kosovo, Chechen) to local and point (domestic contradictions between people of different nationalities within the city, town, village) - give rise to instability, which is increasingly difficult to contain within state borders. Neighboring ethnic groups are almost always involved to one degree or another in confrontations between ethnic groups, and often distant centers of power, including such large-scale geopolitical players as the USA, Russia, Great Britain, India, and China.

concept conflict in Latin means "collision". Signs of conflict are manifested in the clash of forces, parties, interests. The object of the conflict can be either a fragment of material, socio-political or spiritual reality, or the territory, its subsoil, social status, distribution of power, language and cultural values. In the first case, the formation social conflict, in the second - territorial. An ethnic conflict taking place between ethnic groups - groups of people who have a common historical and cultural foundation and occupy a certain spatial area - is a territorial conflict.

The whole complex of related problems is studied geographic conflictology - a scientific direction that studies the nature, essence, causes of conflicts, the patterns of their course and development based on interaction with spatial (geographical) factors. Geographical conflictology uses the knowledge of philosophy, history, sociology, jurisprudence, political science, psychology, ethnology, biology, economics, political geography and geopolitics, physical and social geography.

Any conflict is characterized by uneven development in time. Periods latent its (hidden) development is replaced by segments of open confrontation between the participants in the conflict; at this time it happens actualization, when the activity of the opposing sides sharply increases, the number of political actions increases many times over, and there is also a transition to armed actions.

According to a Russian researcher of conflicts V.Avksentieva, the transition of the latent period to the actualized period usually begins with the statement of one of the parties about dissatisfaction with their position and intention to change it. The announcement of dissatisfaction is the first phase of the actualized conflict. It is followed by the phase of refusal, that is, the denial of at least one of the parties to the conflict of the very existence of the problem, the phase of forcing the conflict, the phase of the meeting (recognition of its existence by both parties, the beginning of consultations and negotiations) and the phase of conflict resolution. The last phases can be recorded only in conflicts that are fading away, having reduced their destructive potential.

Like any other socio-political phenomenon, ethnic conflict develops according to certain laws and is initiated by specific factors among which are objective And subjective. The group of objective factors includes those factors that exist relatively independently of public consciousness. The clearest example of this kind is natural factor.

Everything that contributes to the development of the conflict is connected in a single complex. The active manifestation of one or two factors without the support of the others is not capable of creating any serious ethnic conflict.

An important and often decisive role in the processes of conflicts is played by ethno-confessional factor. The main component of any ethnic conflict is the crisis of ethnic identity (political scientists and conflictologists call it an identity crisis). It manifests itself in a change in the ethnic, confessional (religious) and political self-identification of people, in the strengthening of the influence of nationalist groups and associations, and the growth of their political activity.

Many states of the world are interested in creating a single supranational nationwide identity, which, on the basis of a single language, common symbols and traditions, could consolidate all ethnic, confessional and social groups of the country. In single-ethnic (mono-ethnic) states, such as Japan, Norway or Portugal, this problem has already been practically solved. These countries already from the end of the XIX century. are at such a level of ethnic consolidation, which in the West has received the name "nation-state" (nation-state), that is, they have an almost complete coincidence of ethnic and state (civil) self-identification.

The term "nation state" was first used at the end of the 18th century. in relation to France. The essence of this concept is that the entire population of the country is defined as a single nation that does not have ethnic differences within the framework of a single state. The slogan under which this process proceeds is: “For every nation, a state. To each state - a national essence. It should be noted, however, that this idea is far from universal implementation. As many researchers rightly point out, an ethnically homogeneous nation-state is an ideal representation, since in reality almost every state has more or less pronounced minorities, and in the modern ethnically mixed world, the task of building a textbook model of a nation-state can be called utopian.

The life situation shows that today ethnic groups are artificially divided into two groups. A smaller part of them is an elite club identified with the international community and all its institutions. Representatives of another, more numerous group of ethnic groups exist as ethnic minorities in multinational states ah and limited in their ability to directly participate in the activities of the international community. The existence of several international organizations of ethnic minorities, like the Association of the Peoples of the North or the Organization of Unrepresented Nations and Peoples (it includes 52 members, including Abkhazia, Bashkortostan, Buryatia, Gagauzia, Kosovo, Iraqi Kurdistan, Taiwan) is perceived as weak consolation for the peoples not represented in the foreign policy arena.

Interethnic relations have the greatest complexity in multinational (polyethnic) states. In some - centralized some ethnic groups are so large that they are constantly at the center of social political life, dictate their own interests, put forward a standardized culture built on their own national-cultural foundation, try to assimilate minorities. It is in such states that the greatest potential for conflicts develops, since the dominant group puts forward claims to the exclusive control of state institutions, which causes a response from national minorities.

This model of interethnic relations dominates in Iran, Indonesia, Myanmar and a number of other countries. In some of them, the desire to consolidate the entire population of the country into a single nation on the foundation of a dominant ethnic group casts doubt on the very existence of other ethnic groups (For example, in Turkey, the Kurds are officially called "mountain Turks").

At dispersed In a type of multinational state, the population consists of a small number of ethnic groups, each of which is too weak or small in number to dominate. As a result, the only option acceptable to all is the achievement of inter-ethnic harmony (albeit at times quite fragile and often violated). Such a system has developed, for example, in many African countries, where an extremely heterogeneous ethnic composition is a legacy of colonial borders (Nigeria, Tanzania, Guinea, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, etc.).

Discrimination against national minorities can be various forms: restriction or even prohibition of the national language and culture, economic suppression, resettlement from the ethnic territory, reduction of quotas of representation in the administrative structures of the state, etc. In almost all countries of the East, the share of representatives of different ethnic groups in the power system far does not correspond to the share of this ethnic group among all population. As a rule, the numerically predominant ethnic groups (Persians in Iran, Punjabis in Pakistan, Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, Malays in Malaysia, Burmese in Myanmar, etc.) at all levels of power have a disproportionately high representation, and most other ethnic groups have a disproportionately low .

The main demands of most of the national movements involved in ethnic conflicts come down to three areas:

1) cultural revival (creation of broad cultural autonomy with the use of the native language in local governments and education);

2) economic independence (the right to dispose of natural resources and economic potential, localized within the ethnic territory);

3) political self-government (establishment of national self-government within the boundaries of an ethnic territory or part of it).

The range of requirements of these movements is determined by the degree of development and complexity of the structure of the ethnos, its internal social differentiation. Leaders of more “simple” ethnic communities that retain remnants of tribal relations usually come up with unequivocal demands for independence and/or the expulsion of all “strangers” (for example, the leaders of the national movement in Assam). For larger and more developed ethnic groups, the range of demands put forward is much wider: they are dominated by demands for cultural and national-territorial autonomy, economic independence and political self-government, which is confirmed, for example, by the situation in Catalonia.

A number of ethnic groups demand the expansion of rights up to the formation of their own statehood. However, if in fact we are guided by the principle of complete self-determination (up to secession) for each ethnic group, then this implies a slightly optimistic prospect of the gradual disintegration of all multinational states of the world until each ethnic group on the planet (and there are 3-4 thousand of them) has of his state. According to the American scientist S. Cohen, already in 25 - 30 years the number of states may increase one and a half times. As a result, there will be more than 300 sovereign states on the world map.

The difference between the confessional form of conflict formation and the ethnic one is that it is not ethnic self-consciousness that comes to the fore, but religious. It is not uncommon for opponents in a conflict to even belong to the same ethnic group. For example, adherents of Sikhism are ethnically Punjabis. They are in conflict with Hindu Punjabis (in India) and Muslim Punjabis (in Pakistan).

Religion has a significant impact on the entire culture of the ethnic group. Sometimes confessional differences play a decisive role in ethnogenesis. For example, Bosnians, Serbs and Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the same language even before the ethnic cleansing of the first half of the 1990s. lived in stripes within a single area. It is possible that the Punjabi ethnic group, which still retains unity, will soon split along religious lines. At least now, Sikh Punjabis speak Punjabi, Hindu Punjabis speak Hindi, and Muslim Punjabis speak Urdu.

Palestine, Punjab, Kashmir, Southern Philippines (Moro Muslim regions) are the classic centers of ethnic conflicts with a pronounced dominant role of the religious factor. The religious component of the conflict is mixed with the ethnic one in Cyprus (Turkish Cypriot Muslims against Greek Cypriot Christians), Sri Lanka (Tamil Hindus against Sinhalese Buddhists), Northern Ireland (Irish Catholics against Protestants from England and Scotland) , in the Indian state of Nagaland (Naga Christians against the main population of India - Hindus), etc. True, there are many hotbeds of conflicts where the warring parties are co-religionists: Catalonia, Transnistria, Balochistan, etc.

Closely interacts with ethno-confessional socio-economic factor. IN pure form it is not capable of leading to the emergence of a serious ethnic conflict, otherwise any area that differs economically would be a hotbed of interethnic confrontation.

The dependence of the intensity of the conflict on the level of economic development cannot be unambiguously determined. There are centers of ethnic conflicts in the world, both relatively economically developed (Catalonia, Quebec, Transnistria) and economically depressed (Chechnya, Kosovo, Kurdistan, Chiapas, Corsica).

The motivation for the dissatisfaction expressed by an ethnic group with its economic situation can be different. Ethnic groups living in relative prosperity and well-being often show dissatisfaction with the established practice of unjustifiably high deductions from their region to the national budget. According to the leaders of these national movements, under the guise of declarations on the harmonious and balanced economic development of the country, the region is being robbed. At the same time, the more noticeable the economic disproportions between the most and least developed regions of the country, the greater the sums withdrawn from economically prosperous regions, which causes a sharp rejection of the “freeloader regions” by them.

The ethnic groups inhabiting economically lagging areas express claims that the governing structures or international organizations do not take into account the deplorable state of their economy, do not provide loans for its development, and do not see the needs of the ordinary population. Raising the bar for economic demands, which at times develops into direct economic blackmail, according to the calculations of the leaders of the conflicting ethnic group, can lead to a more profitable redistribution budget funds, international aid, fairer tax policy. Sometimes parties to the conflict rely on non-traditional economic sources, such as smuggling proceeds. different types goods, including weapons and drugs, hostage-taking for ransom, extortion from fellow tribesmen who have achieved success in business.

The socio-economic factor plays an important role in the formation and development of the Basque conflict knot, which is clearly expressed in the Indian Assam and the Indonesian Irian Jaya.

In the processes of origin and evolution of ethnic conflicts, natural factor. Basically, its action is manifested in the form of natural boundaries, which often serve as barriers between neighboring ethnic groups, boundaries of interethnic clashes and wars. Mountain ranges, large rivers, sea straits, difficult land areas (deserts, swamps, forests) can serve as such natural boundaries.

On the one hand, natural boundaries minimize contacts between warring ethnic groups, which reduces the conflict nature of relationships, on the other hand, they contribute to the psychological alienation of ethnic groups living on opposite sides of the barrier. Natural boundaries were previously one of the main factors that laid down the direction of ethnic boundaries, thereby determining the ethnic map of the region. The natural accessibility of the territory determines the level economic development. If the state does not have the welfare level of Switzerland, within which, by the way, there are a lot of various natural boundaries, then natural boundaries will lead to certain difficulties in contacts with some territories, which will negatively affect their economic development.

In comparison with other conflict-generating factors, natural borders are the least plastic and practically unchanged. "In reality, it is only possible to slightly improve the ties between opposite sides of the natural border (the construction of mountain and sea tunnels, the construction of bridges, the creation of sea and air routes, the transformation of deserts and tropical jungles, etc.). ), but it is hardly possible to completely eliminate differences in economic and geopolitical positions.

In the formation of large centers of ethnic conflicts, the role of geopolitical factor. The main form of its manifestation is geopolitical faults between extended civilizational-historical and military-political arrays. Concepts of geopolitical faults different directions and configurations have recently become popular in the scientific community. The most famous model was the American S. Huntington. Fault zones are characterized by political instability, confrontation of the strategic interests of the largest geopolitical forces, conflicts often arise here.

good example This factor is influenced by the Balkan mega-conflict and its components - ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Western Macedonia, and Montenegro. The uniqueness of the Balkan knot lies in the fact that three geopolitical faults pass through it at once: between the Orthodox-Slavic and Islamic civilizations (currently the most conflict-prone), between the Orthodox-Slavic and European-Catholic civilizations, and between the European-Catholic and Islamic civilizations. Each of the three sides of the conflict node experiences a strong intervention of external forces. The US, UK, Germany and other NATO countries support Croats and Muslim peoples (Kosovo Albanians and Bosniaks). Orthodox Serbs, on the other hand, found themselves in fact isolated, since their traditional foreign policy patrons (including Russia) less persistently and consistently defend their interests in the international arena.

In every major ethnic conflict, the opposing sides respect collective interests, the development of which is possible only if there is organizing and managing entity. Such a subject can be a national elite, a more or less large public organization, armed formations, a political party, etc.

Such political organizations closely involved in the conflict exist in many countries of the world. This, for example. PKK in Turkish Kurdistan, Tamil Eelam Liberation Tigers in the Tamil north of Sri Lanka, Kosovo Liberation Army, Palestine Liberation Organization, etc.

In developed parliamentary democracies, national movements act openly, freely participating in elections at various levels. However, some of the most odious and extremist organizations, in respect of which their involvement in bloody crimes has been proven, are prohibited. Nevertheless, even in these cases, national groups have the opportunity to express their interests openly.

Nationalist public organizations reflect the interests and moods of peripheral elites seeking to expand their influence. Such ethnocratic elites are formed mainly in three ways. Firstly, the state-administrative nomenclature that existed under the previous regime can be transformed into a new national elite (examples:

most of the CIS countries, countries of the former Yugoslavia). Secondly, such an elite can be represented by a new nationalist intelligentsia (teachers, writers, journalists, etc.), who previously did not have power, but at a certain moment felt the possibility of acquiring it (the Baltic countries, Georgia). Thirdly, the ethnocratic elite can be formed from a conglomerate of warlords and mafia leaders fighting for national independence, as happened in Chechnya, Somalia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Eritrea, and Myanmar.

Sooner or later, a charismatic leader of the national movement appears among the ethnocratic elite - such as, for example, Y. Arafat for Palestine or A. Ocalan for Kurdistan, concentrating in his hands all the forces involved in fulfilling the intended goals. The leader represents the interests of his movement on various levels, leads negotiations with the opposing side, achieves international recognition.

The leader of the national movement is the potential head of the newly formed state. The role of such a person in the conflict is sometimes very great. In some countries, separatist movements are more likely to take place not under the flags of certain ethnic or religious groups, but under the battle standards of one or another big name.

It is wrong, however, to absolutize the role of the leader in the process of the territory's struggle for sovereignty. Without a wide circle of like-minded people, a clear hierarchical party structure, and the support of the national elite, the leader remains a lone rebel.

Among the factors contributing to the development of separatism, it is impossible not to mention historical factor. If an ethnic group putting forward demands for self-determination or autonomy previously had its own statehood or self-governing institutions, then it has much more moral grounds to revive them. Largely for this reason, the Baltic republics of the former USSR throughout their existence were the area of ​​the most clearly defined nationalist processes. Similar problems may now arise before Russian Federation, a number of subjects of which, for example, Tatarstan, Tyva, Dagestan (the latter in the form of fragmented feudal estates), previously had their own statehood.

None of the factors of separatism is of such decisive importance for the transition of the conflict from a latent to an actualized form, as social mobilization factor. Without the active participation of the population, any area of ​​manifestation of disintegration tendencies is unlikely to have reason to become a hotbed of separatism. Under the mobilization of the population is understood the ability of certain political groups to take active steps to achieve their economic, political and national interests. The higher the political self-consciousness in a society, the higher its mobilization. The growth of mobilization also entails an increase in the political activity of the population, the indicators of which are an increase in the number of demonstrations, rallies, strikes, picketing and other political actions. As a result, high mobilization of the population can lead to destabilization of political life and even outbreaks of violence.

The level of mobilization in various social groups ah is usually not the same. Particularly irreconcilable positions regarding ways to resolve the conflict - extremism - dominate the marginalized strata of the population. It is in them that the lack of culture and education is felt; First of all, these social groups are most prone to partial or complete unemployment.

As the conflict develops, the field of action of public mobilization expands. At the moment of its emergence, the national intelligentsia becomes the most mobilized group, which, by influencing the general population through means mass media increases the mobilization of the entire ethno-cultural community. Interestingly, in such situations, a particularly strong destabilizing role is played by the humanitarian intelligentsia oriented toward ethnic revival, while the technical intelligentsia most often acts as a stabilizing factor.

Great importance when studying the centers of instability, it has the concept of a “threshold critical level of mobilization”, after which the open phase of the conflict follows. In general, this threshold is higher in the more developed regions of the planet (Europe, America) and decreases in the less developed ones (Africa, Asia). Thus, the national and cultural discrimination against the Tamils ​​in Sri Lanka led to a major armed conflict, and similar actions taken by the Estonian government against the Russian-speaking population did not give rise to a reaction even close in intensity.

The mobilization of a certain group of the population usually depends on the amount of resources under social control (mainly labor) and on political organization. The forms of group organization are diverse and include both political parties and other public structures: national-cultural movements, liberation fronts, etc. In any case, for each public group capable of increasing its mobilization, the following conditions must be met:

1) common group identification;

2) a common self-name, well known to both members and non-members of the group;

3) certain symbols of the group: emblems, slogans, songs, uniforms, national clothes, etc.;

4) the presence in the group of a certain circle of persons whose authority is recognized by all members of the group;

5) assigned to the group own controlled space;

6) the presence of common property (money, weapons and other means of struggle);

7) implementation by the top of the group of control over the activities of all members of the group.

All the hotbeds of ethnic conflicts existing in the world were formed as a result of the combination of the above factors.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY ADMINISTRATION

MUNICIPAL BUDGET GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL № 2 im. A.I. ISAEVA"

APPROVE

Director of MBOU "Secondary School No. 2

them. A.I. Isaeva"

Linnik I.A. _________

protocol of the method council No.

from "______"_________

PROGRAM

"Global Geography"

Elective course for 11th grade students, 17 hours

geography teacher

Ilyicheva G.D.______

«____»_________________

global geography

(35 h)

Explanatory note

The course "Global Geography" is a relatively new and rapidly developing direction in the geographical; science that studies the spatial manifestation of planetary processes and phenomena. We can say that we are dealing with a special branch of global studies - the study of global problems of mankind - geographical, including environmental, energy, food, raw materials, demographic and other aspects of the development of nature and society.

Globalistics itself has a pronounced interdisciplinary character and is studied by many sciences: philosophy, sociology, economics, biology, law, etc. Global geography is “geographical globalistics”, and its study is especially important and promising, since we are talking about mastering knowledge at the turn of the science of nature and society. Geography remains the only discipline that synthesizes the natural and social trends in science. Global problems are different in nature, but they are all permeated with the idea of ​​the geographical unity of mankind and its survival. If in the past crisis phenomena threatened only certain cultures and territories, then the modern mega-crisis covers the whole world, all the main forms and spheres of human life.

Some of the most pressing global issues are nuclear disarmament and the preservation of peace on earth; environmental, associated with the increasing destruction of the natural environment; demographic, generated by the rapid growth of the population in developing countries, their inability to provide people with normal living conditions; energy and raw material problems caused by the limited mineral resources of the planet; the food problem associated with chronic malnutrition of millions of people and hunger in developing countries; the appalling poverty of dozens of states, primarily in Africa; problems of the World Ocean, the causes of which are primarily due to a decrease in biological productivity, pollution of water areas, etc.

"Global geography" occupies an increasingly stable place in the education system in various countries of the world, which is associated with the great cognitive, moral and educational value of this course.

Target: To form a worldview idea about the interconnectedness of the global problems of mankind, about the possibility of their solution only with integrated approach in the conditions of international cooperation and mutual assistance.

It is intended to contribute to the solution of the following tasks:

Mastering the system of knowledge about the global problems of our time, which is extremely important for a holistic understanding of the planetary community of people, the unity of nature and society.

Understanding Russia's place in the world, the specifics of the manifestation of global problems in each country.

Development cognitive interest students to the increasingly prominent problems of a social nature - interethnic relations, culture and morality, the lack of democracy, etc.

Equipping students with special and general educational knowledge that allows them to independently obtain geographical information on this course.

Studying the course "Global Geography" in the senior classes allows you to integrate knowledge gained in other subjects, make the most of the general educational and cultural potential of geography as an academic subject, combine linear-step and concentric principles of education.

Introduction (2 h)

Global studies and global geography: terminology and content

Global studies - the doctrine of the global problems of our time: natural science and social. "package" of these problems. The interdisciplinary nature of global studies and the main directions in its study: philosophical, economic, sociological, environmental, legal, prognostic, geographical, etc. The need to mobilize the joint efforts of economists, sociologists, ecologists, lawyers, chemists, physicists, physicians, geographers and other specialists for research global problems.

Global problems that pose a direct threat to humanity. Unresolved problems of space exploration, research internal structure Earth, long-term forecasting of weather and climate and their impact on the future of mankind.

The subject of the study of global geography. The initial manifestation of many processes and phenomena of a global nature at lower geographical levels - continental, regional, zonal, national, local. An example with the problem of hunger, practically unknown in Western Europe, the USA or Japan. Parallel between the emergence of individual negative global processes and the emergence of malignant cells in the human body.

The utopianism of ideas about the complete solution of all global problems ever and the relevance of the thesis about the need to mitigate their severity.

Systematization of global problems

The meaning of systematization, which makes it possible to form the most visual representation of the analyzed problems, to more clearly fix the existing links between their various groups. "Old" and "new" global problems, “main” and “non-main”, which appeared thanks to a person and exist independently of him.

Problems of a political and socio-economic nature (the threat of nuclear war and the preservation of peace on the planet; ensuring expanded reproduction; overcoming backwardness by developing countries; ensuring sustainable development; the problem of controllability by the world community, etc.).

Problems of a predominantly natural and economic nature (environmental, energy, food, raw materials, problems of the World Ocean).

Problems of a predominantly social nature (demographic; interethnic and interreligious relations; crisis of culture, morality and family; lack of democracy; urbanization; health care, etc.).

Problems of a scientific nature (exploration of outer space; study of the internal structure of the Earth; long-term climate forecasting, etc.).

Problems of a mixed nature, the unresolved nature of which often leads to mass deaths of people (problems of regional conflicts, industrial accidents, crime, natural Disasters, suicide, etc.).

Small global problems of a predominantly psychological and autoecological nature (bureaucracy, selfishness, etc.).

One-sided coverage of the global problems of mankind in the literature. The constant presence in the field 3 of Rhenium of such problems as environmental, demographic, food, energy, raw materials, since it is with them that the Processes are first of all associated, exposing the foundations of human existence to the most powerful impact.

Methods of research of global problems.

demographic problem

Uncontrolled population growth in developing countries and the inability to modern civilization provide the current and especially the future population with normal living conditions. The theory of Malthus, its supporters and opponents in the past and now.

The ability of the Earth to theoretically feed more than tens of billions of people. Existing opportunities to increase the area of ​​cultivated land and increase average yields due to the Green Revolution. A simultaneous increase in the threat of irreversible pollution of the environment, the accumulation of a gigantic number of people in large cities, an increase in the risk of mass death from starvation and disease in the event of a series of lean years, etc.

The connection of the demographic problem with the continuing socio-economic conditions in the countries of the "third world". The concept of the theory of "demographic transition" and its applicability to the conditions of underdeveloped countries. Preference by agrarian society big family. (Clarification of this phenomenon requires consideration of the following concepts: 1) children: economic help or burden; 2) guarantees in old age (lack of social pension systems in developing countries); 3) the position of women in society; 4) religious attitudes, 5) the availability of contraceptives.)

Demographic policy, its orientation and ways of activation. Demographic policy of China, India, African and Latin American countries: successes and disappointments. Demographic policy in the former USSR and modern Russia.

The global demographic situation and the complex of socio-economic tasks of our time.

The problem of underdevelopment

Roots of backwardness of some countries of the modern world. Primitivism of the Marxist point of view, according to which the blame for the backwardness of the underdeveloped countries was entirely laid on colonialism. Historical delay (stadiality) in the development of socio-economic structures as the main cause of backwardness. The role of colonialism and so-called neo-colonialism in conservation and overcoming underdevelopment.

Scales and criteria of backwardness. Poverty, illiteracy of the population, chronic malnutrition and hunger, high mortality, epidemics, etc. as attributes of the underdevelopment of society. Underdevelopment criteria used in the UN. The least developed countries of the world (according to the UN classification), their typical features. underdeveloped countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Growth in the cost of finished industrial products and stagnation in the cost of raw materials and fuel (or mismatch in cost growth rates).

The problem of external debt of developing countries. The concept of the "new international economic order", the prospects for its establishment. Relationship of backwardness with other global problems.

food problem

Food as the most important fund of the livelihood of mankind. Food sources in the past and now. The structure of food rations. Major plant food sources. Meat and fish are the most important sources of proteins. Milk and fats of animal origin.

The essence of the food problem in the modern world and its main parameters: production, demand, distribution and consumption. Causes and manifestations of the food crisis in developing countries. The impact of hunger and malnutrition on the reproduction of the labor force. The concept of "hidden hunger".

Differentiation of countries and regions according to the severity of the manifestation of the food crisis. The protracted, chronic nature of the food crisis in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa. Modest agro-natural potential, increased fragility and reduced D "elasticity" of local ecosystems. Increased natural population growth, far outpacing food production. The countries of the Sahel as a "pole" of world hunger.

Poor quality, malnutrition as the most typical form of manifestation of the food problem in some countries of monsoon Asia. The successes of the "Green Revolution" and the improvement of the food situation in Asia. Food problem in Latin America.

Aggravation of the food situation in the countries - successors of the former USSR.

Ways out of the food impasse. Connection of the food problem with other global problems of our time. The role of eliminating hunger in solving the problem of underdevelopment.

Providing food for the growing population of the Earth. The role of croplands, grasslands, oceans and artificial products in solving the food problem.

energy problem

The essence and scale of the energy problem. Growth of energy intensity of the modern economy. A growing gap between the high rates of development of energy-intensive industries and the reserves of non-renewable energy resources (oil, gas, coal). Negative environmental consequences of energy development while maintaining the traditional structure of the fuel and energy balance.

The energy crisis of the 70s. XX century: its background and consequences. Economic, political and social aspects of the energy crisis. The end of the era of cheap energy sources. OPEC countries and their role in shaping energy prices.

Traditional and alternative energy. Provision of hydrocarbon raw materials to countries and regions of the world and the transition to an energy-saving type of economy. Nuclear power, modern scales of its development, advantages and disadvantages. The problem of technical reliability of nuclear power plants and disposal of radioactive waste. Use of solar energy (solar energy), wind energy (wind energy), intraterrestrial heat, waves, currents, etc.

Energy and ecology.

Contours of the energy economy of the future, forecasts and scenarios for the development of energy for the 21st century. Limits to the growth of energy production.

Global energy situation and other global problems.

Raw material problem

The essence of the global raw material problem. The concept of raw materials. Modern scales of use of mineral raw materials. Types of raw materials, more or less close to exhaustion. Optimistic and pessimistic forecasts for the use of raw materials in the future.

The relative scarcity and irreplaceability of mineral resources as the main component of the global resource problem. Other components: the lag in the technology of development and processing of raw materials, the low availability of certain countries with mineral raw materials. Transition to the exploitation of less productive deposits of mineral resources in hard-to-reach areas with difficult or extreme natural conditions. Increasing the cost of production of almost all types of mineral resources.

Waste production - low-waste - non-waste. The purpose and task of low-waste technology is the creation of production with a minimum amount of waste and harmful effects that do not exceed the permissible sanitary and hygienic level. Cycle "raw materials - production - consumption - secondary raw materials".

The recycling of non-renewable resources is one of the ways to save resources. Disposal household waste(garbage).

Regional aspects of the raw material problem in the modern world. Attempts to radically solve the problem of waste in Japan and Western Europe.

Russia and the global commodity crisis. Mineral raw material nature of Russian exports and the problem of depletion of hydrocarbon deposits. Insufficient use of secondary resources. Low efficiency of resource saving policy.

The global commodity situation and its connection with other global problems.

Problems of the World Ocean

The seeming artificiality of posing these problems, arising from the undesirable opposition of the territory of the land to the waters of the ocean. The specificity of the development and ecology of the ocean, which allows us to speak about the well-known independence of these problems.

The oceans as the "cradle" of all life on the planet. Protection ocean environment nascent life from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation. The role of the oceans in providing life on Earth.

The oceans as a resource base. The structure of marine resources. Maritime economy. biological resources. World fisheries, its current scale and possible limits. Mariculture. Marine mining industry. "Skinny ore". Resources and production of oil and gas. solid minerals bottom of the ocean. The ocean as a source of fresh water.

Problems of ocean energy use. The problem of the development of maritime transport. World shipping. Marine fleet. Ports, channels. Non-traditional types of maritime transport.

The problem of maritime transport.

Ecology of the World Ocean.

The ocean is the common heritage of mankind. |

Problems of the World Ocean and their connection with other global problems.

Global ethnic crisis

The growing economic and technical interdependence of states and the acceleration of the processes of internationalization of social life. In parallel, the desire of individual countries and ethnic groups for self-identification is manifested. The manifestation in various regions of the world of uncontrolled national emotions, which take the form of reasonable national self-assertion or aggressive nationalism.

Conflict-forming factors and their geographical interpretation: 1) upholding the principle of identity of state and ethnic borders; 2) the movement of nations towards self-determination; 3) the desire of nations to form supernations; 4) economic struggle for land, housing, jointly acquired fixed assets, etc.; 5) uncontrolled demographic development in underdeveloped countries; 6) assimilation processes and depopulation of ethnic minorities; 7) "aging" of nations in advanced economies; 8) environmental factor; 9) psychological attitudes to protect the cultural and moral traditions of the ethnic group, faith in its special relationship with the supreme deity, etc.

Pronounced geographical specificity of such Factors as uncontrolled demographic development, "aging" of nations, assimilation processes, environmental factor.

The geography of interethnic conflicts in modern world. Tribal strife (tribalism) is an old disease of Africa, where archaic institutions and organizations associated with the tribal system are still preserved. Interethnic and interreligious tensions in South Asia and Latin America.

Russia and the global ethnic crisis. Interethnic conflicts in the countries of the former USSR. Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, conflicts on the territory of Georgia, the Transnistrian crisis, etc.

Global ethnic crisis and its connection with other global problems.

Problems of human health and longevity

Human health as a synthetic category, which includes, in addition to the physiological, moral, intellectual and mental components. One of the oldest global problems of mankind. The life expectancy of the population as one of the most important criteria for the civilization of any country (along with the development of the newest branches of the economy, the level of national income per capita, etc.).

The concept of medical geography that studies the spread of diseases and pathological conditions person; the reasons for this spread and the influence of the geographic environment on human health.

Geography of infectious diseases (epidemiological geography). The doctrine of E. N. Pavlovsky about the natural focality of the so-called transmissible diseases. Forecasting the probability of occurrence of a particular disease, depending on the confinement of its natural foci to a certain geographical landscape (plague, tick-borne encephalitis, etc.). Malaria, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis (or "sleeping sickness") are typical infectious diseases African tropics. Other epidemiological diseases: influenza, tuberculosis, cholera, etc.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a new global deadly disease. The rapid spread of the AIDS epidemic

countries of the world, primarily African, Asian, American. Immorality (sexual promiscuity and drug addiction) and lack of spirituality as primary factors \ the spread of the disease. The role of medicine in expanding the geography of AIDS. AIDS in Russia.

The spread of malignant neoplasms and their relationship with geographical factors. Dependence of human health on the mode and quality of nutrition (kwashiorkor, beriberi, diabetes, etc.).

"Internationality" of cardiovascular, mental and some other diseases.

The global significance of the issue of increasing the average life expectancy of a person. Gerontological science.

Relationship between the problem of human health and longevity and other global problems.

The problem of natural natural phenomena

The role of tragedies caused by the forces of nature in the history of mankind. Systematization of natural disasters (SPP) according to the conditions of occurrence (cosmic, meteorological-climatic, hydrological and geological, geological-tectonic, glacial-hydrological, etc.). Types of natural destructive phenomena (fall of meteorites and asteroids, flood, tsunami, volcanic eruption, earthquake, mudflow, landslide, tornado, heat, drought, dry wind, dust storm, blizzard, blizzard, lightning, tornado, frost, downpour, hail, fog and etc.).

The evolution of human behavior in relation to PCOS: 1) "flight" from PCOS; 2) search for ways to protect against natural disasters, allowing you to deal with at least some of them; 3) development of a mechanism to prevent some of the SOS based on scientific discoveries.

An increase in the number of human casualties and material damage from SES due to the intensive growth of the population, its concentration in areas affected by the most destructive SES. The greatest vulnerability in the face of the natural elements of developing countries (Bangladesh, monsoon Asia, the Andean countries, the states of the Sahel, etc.).

The geographical nature of the problem of PCOS. The role of geographers in the development of measures to prevent PCOS.

The problem of technological accidents

The "chain reaction" of industrial disasters of recent decades as confirmation of the global nature of the problem (an explosion at a chemical plant in Bhopal in India, the death of the American spacecraft Challenger, the tragic sinking of the Soviet submarine Komsomolets, the death of the ferry "Estonia", the most severe catastrophe of the latter time - Chernobyl and many others).

Systematization of technological accidents depending on the nature of industries material production. The role of road, sea and air transport in the statistics of deaths. The role of the world's coal mining industry in the death of workers. Geography of coal mines (basins) with increased methane abundance.

Mathematical theory of catastrophes, which helps to calculate the parameters at which an unstable state of the system occurs. "Protection from fools", i.e. control technological process an automation system that itself protects production from failures, erroneous decisions, turns off the process in case of a possible danger.

Geographical aspects of the problem of technological accidents.

The problem of the lack of democracy and freedom

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the most important international document is a concentrated expression of the democratic experience of mankind. Human rights are our natural, inalienable heritage, and not a gift of the state, for which its leaders should be thanked.

Analysis of the ranking of states by groups - "free", "partially free", "not free", "reactionary" - regimes that refuse to provide their citizens with basic political and social rights. The difference between the concepts of "authoritarianism" and "totalitarianism".

The situation with human rights in the USSR, Russia and countries formed after the collapse of the USSR.

Other global problems of our time (4 hours)

Register of global problems of mankind. The problem of crime inherent in all states without exception. Classification of violations of law and order: crimes against a person (murder, bodily harm, rape, etc.); crimes against the personal property of citizens (robbery, robbery, theft, fraud, extortion, etc.); state crimes (treason, espionage, political terror, sabotage, etc.); air terrorism, or "hijacking", etc. Varying forms of crimes from country to country, from region to region. The concept of "geocriminogenic situation" and the role of geography in the study of crime.

The crisis of culture, morality, family (the problem of "ecology of the soul") is a specific global problem. Any nation is like a living organism of a special, higher order. The fruits of centuries of spiritual selection and great social upheavals, wars, etc.

Global scientific problems related to the study of space, the internal structure of the Earth, long-term weather forecasting, etc.

The problem of the world's urbanization, which creates the most complex Knot of contradictions, the totality of which serves as a weighty argument for considering it from a global point of view.

Analysis of other global problems (see the classification of global problems).

EDUCATIONAL AND THEMATIC PLAN

Number of hours

Global problems: concept and classification

Classification of global problems

Systematization of global problems

demographic problem

Population explosion: causes and consequences. The theory of demographic transition. Developed and developing countries: causes of demographic differences. demographic policy. Demographic situation in Russia.

The problem of underdevelopment

Roots of backwardness. backwardness parameters. Geography of backwardness.

Practical work. Characteristics of backward countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

food problem

Food sources in the past and now. Nutrition quality. Geography of hunger. Regional types of food. Causes of hunger

energy problem

Oil supply and the transition to an energy-saving economy. Natural gas. Hydropower. Alternative energy sources. Atomic Energy. Energy problems of Russia.

Practical work. Determination of the most optimal territories and water areas of the planet for the construction of power plants operating on alternative energy sources, and their designation on a contour map.

Raw material problem

Depletion of the earth's interior. Dispersion of deposits. The role of forest resources. secondary resources. Garbage disposal. Russia and the global commodity crisis.

Practical work. Characteristics of the manifestations of the global commodity problem in different countries.

Problems of the World Ocean

Accumulation of knowledge about the Ocean. The problem of development biological resources. The problem of development of mineral resources. The problem of using the energy of the ocean. Other Ocean Problems.

Global ethnic crisis

Conflict-forming factors and their geographical interpretation. The movement of nations towards self-determination and the desire for the formation of supernations. "Aging" of nations and destabilization of interethnic relations. Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities. Ecology and ethnic strife. Tribalism is a disease of Africa. Russia and the global ethnic crisis.

Human health problem

Nosogeography. epidemiological geography. Spatial expansion of AIDS. The spread of malignant neoplasms. Health and longevity

The problem of terrorism and regional conflicts

The emergence of the problem of terrorism. Spread of terrorism. Geography of regional conflicts.

The problem of urbanization

essence of urbanization. Urbanization. Agglomerations and metropolitan areas. Ecological, economic and social problems of cities. "Slum" urbanization.

The problem of natural phenomena

Classification of natural phenomena. Geography of natural phenomena.

The problem of technological accidents

Dangerous professions. Theory of catastrophes.

The problem of space and the study of the internal structure of the Earth

Actuality of the problem of space exploration. Clogging of the near-Earth space. The problem of studying the internal structure of the Earth.

Discussion

Generalization of students' knowledge

General lesson

Generalization and control of students' knowledge, protection of projects, presentations.

Literature:

Alekseev N.A. Natural phenomena in nature. M., 2004.

Internationalization of economic life and global problems of mankind. M, 2001.

Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Global geography. M., Education, 2010 .

Kondratiev K.Ya. Key problems of global ecology. M., 2000.

Developing countries in the struggle to overcome backwardness. M, 2007.

Reimers N.F. Nature management: Dictionary-reference book. M., 2001.

Skinner B. Will Earth's Resources Enough for Mankind? M., 2003.

Slevich S.B. Ocean: resources and economy. L., 2001.

Gladky Yu.A., Lavrov S.B. Economic and social geography of the world. 10 cells M., Education, 2010.

Historical and geographical encyclopedias

Countries of the World: Statistical Handbook. Whole world, 2011.

Relevance The problem of ethnic conflicts over the past decades has been one of the most
relevant topics for researchers representing various fields of science. main reason
lies in the intractability of such conflicts, which, moreover, have become one
from the most common sources social contradictions and political
instability. The main reason is the intractability of this kind
conflicts, which have also become one of the most common sources of
social contradictions and political instability. Events of recent years



literature with potential subjects of international terrorism. Events of recent years
demonstrated that ethnic conflicts in various parts of the world go beyond
national and even regional. This is of particular importance due to the fact that
regions of ethnic instability are increasingly associated in both periodical and scientific
literature with potential subjects of international terrorism.

General definition

1.
Ethnic conflict is a conflict between groups of people belonging to different
ethnosam. situation in which each side seeks to take a position,
incompatible and opposed to the interests of the other side,
which one way or another manifests the ethnic identity of the parties. This is a special form
social or political conflict, which has some features:
.in conflicting groups, division along ethnic lines is seen;
.the parties seek support in an ethnically related or ethnically friendly environment;
.V certain types ethnic conflicts ethnic factor tends to politicization;
.new participants identify with one of the parties to the conflict based on a common ethnic
identity, even if this position is not close to them;
.ethno conflicts are most often not value-based and occur around certain
objects and group interests.

Conflict-forming factors

Profession of the principle of identity of state and national borders
The movement of ethnic groups towards self-determination
The movement of ethnic groups to the formation of superethnoi
Economic struggle for land, urban housing, natural resources, etc.
Uncontrolled demographic development in the countries of the "third world"
Assimilation processes and depopulation of ethnic minorities
"Aging" of nations in states with developed market economies
Environmental factors
Belief in the special relationship of the ethnic group "with the supreme deity"

Typology of conflicts. There are also various approaches to identifying individual types of conflicts. So, according to the classification of G. Lapidus, I exist

Typology of conflicts. Also known are various
approaches to the allocation of individual types of conflicts. Yes, by
G. Lapidus classifications exist:
1. Conflicts taking place at the interstate level (conflict between Russia and
Ukraine on the issue of Crimea).
2. Conflicts within the state:
2.1. Conflicts involving indigenous minorities (for example, Lezgins in
Azerbaijan and Dagestan);
2.2. Conflicts with the involvement of alien communities in them;
2.3. Conflicts involving forcibly displaced minorities (Crimean
Tatars);
2.4. Conflicts arising from attempts to revise the relationship between
former autonomous republics and governments of successor states
(Abkhazia in Georgia, Tatarstan in Russia)
2.5. Conflicts related to acts of communal violence (Osh, Fergana) in Central Asia,
brought by the researcher into a separate category. Ethnic
conflicts
post-Soviet space
on
Since the late 1980s, 6 regional wars have been recorded (i.e.
armed clashes involving regular troops and
using heavy weapons), about 20 short-term
armed clashes, accompanied by casualties among
civilian population, and more than 100 unarmed conflicts with
signs of interstate, interethnic, interconfessional
or inter-clan confrontation.

Death toll in ethnic conflicts:

Conclusion:

In a rapidly changing world, the decision is of paramount importance
global problems of mankind and, as a result, overcoming the global ethnic
crisis. With full confidence it can be argued that with the improvement of the environmental
situation, raising the standard of living and the quality of education, introducing the latest
technologies in all processes of human life, prevention of wars and
stop the current armed conflicts, the population of the Earth will become much
closer to the exit from the global ethnic crisis. Naturally, it is very long and
an extremely painstaking process in which everyone must be equally involved
countries and states of our planet, since only by uniting the efforts of each nation in
separately, it is possible to solve global problems as a whole. None, even the most advanced
country of the world, unable to solve at least one problem alone, which one way or another
otherwise affects the future existence of the entire population of our planet. I would like to
add that, focusing on overcoming the global ethnic crisis,
the population of each country the globe in pursuit of a common goal,
should forget about their own, sometimes original and unique, culture, which consists in
the most unique features of everyday life, lifestyle, folklore and folk arts,
the harmonious combination of which gives a special appearance to this ethnic group on the map
population of the world..

In its maximum completeness, totality, objective reality is revealed in the essential core of the world, on the basis of a universal matrix of social substratum, social objectivity, infinitely deepening into itself. At the level of sensory reflection, the objective world is represented directly in all its infinite content completeness and, therefore, fusion with the "I". At the level of the logical core of subjectivity, the essence of this or that object, the objective world is grasped as a whole, but in relation to a certain, actualized level of complexity of the individual-substance, in relation to some “extra-spatial” standard and, therefore, abstractly, in the concept and through language. Logical thinking actualizes the actual contradiction of the objective world, nature as an incomplete universality and "I" as a complete universality, which is constantly generated and removed by labor. Deep down, this contradiction is internal contradiction social objectivity (as a personified essence of the world), the contradiction between the actualized content of the substance and the content that has yet to be actualized. Captured at the logical core level

subjectivity, the ideal abstract “I” (reinforced by the sensory syncretic self-reflection of the individual) acts as an integrator of those logical contents that are revealed only in relation to each other and in the integral system of self-consciousness.

Literature

1. Beresneva N.I. Language and reality. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. state un-ta, 2004. - S. 182.

2. Panfilov V.Z. Gnoseological aspects of philosophical problems of linguistics. - M.: Nauka, 1982. - S. 357.

3. Yakushin B.V. Hypotheses about the origin of the language. -M.: Nauka, 1985. - S. 137.

4. Atayan E.R. Language and extralinguistic reality. Experience of ontological comparison. - Yerevan: Yerevan Publishing House. un-ta, 1987. - S. 384.

5. Gamkrelidze T.V. The unconscious and the problem of structural isomorphism between genetic and linguistic codes // Unconscious: nature, functions, research methods. - Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 1985. T. 4. - S. 261-264.

6. Reasonable behavior and language. Issue. 1. Communication systems of animals and human language. The problem of the origin of the language / Comp. HELL. Koshelev, T.V. Chernihiv. -M.: Languages ​​of Slavic cultures, 2008. - S. 416.

7. Koryakin V.V. Labor and a single natural historical process. - Perm: Publishing House of Perm. state un-ta, 2008. Ch.

8. Popovich M.V. Philosophical questions of semantics. -Kiev: Nauk. Dumka, 1975. - S. 299.

Maslyanka Yuliya Vladimirovna - Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy of the Perm state university, Perm, [email protected].

Data on authors:

Maslyanka Julia Vladimirovna - PhD, associate professor of philosophy at Perm State University, Perm, [email protected].

UDC 101.1:316

A.L. Safonov, A.D. Orlov GLOBALIZATION AS A DIVERGENCE: THE CRISIS OF THE NATION AND THE "RENAISSANCE" OF THE ETHNOSS

Ascertaining the global divergent trends in the ethno-cultural sphere, the authors consider the ethnos and the nation as stably coexisting social groups that have significantly different mechanisms of reproduction and functioning - direct social heredity that translates ethnicity through the way (way) of life and the structure of everyday life for the ethnos and the interaction of the individual with political institutions - for the nation. Generated by economic globalization, the systemic crisis of the nation leads to a compensatory activation of ethnic social structures and ethnic consciousness.

Keywords Keywords: globalization, ethnos, ethnicity, nation, nationality, state, social group, identity, structures of everyday life.

A.L. Safonov, A.D. Orlov

GLOBALIZATION AS DIVERGENCE:

CRISIS OF THE NATION AND “RENAISSANCE” OF THE ETHNOS

Ascertaining global divergent tendencies in the ethnocultural sphere, authors consider ethnos and the nation as steadily coexisting social groups, having essentially various reproduction and functioning mechanisms - the direct social heredity broadcasting ethnicity by means of way of life and structures of daily occurrence for ethnos and by means of

interaction with political institutions for the nation. The system crisis of the nation generated by globalization conducts to compensating activity of ethnic social structures and ethnic consciousness.

Keywords: globalization, ethnos, ethnicity, nation, nationality, the state, social group, identity, structures of everyday life.

The dominant view of globalization as a comprehensive and unidirectional process of convergence and unification comes from the prevailing economic determinism in the scientific community. The theory of convergence that developed at the peak of industrialism proceeded from the idea of ​​a “single industrial society”, the general technological basis of which predetermined the convergent development of social systems as parts of a single global supersystem, objectively striving for merger. From this point of view, all social groups significant in the modern world process are formed almost exclusively by economic relations and interests. Civil nations, local (national) and global elites are recognized as such groups.

As for the ethnic identity of members of political nations, within the framework of the convergent paradigm, it is either denied or recognized as a “relic”, a sociohistorical phantom. As an exception, "real" ethnicity is recognized, as a rule, for underdeveloped marginal ethnic groups leading a traditional way of life. Moreover, constructivism, as one of the directions in the theory of ethnos, also denies continuous cultural continuity, declaring the modern rise of ethnicity to be the fruit of political propaganda on the part of marginal elites. Forcefully recognizing the existence of ethnism and ethnic identity outside of archaic communities, constructivism denies the right to exist for modern ethnic groups themselves as real social groups.

Supporters convergent approach believe that globalization, turning closed national economies into open economic and social systems, leads to a crisis and the "withering away" of nation-states and civil nations, losing their economic basis. A powerful factor in cultural convergence is the globalization of national media markets and education, combined with the creation of a global digital space.

From which an outwardly logical conclusion is drawn about the inevitability of convergent development, the emergence of some kind of global "super society", a global "melting pot", where culture

nye, national and religious features are reduced to the level of marginal subcultures and in the future are erased, forming a kind of global, "universal" community.

However, after the triumph of the Western scenario of the convergence of world systems in 1991, the real processes of globalization, despite the destruction of economic and geographical boundaries that form local communities, suddenly went towards civilizational, ethnic and confessional divergence. The long-awaited crisis of civic nations took place, but it did not become a convergent synthesis of a global community, but the disintegration of civic nations into ethno-confessional groups, moreover, against the backdrop of a truly global economic space.

Contrary to expectations, the global economic melting pot has not yet formed a homogeneous social community with a single identity. Accordingly, none of the theories of ethnicity that developed in the 20th century explains the post-industrial surge of ethnicity and religiosity. Thus, there is a growing discrepancy between social theory and the practice of globalization.

An example of the failure of the “melting pot” model in the course of globalization is the United States itself, which gave rise to both the term “melting pot” and the very idea of ​​a multi-ethnic (“multicultural”) “immigrant nation”. In fact, the "melting pot" has not worked since the migration wave of the late 19th century, which eroded the Anglo-Saxon basis of the United States, as a result of which American society consists of stable ethnic (Irish, Italian, Chinese, African American, etc.) communities that retain their isolation in the urban environment, up to enclave settlement. The ethnic heterogeneity of American society persists and grows, despite the much higher territorial mobility of the labor force than in the Old World.

According to Eduard Lozansky, author of the monograph "Ethnicities and Lobbying in the USA" (2004), ethnic diasporas and minorities in the United States are increasingly separating and competing, forming influential lobbying groups in government, comparable to corporate

lobby (TNC) and the party system. Moreover, US ethnic lobbies are increasingly lobbying for the interests of the states of origin, turning immigrant communities into colonies pursuing the interests of overseas metropolises. Ethnic diasporas “in themselves” have turned into diasporas “for themselves”.

"America's orientation towards the formation of not a single alloy in the "crucible" of many nationalities, but the formation of a motley multicolor of multiculturalism led to logical results - to the consolidation of positions by ethnic minorities" . Moreover, E. Lozansky notes the concern of other American researchers with the prospects of ethnic fragmentation of the American political nation, up to the threat of "Balkanization".

Thus, Samuel Huntington emphasizes the rise of "civilizations" in world politics and the unexpected persistence of immigrant ties to their countries of origin. “The United States and the Soviet Union resemble each other in that they are not a nation-state in the classical sense of the word. Both countries have largely defined themselves in terms of ideology, which, as the Soviet example showed, is a more fragile foundation of unity than a single national culture... If multiculturalism prevails and if the consensus on liberal democracy weakens, the United States will join Soviet Union in a pile of historical ashes".

Considering that the United States is the leading center of power in the global world-system and can be considered as a fairly correct model of the post-industrial world society, we have one more proof that the trends towards the regeneration of ethnicity, the ethnicization of politics and the transformation of diasporas into actors of world politics - not a random paradox, but one of the leading trends in globalization.

At the same time, contrary to expectations, it is economic globalization itself, with its convergent orientation, that leads to an increase in ethnocultural divergence, reflecting the intensification of social competition for vital resources, objectively due to the deepening of the global resource and demographic crisis.

The blurring of the boundaries of national economies and nation-states has caused a compensatory process of regeneration and reconstruction of ethnic groups, including large state-forming states that have long been buried by the theories of ethnicity.

ethnic groups of the Old World.

The ethnicization of the politics and mass consciousness of the "new states" of Eastern Europe and the ex-USSR can be considered the "reconstruction" of the ethnos, that is, the re-creation of the ethnos "from above" in the interests of local elites that create the basis for nation-state building (usually extremely unsuccessful).

However, the widely discussed ethnocultural crisis in Germany, provoked by the growing disloyalty of foreign cultural diasporas to the host society, is an example of regeneration, that is, the spontaneous restoration of the state-forming ethnos "from below", under pressure from the absolute majority and contrary to the interests of the political elites of Germany, for known reasons avoiding any accusations of ethnicism .

The forced recognition of the ethno-cultural crisis and the collapse of the policy of "multiculturalism" in Germany is an official statement of the growing divergent phenomena in the ethno-confessional and cultural spheres as a general trend of globalization.

As a result, the simplified logic of linking ethnic and national consciousness to the economic system, which is quite adequate for the realities of the 20th century, is not consistent with the practice of globalization, in which the “remnants” and “atavisms” of the early bourgeois (nation) and even pre-state (ethnos) eras have all greater influence on mass consciousness and world development. The expected "globalization of TNCs" turned out to be the globalization of ethnic groups and diasporas: the "last" suddenly became the "first".

Characteristically, the belief in the rapid "withering away" of ethnic and national identity and the rapid formation of a globally averaged, albeit stratified world society, is characteristic of both left and right researchers.

Ethnos is ignored by both globalists and "anti-globalists", who see globalism and globalization as a threat to "preservation of cultural and civilizational diversity", which is conceived as a direct analogue of ecological "biodiversity". The most radical direction of economic reductionism, neoliberalism, insists on the false postulate about the economically and technologically (informatization) predetermined "withering away" of nations and ethnic groups.

Meanwhile, practice shows that with the deepening of globalization and the crisis of nation-states, ethnicity is not "smoothed", is not "assimilated" and is not

integrates into the global "multicultural" environment. On the contrary, against the backdrop of the crisis of the institutions of the nation-state, all forms of ethnicism are experiencing a period of unprecedented growth and are actively in demand yesterday by the passive, de-ideologized and atomized masses. The “atomization” of the 20th century is being replaced by “polymerization” and “crystallization” into social structures that are poorly compatible with the theory of convergence, not realized by the scientific community.

Despite the forced recognition of the fact of the “ethnic renaissance” of marginal ethnic groups, the main problem of the modern theory of ethnos continues to be ignored - the question of the existence of large state-forming ethnic groups as mass social groups that make up the sub-foundation of society independent of the political and ideological shell (superstructure).

A constructivist approach has become a kind of response to the gaps and contradictions of economic reductionism.

A characteristic feature of constructivism is political reductionism, which is also based on the belief that the "ethnos is dead", but artificially revived in the form of a political-technological illusion.

Indeed, the increasingly intense political exploitation of ethnicity creates the impression that modern ethnicity is nothing more than an artificial ideological construct imposed by local elites, a product of modern political manipulations that does not have deep historical and social roots due to the absence, “withering away” of the ethnic group itself as a living and an active social community.

Thus, constructivism, which has gained strength on the wave of successes in social engineering and political technologies, explains the ethnocultural divergence by the political manipulations of the elites, ignoring the obvious fact of the selectivity of the action of ethnic propaganda, which directly indicates the objective existence of social communities with a pronounced ethnic self-consciousness.

Actually, the effectiveness of ethnic propaganda, allegedly “constructing” ethnic consciousness almost from scratch, is due precisely to the fact that it deliberately appeals to the most acute interests of a mass, cohesive, homogeneous and capable of collective action social group, that is, to an objectively existing ethnic group, successfully re-

living through a series of social transformations. Accordingly, the factor that unites local elite groups for the "construction" of ethnicity is also the very primary ethnicity of these elite groups.

Thus, contrary to the constructivists’ categorical belief in the “death of an ethnos”, the construction of ethnic self-consciousness turns out to be nothing more than managing an already existing ethnos, activating the group consciousness of an objectively existing ethnic group, as a result of which the latent “ethnos in itself” under the conditions of a strong state turns into "ethnos for itself".

In fact, constructivism only proves that the ethnos, in the conditions of a developed national state and civil society, forced out to the periphery of political life and become “invisible”, is able to actualize, creating the illusion of an arbitrary creation of an ethnos by interested political demiurges.

The failure of economic and political reductionism allows us to conclude that ethnic and national (nation-state) identity, ethnos and political nation are closely related, but not identical social phenomena that develop in parallel, but quite independently both from each other and from the economic sphere. .

The situation is further complicated by the traditional definition of both a nation and an ethnos through the characteristics of belonging - a common language, territory and culture, etc., from which the imaginary identity of these concepts and even phenomena is derived.

At the same time, the non-identity of ethnic and national-state identity is generally accepted in sociology, which considers the ethnic group and the nation as different social groups. Thus, in the absence of an interdisciplinary synthesis or even a single categorical apparatus, the ethnology of globalization remains a field of political manipulation.

Ethnos and nation are not successive stages of development, but parallel, coexisting and often competing spheres of social life: the dominance of ethnic identity pushes the national-state (national-political) and

vice versa. Ethnoi remain, despite globalization, and retain cultural and historical continuity when changing social formations, covering the majority of the population. The state-forming ethnic groups continue their latent (hidden) functioning, fading into the shadow of nations, and reappear in the event of a crisis of the institutions of the nation state - local or global.

Ethnos and nation are qualitatively different social groups associated with different social positions (social roles), having different genesis and development dynamics.

The difference between the phenomena of an ethnos and a nation lies not in external attributes, but in the mechanism of reproduction and functioning of an ethnos and a nation as social groups. The mechanism of ethnos reproduction is direct intergenerational social heredity,

translating ethnicity through the way (way) of life and the structure of everyday life. The mechanism of the reproduction of the nation is the interaction of the individual with the institutions of the state and civil society, which forms the nation as a community that realizes itself through the presence of common (national) interests mediated by the national state.

The stable parallelism of the coexistence of ethnic groups and nations (ethnic and national components) over a number of socio-economic formations, including the modern period of globalization, is far from obvious.

On the one hand, the understanding of the coexistence of an ethnos and a nation as independent social institutions is hampered by categorical uncertainty associated with the evolution of the corresponding concepts (nation and national, ethnos and ethnicity).

However, the main obstacle to understanding the sustainable existence of ethnicity in the conditions of industrialism and post-industrialism is the belief in the "residuality" and, accordingly, the lesser relevance of ethnicity, supposedly quickly and irreversibly destroyed in the course of divergent social processes - lifestyle changes (urbanization, migration), unification mass culture. From the point of view of traditional ethnography and folklore, ethnic groups, especially state-forming ones, “disappeared” as a result of divergent processes as early as the middle of the last century.

Moreover, by declaring the equality of citizens as a basic constitutional principle, the nation state deliberately denies all parallel power and social

institutions, including not only religion and class, but also ethnicity.

Thus, the ethnos did not disappear in the course of transformation into a nation, but was forced out of the sphere of political and industrial relations to the household, latent level, into the sphere of private and family life. At the same time, field sociological studies, including censuses, confidently record that the vast majority of the population, including the population of megacities, has a distinct and stable ethnic identity that is different from the national-state one.

According to the authors, the essence of the phenomenon of ethnicity and its independence from the state-civil sphere is not so much in external attributes, but in the mechanism of reproduction of ethnicity - a direct social heredity that is not mediated by external socio-political institutions and includes the transmission of ethnic identity and images characteristic of the ethnic group. life, values ​​and patterns social behavior through the mechanisms of long-term, everyday repetitive interaction, imitation and social-role behavior in the nearest, as a rule, related and neighboring social environment.

On social basis modern ethnicity, fundamentally different from the political institutions of civil society, drew the attention of the school of Fernand Braudel, who introduced the concept of "structures of everyday life" . The concept of everyday life structures is approached by the concept of a way of life (way of life), as typical for concrete historical conditions of ways, forms and conditions of individual and collective life of a person, forming a typical for a social group (including an ethnos and a nation) individuality.

Structure Everyday life, interaction with the surrounding social and natural environment develops a unique way of life, which is an essential characteristic of an ethnic group. The way of life undergoes changes, but these changes are psychologically imperceptible for the members of the ethnos and are realized only after sufficiently long intervals of time, without affecting the collective sense of community. And the everyday structure of life is perceived as a kind of permanent and transpersonal, which, in turn, leads to a sense of psychological stability and the inseparability of the social life of an ethnic group. Corresponding

Obviously, the historical memory of an ethnos perceives time as a continuity, excluding times of crises and cataclysms.

Accordingly, the external attributes of an ethnos (ethnic territory, language, religion, culture) turn out to be only derivatives of the basis of ethnicity - direct intergenerational social heredity based on long-term and close social interaction within the framework of "everyday structures" and lifestyle.

Accordingly, from the nature of ethnicity, based on a way of life, mass and everyday horizontal social interactions, the properties characteristic of an ethnic group as a social group follow - high inertia, evolutionary, continuous and successive nature of change, preserving not only the symbolic, but also the direct continuity of modern ethnic groups in relation to the original ethnic groups of the distant historical past.

This means that even in the era of globalization, the ethnos, with its mechanisms of horizontal decentralized connections and social networks, is far from disappearing, if only because it constitutes the daily social environment of the individual and embraces large masses of people. Ethnos exists, remaining the main mechanism for the reproduction of the image (method) of social life.

Thus, the objective distinction between the spheres of ethnicity and nationality follows from the fundamental difference in the mechanisms of reproduction of social groups: direct intergenerational social heredity, horizontal social networks for the ethnic group and state institutions for the nation and similar political entities.

The mechanism and driving forces of ethnocultural divergence, and its connection with the crisis of the nation state and national identity, remain outside the field of vision of the theory.

In our opinion, the objective driving force behind the transformation of an ethnos and a nation is their ability (including potential) to satisfy the most essential needs and interests of their members, ensuring cooperation in a competitive environment.

A prerequisite for the disintegration of modern nations into ethno-cultural components was a sharp narrowing of the social functions of the state, associated with economic globalization. In a fairly short period, the state unilaterally eliminated a number of

vital functions for citizens and social guarantees. In particular, the state has largely lost the role of an employer, social guarantor and social regulator, including the role of a regulator of ethno-confessional relations.

No less significant is the loss by the national state of the function of a social lift that implements the principles of equality and an equal start and provides such an integration factor as a common social perspective. If the European nations of the 19th and 20th centuries largely formed by state systems of universal fundamental education, then the privatization, commercialization and globalization of education means not only a decrease in the level achieved in the last century, but also the destruction and degradation of nations as social communities.

An important role in the disintegration of nations is played by the increasingly open refusal of the former national elites from the social obligations towards fellow citizens that underlie the welfare state and civil society. Accordingly, the state's loss of backbone social functions leads to the depreciation of the nation as a once attractive social community that provides a balanced view of the individual and group interests of its citizens. The widely declared "renunciation of state paternalism", which puts the members of the nation in a situation of total individual competition with each other, turned into a forced rejection of loyalty to the state and of civic solidarity that had lost its meaning.

Excluded from the system of social cooperation and support within the nation, individuals are forced to look for new social groups, new ways of cooperation that increase their competitiveness and security, constantly adapt, changing their identity. "In a broad sense, the era of normalization of unstable social-identification states of the individual is coming". However, the range of choice of a new leading identity in conditions of social instability is extremely narrow and limited to those social groups with which the individual and his environment are already connected directly and daily.

Practice shows that the result of the choice is predetermined by the presence in individuals of a second, ethnic identity, which emerges from the national shadow and becomes the leading one.

S.P. Stumpf. To the origins of the phenomenon of spirituality. Analysis of the concept of "soul" in the context of Western European philosophical knowledge

Having lost confidence in the nation state, its citizen almost automatically recognizes himself as a member of an ethnos - a social community that continuously and inextricably coexists with the nation, in which de facto exists from birth and with which he connects the future of descendants, regardless of the transformations of the social environment. Accordingly, the choice of religion in most cases is determined by ethnicity.

In other words, globalization, by weakening the civil and political institutions that form the nation and national consciousness, leads to the disintegration of political nations into ethnic groups, which are increasingly becoming "political ethnic groups".

The ideas of globalization as a general convergence, formed by economic determinism, are refuted by social practice, during which the decomposition of civil nations, as the leading social groups of the 20th century, causes compensatory social processes divergent nature, including the activation of latent ethnicity, the consolidation of global ethnic diasporas and religious denominations.

Paying attention to the continuous preservation of the ethnos when changing economic formations, the authors emphasize that ethnic divergence poses a threat not only to the national state, but also to the ethnos itself, which is losing the political superstructure necessary for survival and competition in the post-industrial world.

The preservation of sufficiently large states as the only form of social management adequate to the level of development of productive forces and at the same time ensuring the coexistence of ethnic groups requires overcoming the crisis of civil nations as social groups that determine the leading identity and thereby harmonize interethnic and social relations.

Literature

1. Tishkov V.A. Ethnos or ethnicity? /Ethnology and politics. Scientific journalism. - M.: Nauka, 2001 -S.240.

2. Lozansky E.D. Ethnicity and Lobbying in the USA. On the prospects of the Russian lobby in America. - M.: International relations, 2004. - S. 272.

3. Huntington S. The Erosion of American National Interests// Foreign Affairs. - 1997. Sept./Oct. - P.35.

4. Bromley Yu.V. To the question of the essence of the ethnos - "Nature", 1970, No. 2. - S. 51-55.

5. Bromley Yu.V. Essays on the theory of ethnos. 3rd ed., revised. - M.: Book house "Librokom", 2009. -p.440.

6. Braudel F. Material civilization, economy and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. v. 1. Structures of everyday life: possible and impossible. - M.: "Progress", 1986 -S.624.

7. Tishkov V. A. Multiple identities between theory and politics (the example of Dagestan) (co-authored with

E.F. Kisriev) / Ethnographic review. - 2007. -№5. - S. 96-115.

8. Danilova E.N. Yadov V.A. Unstable social identity as the norm modern societies// Socis. -2004. - No. 10. - P.30.

Safonov Andrey Leonidovich - Candidate of Technical Sciences, Vice-Rector for international relations Moscow State Industrial University, Associate Professor, Department of History and Sociology, e-mail: [email protected].

Orlov Alexander Dmitrievich - Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Humanities, branch of the Moscow State Industrial University, e-mail: [email protected].

Safonov Andrey Leonidovich - cand. of technical science, Vice-Rector for International Relations, assistant professor of History and sociology Department of Moscow State industrial university, e-mail: [email protected].

Orlov Alexander Dmitrievich - cand. of technical science, assistant professor of History and sociology Department of Moscow State industrial university, e-mail: [email protected].

S.P. Stumpf

TO THE ORIGINS OF THE SPIRITUALITY PHENOMENON. ANALYSIS OF THE CONCEPT "SOUL"

IN THE CONTEXT OF WESTERN EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

The article deals with the genesis of spirituality issues. Based on the materials of Western European philosophy, a substantiated theoretical and methodological analysis of its intuitive-figurative form, expressed in the concept of the Soul, was carried out. A dialectical relationship is revealed in the categorical series soul-spirituality, which in turn determines the system of meaning-life value orientations of a person and society.

Key words: spirituality, soul, spirit, Western European philosophy, methodology, genesis, morality, sociality, value content.