Australia is part of the European Union. European Union: what is it, how and why was it formed? Which countries are included in it? European Union - definition

Despite the fact that now only the lazy do not talk about the EU, the question of which countries are members of the European Union remains relevant. It is a mistake to talk about the states of Europe and imply a political and economic unification of states on the continent.

It is interesting to note that the number of countries in the EU today is 28, and in total there are 50 states in Europe.

The creation of the structure dates back to the fifties of the last century. TO modern device The union lasted for more than half a century. Laws were passed, new states joined, and what selection system would be used was decided, bringing their innovations into the conservative structure. Today it is a powerful association of lands that attracts with its wealth, cleanliness and order.

European countries - list

Europe is the name of the continent of our earth. Together with Asia, it forms the continent of Eurasia. There are fifty states in this territory. The division takes place along the Ural ridge.

These also include:

• Lands of Russia up to the border with the mountains;
• Balkan and Baltic states;
• northern territories: Norway, Sweden;
• southern: Spain, Malta, Monaco, Gibraltar, Italy, Greece, Slovenia, Vatican;
• central lands: Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, ;
• western: Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Germany, Belgium, Andorra;
• east: Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova;
• part of Turkey.

The division into groups is conditional. The division is rather political in nature. After all, after each disintegration or unification, the territory is transferred from one group to another.

Countries that are members of the European Union today

The Commonwealth dates back to the fifties of the twentieth century.

The first countries to become members of the EU were: Germany, the French Republic, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands.

Rome has become a historical city. Here in 1957 the Coal and Steel Agreement was signed, which is the prototype of the modern Maastricht Agreement. Further, until our time, the list of the EU has increased.

The largest number of territories joined in 2004. These were states from the post-Soviet space: Poland plus the Baltic countries.

The entry of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007 was controversial. Experts argued that these countries do not fully meet the Copenhagen membership standards. But their application was granted. The same opinion was about Greece. Croatia was the last to join the Union (2013). Albania is also among the candidates for EU membership. Here are the states that are members of the European Union in 2018.

European countries outside the European Union

The rest of the European states, except for the united 28, are not part of the EU.

Confusion with member countries and non-member countries occurs due to the existence of several other associations in Europe.

This is a currency association, as well as a zone of free border crossing without undergoing customs inspection.

Interaction between the parties occurs on the basis of cooperation agreements in a certain area.

At the moment, the following territories are not covered by the European Union:

• four states of the foreign western side, including Great Britain;
• Russia, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus;
• Balkan territories excluding Croatia;
• European part of Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan.
• Area USA, Canada and others.

The process of joining does not stop in time. Interested participants submit applications. They begin to be watched. The most successful ones are added to the expansion program. There are also countries that decide to leave the European Union for objective reasons, for example England.

It is important to know: The borders of the European Union, the monetary union, and the Schengen area do not coincide.

A bit of EU history

The post-war period required decisive action to resolve the current economic situation. Key players in the steelmaking and coal production markets have decided to enter into a cooperation agreement.

The European Union was created in 1957. It included six states. Since then, it has been not only an economic union, but international cooperation between countries.

The EU became an interstate organization that had common agreements, but each individual territory retained its own identity and traditions.

The European Union acquired its modern form in 1992 after the ratification of the Maastricht Agreement. Next there was an attempt to introduce a general constitution. At the EEC referendums, not all member countries supported this initiative. The French and Dutch refused.

The Lisbon Agreement, signed in 2007, resolved all disputes. It became the prototype of a failed constitution.

Criteria for joining the EU

The applicant state must change the structure of the three spheres of life to meet the standards of unification.

Such indicators were developed in 1993, after which they were approved at an official meeting of the EU Council. Their name comes from the place where the training camp is held - the Danish city of Copenhagen.

Norms exist for those who want to join the association. There are three Copenhagen criteria: political, economic, membership.

Each of the regulations has its own standards:

1. According to the political criterion, the state must work on its institutions. Their ideal state is an unprecedented protection and guarantee of democracy, protection of citizens' rights, and a tolerant attitude towards national minorities. Correspondence this criterion gives the right to association with the EU.
2. Economic norms stimulate the country's system to develop. This means raising production standards and consistently adhering to them. After all, there is strong competition in the EU market. An unprepared state can become bankrupt.
3. Membership criteria test a country's ability to bear collegial responsibility. Within the EU, all states are independent with their own legislative framework. But there are also general regulatory and restrictive documents. They impose certain economic and political obligations on member countries.

This is interesting: the concept of an associate member of the EU does not exist. An association agreement is signed, which provides some economic and political preferences.

Features of the economy of EU member states

Each state has its own economic strategy. For countries belonging to the EU, contributions to the EU budget and standards for planning their own budgets are mandatory.

The deficit of public financial plans is ≤ 3%, and the public debt is less than or equal to 60%. However, there are cases when these standards are violated.

Lagging states can receive assistance from the EU. Regional policy is based on equalizing the general economic situation across the territory of the union.

Another factor that increases or decreases the budget of member countries is the quota program. Entrepreneurs of all countries must adhere to common rules and standards.

Conclusion

Currently, the answer to the question of how many countries are in the European Union is 28.

The procedure for obtaining membership is complex and time-consuming. To do this, the state must meet the three main Copenhagen criteria: economic, political and membership standards.

If a country feels it can compete for a place in the EU, the government submits an application. The commission reviews it and makes a decision. The latest accessions have completely shaken the stability of the association. Therefore, the union checks applicants more thoroughly.

Watch the video, which provides an overview of the EU member states:

In 2018, talk about the withdrawal of some countries from the European Union became more frequent, due to the political situation in the world. In this article we will look at which countries are members of the European Union in 2019.

Today the European Union includes 28 countries.
In addition to major powers, the list also includes a number of autonomous regions, which are subordinate to larger states. Among the autonomous territories are the Åland Islands, the Azores and others.

Which countries are members of the European Union, list in 2019

Date of accession to the European Union	A country	Total number of members
March 25, 1957	Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France.	6
January 1, 1973	Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland.	9
January 1, 1981	Greece	10
January 1, 1986	Spain, Portugal	12
January 1, 1995	Austria, Finland, Sweden	15
May 1, 2004	Hungary, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Estonia	25
January 1, 2007	Bulgaria, Romania	27
July 1, 2013	Croatia	28

Map of the European Union with countries and capitals, EU borders

IMPORTANT: EU countries are pursuing a customs union policy. There is a duty-free trade system within the Union, and the quantity of goods moving between countries does not matter, and therefore is not taxed. Those powers that were not lucky enough to join the Union trade at a single customs tariff.

It should be noted that each EU segment retains its own economy and has all the powers to independently conduct economic activities. BUT mandatory monetary influences in the treasury. The investments of 28 states make up the GDP of the entire Union.

Accession to the EU

All current members of the European Union have gone through certain stages that must be completed in order to join the Union. The so-called Copenhagen criteria.

What are the requirements for candidates for entry?

1. “Any European state may apply to become a member of the Union.”

REFERENCE: What “European state” means is not entirely clear. Despite the fact that the phrase is used as a term, its clear definition has not yet been given. In practice, “European” is interpreted as a state that belongs to Europe geographically, as well as culturally, historically and politically close to the values ​​of the Union.

2. A country applying for membership must respect the values , which underlie the European Union, share them and ensure the maintenance of these values ​​within their state.

IMPORTANT: Basic requirements: “respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities.”

The Treaty on European Union also includes secondary requirements for candidates for accession. They are named named in Art. 49 "compliance criteria"
The terms of the TEU are set by the heads of EU member states.

Candidates for accession to the European Union in 2019

Several countries have submitted their candidacies to join the European Union:

• Republic of Albania.
• Montenegro.
• Republic of Macedonia.
• Republic of Serbia.
• Turkish Republic.

REFERENCE: Serbia and Montenegro even have a tentative entry date set for 2025.

There are also potential candidates:

• Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Republic of Kosovo

They are not candidates yet. There is a fundamental difference between legal status candidate country and potential candidate country.

Which countries were the first to join the European Union?

The first echelon included only 6 countries (all Western European): Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the Federal Republic of Germany, France. This composition is relevant for the period of the 50s - 60s of the twentieth century.

Already in 1793 there was an increase in the number of allied countries. The so-called expansion, which ended with the annexation of Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland.

1981 was the date of signing the agreement also with Greece, and 1986 with Spain and Portugal.

REFERENCE: The Treaty on the European Union was signed only in 1992 (it came into force on November 1, 1993). Only from that moment on did the European Union emerge in the format in which it exists to this day. Since 1993, he has lived according to the rules of the DES and entry is carried out according to strictly established regulations.

The first countries to join the EU according to all official procedures and established stages were Austria, Finland and Sweden.

Only in the twenty-first century did further expansion of the union (to the East) begin.
On 1 May 2004, the EU admitted Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and the islands of Cyprus and Malta.

In 2005, an agreement was signed, and in 2007, Eastern European Bulgaria and Romania became EU members.

Which country was the last to join the EU?

Croatia recently joined the European Union. On this moment it is the last country to move from candidate status to EU member status.

The Croats applied for membership back in 2003, and for ten years they went through the procedure of joining the union. In 2004, the European Commission approved the initiative and allowed Croatia to become a candidate.

The process was delayed due to the intervention of Slovenia, whose officials made it clear that they had a number of objections to Croatia's accession to the EU.
In 2009, the situation was resolved with the help of international representatives.

The signing of related agreements took place in 2012, and in 2013 they entered into force, making Croatia a full member of the European Union.

European countries outside the EU

• Liechtenstein
• Monaco
• Switzerland
• Russia
• Belarus
• Moldova
• Ukraine
• Norway
• Andorra
• Vatican
• San Marino
• Albania and Macedonia (cannot become candidates for accession, as they are in a state of territorial disputes)
• Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan (partially located on European territory)
• Kosovo (cannot join the Union, since not all countries recognize it as an independent state)
• Transnistria (the issue of secession from Moldova has not been fully resolved)

REFERENCE: Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican are partners of the EU, actively cooperate with the countries of the Union, and the official currency of these states is the euro.

Czech Republic;

Sweden.

The European Union has existed for almost 90 years, during which time only one country has left it (Greenland), which in 1985 expressed outrage over the reduction of fishing quotas.

The European Union is an association of states that interact with each other on a democratic basis and carry out joint activities in different areas.

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EU member states have common governing bodies that ensure decision-making at a single level. Let's look at the list of members of the European Union in 2020.

History of the EU

As a result of two world wars, chapters European countries came to a general agreement that in order to ensure development and stability on the European continent it is necessary to join forces.

The negotiations began with the proposal of the French Minister Schumann in 1950 to combine the coal and foundry industries of the French state and Germany.

In 1951, an agreement was signed on the unification of the coal and steel industries, the participants of which were Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy and the Netherlands.

Having achieved success, these states continued their cooperation in the future. Further, in 1957, the EEC and the European Atomic Energy Community were approved by the Rome Agreement.

These associations set as their main goal the formation of a community in the customs field and the annulment of all trade bans within the association, peaceful cooperation in the nuclear field.

In 1967, the executive authorities of 3 associations merged, which resulted in the formation of the main structure, where the main bodies were the European Commission, the Council, the Parliament and the Court.

The next step in the history of the EU can be considered the formation of the Maastricht Agreement in 1992, the basis of which was the identification of three basic levels of the EU - the European Community and interstate interaction in the political and security spheres, the legal framework.

In addition, the agreement regulated the creation of a common currency unit and close political interaction.

A few years later, an Intergovernmental Meeting was held in Turin in 1996, resulting in the signing of the Amsterdam Agreement in the summer of 1997.

With the advent of the new millennium, the main goals of the EU are to improve areas of interaction and increase the number of new participants; the countries of central and eastern parts Europe.

States that are part of the European Union table

In 1992, the EU states officially united, and the list of participating countries gradually increased.

As of today, their number is 28. Let us list the countries that are members of the European Union at the beginning of 2020.

A country	Year of entry
Austria	1995
Bulgaria	2007
Belgium	1957
British Kingdom	1973
Germany	1957
Hungary	2004
Greece	1981
Italy	1957
Italy	1957
Spanish Kingdom	1986
Denmark	1973
Ireland	1973
Lithuania	2004
Latvia	2004
Republic of Cyprus	2004
Malta	2004
Kingdom of the Netherlands	1957
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg	1957
Slovenia	2004
Slovakia	2004
Poland	2004
Finland	1995
French Republic	1957
Portugal	1986
Romania	2007
Croatia	2013
Sweden	1995
Czech	2004
Estonia	2004

During the entire existence of the European Union, not a single state has left its composition. The only exception is Greenland, which left the EU due to a reduction in fishing quotas in 1985.

Also in the summer of 2016, a vote was held in the UK, where the majority of citizens supported leaving the EU. Consequently, there are still certain disagreements within the union.

What do you need to join?

The relevant standards have been approved that must be met in order to be part of the EU. The conditions for accession are mentioned in Article 49 of the EU agreement.

The criteria for potential EU members were established in 1993 in Copenhagen, and then they were confirmed in 1995 in Madrid at a meeting of the EU Council.

The main conditions of membership are:

Political stability, social justice, democratic principles of development, legal protection of the population and national minorities	The opportunity for every citizen to take part in the process of determining the directions of work of government bodies, the unhindered formation of political parties. Members of national minorities should not be discriminated against and may have the right to communicate in their native language and adhere to their culture and national values
Economic stability, successful functioning within the competitive market field	The economies of states planning to join the EU must withstand competition in the world market so that national producers can sell their products without significant losses
Compliance with Standards (Acquis)	Interaction within the boundaries of common politics, economics, unity monetary system, legislative framework

If a state does not pass the test for compliance with the specified criteria, EU authorities draw up a list of requirements that help bring all indicators back to normal.

In the process of carrying out reforms in potential candidate states, the EU exercises its control.

When all the necessary criteria reach the established level, the EU holds a meeting to decide on the possibility of including the country in the European Union.

Features of economic activity

In the European Union, economic and monetary policies are intertwined and can only function together.

The main goal of economic policy is to create favorable conditions for business activities and relationships with EU citizens.

An important component of this is a unified financial system and monetary policy.

Along with this, a single currency unit is not able to function when the level of inflation and interest rates in states differ to a large extent.

For this purpose, the leadership of the European Union is developing a joint economic direction for development and regulation of important economic indicators at the level of the European Union.

Important features of economic activity are regulation of price levels, inflation, financial and credit operations, tourism, implementation of mining, etc.

In the event that one of the EU Member States does not adhere to the course economic development, The EU Council has the right to approve measures in relation to a given country and control the process of their implementation.

The EU economy includes the economies of all member countries. At the same time, in the international space it is represented by a separate mechanism.

The EU regulates all disagreements between its members and protects their interests in the global space. All members of the European Union contribute to the overall income of the community through their gross domestic product and overall economic performance.

The largest share of profits comes from Germany, Italy, France, Spain and the UK. A special EU body keeps records of revenues from each state individually.

Taking into account all the components economic activity volumes can be determined natural resources in a single country.

Possible candidates for membership

Most countries on the European continent are striving to join the European Union. Currently, the official applicants are Serbia, Turkey, Montenegro, Macedonia and Albania.

Bosnia and Herzegovina are also possible contenders. Many states are not included in the circle of likely candidates for membership because they do not meet the stated criteria.

Video: comparing countries

Some countries have signed an association agreement with the EU, not only European states and countries of other continents.

In 2014, Ukraine and Moldova expressed their intention to join the European Union. Analyzing the process of joining the EU, one can notice that the European Union aims to take into account countries of other continents, considering their possible participation in the union.

European Union - regional integration of European states

History of creation, member countries of the union, rights, goals, objectives and policies of the European Union

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European Union - definition

The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 European states aimed at their regional integration. Legally, this union was secured by the Maastricht Treaty, which entered into force on November 1, 1993, on the principles of the European Communities. The EU unites five hundred million inhabitants.

The European Union is a unique international entity: it combines the characteristics of an international organization and a state, but formally is neither one nor the other. The Union is not a subject of public international law, but has the authority to participate in international relations and plays a major role in them.

The European Union is a union of European states participating in the process of European integration.

Through a standardized system of laws in force in all countries of the union, a common market was created guaranteeing the free movement of people, goods, capital and services, including the abolition of passport controls within the Schengen area, which includes both member countries and other European states . The Union adopts laws (directives, statutes and regulations) in the field of justice and internal affairs, and also develops common policies in the field of trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Seventeen countries of the Union introduced a single currency, the euro, forming the Eurozone.

As a subject of public international law, the Union has the authority to participate in international relations and conclude international treaties. A common foreign and security policy has been formed, providing for the implementation of a coordinated foreign and defense policy. Permanent EU diplomatic missions have been established around the world, and there are representative offices in the United Nations, WTO, G8 and G20. EU delegations are headed by EU ambassadors. In certain areas, decisions are made by independent supranational institutions, while in others they are carried out through negotiations between member states. The most important EU institutions are the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Court of Auditors and the European Central Bank. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens.

Member States of the European Union

The EU includes 28 countries: Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Slovenia , Cyprus (except for the northern part of the island), Malta, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia.

Special and dependent territories of EU Member States

Overseas territories and Crown Dependencies of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Great Britain) included in the European Union through UK membership under the 1972 Act of Accession: Channel Islands: Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney included in the Crown Dependency of Guernsey, Sark included in the Crown Dependency Guernsey, Herm is part of the crown possession of Guernsey, Gibraltar, Isle of Man, Special territories outside Europe that are part of the European Union: Azores, Guadeloupe, Canary Islands, Madeira, Martinique, Melilla, Reunion, Ceuta, French Guiana

Also, according to Article 182 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, EU member countries associate with the European Union lands and territories outside of Europe that support special relationship with: Denmark - Greenland, France - New Caledonia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, French Polynesia, Mayotte, Wallis and Futuna, French Southern and Antarctic Territories, the Netherlands - Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, United Kingdom - Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory , British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Saint Helena, Falkland Islands, Pitcairn Islands, Turks and Caicos, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

Requirements for applicants to join the EU

To join the European Union, a candidate country must meet the Copenhagen criteria. The Copenhagen Criteria are criteria for countries to join the European Union, which were adopted in June 1993 at the European Council meeting in Copenhagen and confirmed in December 1995 at the European Council meeting in Madrid. The criteria require that the state respect democratic principles, the principles of freedom and respect for human rights, as well as the principle of the rule of law (Article 6, Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union). Also, the country must have a competitive market economy, and must recognize general rules and EU standards, including commitment to the goals of political, economic and monetary union.

History of the development of the European Union

The predecessors of the EU were: 1951–1957 – the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC); 1957–1967 – European Economic Community (EEC); 1967–1992 – European Communities (EEC, Euratom, ECSC); since November 1993 – European Union. The name "European Communities" is often used to refer to all stages of the EU's development. The ideas of pan-Europeanism, long put forward by thinkers throughout the history of Europe, resounded with particular force after the Second World War. In the post-war period, a number of organizations appeared on the continent: the Council of Europe, NATO, the Western European Union.

The first step towards the creation of a modern European Union was taken in 1951: Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy signed an agreement establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC - European Coal and Steel Community), the purpose of which was to pool European resources for the production of steel and coal, this agreement came into force in July 1952. In order to deepen economic integration, the same six states in 1957 established the European Economic Community (EEC, Common Market) (EEC - European Economic Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom, Euratom - European Atomic Energy Community). The most important and broadest in scope of these three European communities was the EEC, so in 1993 it was officially renamed the European Community (EC - European Community).

The process of development and transformation of these European communities into the modern European Union occurred through, firstly, the transfer of an increasing number of management functions to the supranational level and, secondly, an increase in the number of integration participants.

On the territory of Europe, the unified state formations, comparable in size to the European Union, were the Western Roman Empire, the Frankish state, and the Holy Roman Empire. Over the course of the last millennium, Europe has been fragmented. European thinkers tried to come up with a way to unite Europe. The idea of ​​creating the United States of Europe initially arose after the American Revolution.

This idea received new life after World War II, when the need for its implementation was announced by Winston Churchill, who on September 19, 1946, in his speech at the University of Zurich, called for the creation of a “United States of Europe” similar to the United States of America. As a result, the Council of Europe was created in 1949 - an organization that still exists (Russia is also a member). The Council of Europe, however, was (and remains) something of a regional equivalent of the UN, focusing its activities on human rights issues in European countries .

First stage of European integration

In 1951, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and Italy created the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC - European Coal and Steel Community), the purpose of which was to unite European resources for the production of steel and coal, which, according to its creators, should prevent another war in Europe. Great Britain refused to participate in this organization for reasons of national sovereignty. In order to deepen economic integration, the same six states in 1957 established the European Economic Community (EEC, Common Market) (EEC - European Economic Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom - European Atomic Energy Community). The EEC was created primarily as a customs union of six states, designed to ensure the freedom of movement of goods, services, capital and people.

Euratom was supposed to contribute to the pooling of the peaceful nuclear resources of these states. The most important of these three European communities was the European Economic Community, so that later (in the 1990s) it became known simply as the European Community (EC - European Community). The EEC was established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which came into force on January 1, 1958. In 1959, members of the EEC created the European Parliament, a representative consultative and later legislative body. The process of development and transformation of these European communities into the modern European Union took place through structural simultaneous evolution and institutional transformation into a more cohesive bloc of states with the transfer of an increasing number of management functions to the supranational level (the so-called European integration process, or recesses Union of States), on the one hand, and an increase in the number of members of the European Communities (and later the European Union) from 6 to 27 states ( extensions union of states).

Second stage of European integration

In January 1960, Great Britain and a number of other countries that were not members of the EEC formed an alternative organization - the European Free Trade Association. Great Britain, however, soon realized that the EEC was a much more effective union and decided to join the EEC. Its example was followed by Ireland and Denmark, whose economies were significantly dependent on trade with Great Britain. Norway made a similar decision. The first attempt in 1961-1963, however, ended in failure due to the fact that French President de Gaulle vetoed the decision to allow new members to join the EEC. The result of the accession negotiations in 1966-1967 was similar. In 1967, three European communities (the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community) merged to form the European Community.

Things moved forward only after General Charles de Gaulle was replaced by Georges Pompidou in 1969. After several years of negotiations and adaptation of legislation, Great Britain joined the EU on January 1, 1973. In 1972, referendums on EU membership were held in Ireland, Denmark and Norway. The population of Ireland (83.1%) and Denmark (63.3%) supported joining the EU, but in Norway this proposal did not receive a majority (46.5%). Israel also received a proposal to join in 1973. However, due to the Yom Kippur War, negotiations were interrupted. And in 1975, instead of membership in the EEC, Israel signed an agreement on associative cooperation (membership). Greece applied to join the EU in June 1975 and became a member of the community on January 1, 1981. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. In 1985, Greenland received internal self-government and, after a referendum, left the EU. Portugal and Spain applied in 1977 and became members of the EU on January 1, 1986. In February 1986, the Single European Act was signed in Luxembourg.

Third stage of European integration

In 1992, all states belonging to the European Community signed the Treaty establishing the European Union - the Maastricht Treaty. The Maastricht Treaty established three EU pillars:1. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU),2. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 3. Common policy in the field of internal affairs and justice. In 1994, referendums on joining the EU were held in Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden. The majority of Norwegians again vote against. Austria, Finland (with the Åland Islands) and Sweden become members of the EU on January 1, 1995. Only Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein remain members of the European Free Trade Association. The Treaty of Amsterdam was signed by members of the European Community (came into force in 1999). The main changes under the Treaty of Amsterdam concerned: general foreign policy and the CFSP security policy, the creation of a “space of freedom, security and law and order”, coordination in the field of justice, the fight against terrorism and organized crime.

The fourth stage of European integration

On October 9, 2002, the European Commission recommended 10 candidate states for accession to the EU in 2004: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta. The population of these 10 countries was about 75 million; Their combined GDP at PPP (note: Purchasing Power Parity) is approximately US$840 billion, roughly equal to Spain's GDP. This EU enlargement can be called one of the EU's most ambitious projects to date. The need for such a step was dictated by the desire to draw a line under the disunity of Europe, which had lasted since the end of World War II, and to firmly tie the country to the West of Eastern Europe to prevent them from falling back into communist methods of government. Cyprus was included in this list because Greece insisted on it, which otherwise threatened to veto the entire plan.

At the end of negotiations between the “old” and future “new” EU members, a positive final decision was announced on December 13, 2002. The European Parliament approved the decision on April 9, 2003. On April 16, 2003, the Accession Treaty was signed in Athens by 15 “old” and 10 “new” EU members (). In 2003, referendums were held in nine states (with the exception of Cyprus), and then the signed Treaty was ratified by parliaments. On May 1, 2004, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Cyprus, and Malta became members of the European Union. After accession to the EU of ten new countries, the level of economic development of which is noticeably lower than the European average, the leaders of the European Union found themselves in a position where the main burden of budget expenditures on the social sphere, subsidies to agriculture, etc. falls squarely on them. At the same time, these countries do not want to increase the share of contributions to the all-Union budget beyond the level of 1% of GDP determined by EU documents.

The second problem is that after the enlargement of the European Union, the hitherto principle of making the most important decisions by consensus turned out to be less effective. At referendums in France and the Netherlands in 2005, the draft of a unified EU Constitution was rejected, and the entire European Union still lives according to a number of fundamental treaties. On January 1, 2007, the next expansion of the European Union took place - the entry of Bulgaria and Romania into it. The EU has previously warned these countries that Romania and Bulgaria still have a lot to do in the fight against corruption and reform of legislation. In these matters, Romania, according to European officials, lagged behind, retaining vestiges of socialism in the structure of the economy and not meeting EU standards.

EU

On December 17, 2005, official EU candidate status was granted to Macedonia. On February 21, 2005, the European Union signed an action plan with Ukraine. This was probably the result of the fact that forces came to power in Ukraine whose foreign policy strategy was aimed at joining the European Union. At the same time, according to the EU leadership, it is not worth talking about Ukraine’s full membership in the European Union yet, since the new government needs to do a lot to prove that there is a full-fledged democracy in Ukraine that meets international standards, and to carry out political, economic and social reforms.

Candidates for membership in the union and “refuseniks”

Not all European countries intend to participate in the European integration process. Twice in national referendums (1972 and 1994) the population of Norway rejected the proposal to join the EU. Iceland is not part of the EU. The application of Switzerland, whose accession was stopped by a referendum, is frozen. This country, however, joined the Schengen Agreement on January 1, 2007. Small European states - Andorra, Vatican City, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino are not members of the EU. Greenland, which has an autonomous status within Denmark (withdrew after a referendum), is not part of the EU 1985) and the Faroe Islands, participate in the EU to a limited extent and not fully, the Finnish autonomy of the Åland Islands and the British overseas territory - Gibraltar, other dependent territories of the UK - Maine, Guernsey and Jersey are not part of the EU at all.

In Denmark, the people voted in a referendum on joining the European Union (on signing the Maastricht Treaty) only after the government promised not to switch to a single currency, the Euro, which is why Danish kroner are still in circulation in Denmark.

The date for the start of accession negotiations with Croatia has been determined, the official status of a candidate for EU membership has been granted to Macedonia, which practically guarantees the accession of these countries to the EU. A number of documents related to Turkey and Ukraine have also been signed, but the specific prospects for the accession of these states to the EU are not yet clear.

The new leadership of Georgia has also repeatedly declared its intention to join the EU, but no specific documents that would ensure at least the beginning of the negotiation process on this issue have yet to be signed and, most likely, will not be signed until it is resolved conflict with the unrecognized states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Moldova has a similar problem with progress towards European integration - the leadership of the unrecognized Transnistrian Moldavian Republic does not support Moldova’s desire to join the European Union. At present, the prospects for Moldova's accession to the EU are very vague.

It should be noted that the EU has experience in admitting Cyprus, which also does not have full control over the officially recognized territory. However, Cyprus’s accession to the EU occurred after a referendum held simultaneously in both parts of the island, and while the population of the unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus mostly voted for the reintegration of the island into a single state, the unification process was blocked by the Greek side, which eventually joined The EU alone. The prospects for the accession of such Balkan states as Albania and Bosnia to the European Union are unclear due to their low level economic development and unstable political situation. This can be even more true of Serbia, whose province of Kosovo is currently under the international protectorate of NATO and the UN. Montenegro, which left the union with Serbia as a result of a referendum, has openly declared its desire for European integration and the question of the timing and procedure for this republic’s accession to the EU is now the subject of negotiations.

Of the other states, wholly or partially located in Europe, they did not conduct any negotiations and did not make any attempts to begin the process of European integration: Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, Kazakhstan. Since 1993, Azerbaijan has declared its interest in relations with the EU and has begun planning relations with him in various fields. In 1996, the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev signed the “Partnership and Cooperation Agreement” and established official relations. Russia, through the mouth of officials, has repeatedly announced its reluctance to fully join the European Union, proposing instead to implement the concept of “four common spaces”, accompanied by “ road maps"and facilitating cross-border movement citizens, economic integration and cooperation in a number of other areas. The only exception was the statement made by Russian President V.V. Putin at the end of November 2005 that he “would be happy if Russia received an invitation to join the EU.” However, this statement was accompanied by the caveat that he himself would not make a request for admission to the EU.

An important point is that Russia and Belarus, having signed the agreement on the creation of the Union, could not, in principle, begin any actions towards independent accession to the EU without terminating this agreement. Of the countries located outside the European Continent, African states have repeatedly declared their European integration intentions Morocco and Cape Verde ( former Islands Cape Verde) - the latter, with the political support of its former metropolis Portugal, began formal attempts to apply for membership in March 2005.

Rumors are regularly circulating about the possible start of movement towards full accession to the EU by Tunisia, Algeria and Israel, but for now such a prospect should be considered illusory. So far, these countries, as well as Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the Palestinian National Authority and the above-mentioned Morocco, have been offered, as a compromise measure, participation in the “neighborhood partners” program, which implies obtaining the status of associate members of the EU in some distant future.

European Union enlargement is the process of spreading the European Union (EU) through the entry of new member states. The process began with the "Inner Six" (the 6 founding countries of the EU) who organized the "European Coal and Steel Community" (predecessor of the EU) in 1951. Since then, 27 states have gained EU membership, including Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. The EU is currently considering membership applications from several countries. Sometimes EU enlargement is also called European integration. However, the term is also used when talking about increasing cooperation between EU member states, as national governments allow the gradual centralization of power within European institutions. To join the European Union, an applicant state must satisfy the political and economic conditions commonly known as the Copenhagen Criteria (drawn up after the Copenhagen Meeting in June 1993).

These conditions are: the stability and democracy of the existing government in the country, its respect for the rule of law, as well as the presence of appropriate freedoms and institutions. According to the Maastricht Treaty, each current member state, as well as the European Parliament, must agree on any enlargement. Due to the conditions that were adopted in the last EU treaty, the "Treaty of Nice" (in 2001), the EU is protected from further expansion beyond its 27 members, as it is believed that the EU's decision-making processes would not cope with big amount members. The Lisbon Treaty would transform these processes and circumvent the 27-member limit, although the possibility of ratifying such a treaty is questionable.

Founding members of the EU

The European Coal and Steel Community was proposed by Robert Schumann in his statement of 9 May 1950 and brought about the unification of the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany. This project was joined by the “Benelux countries” - Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, which have already achieved a certain degree of integration among themselves. These countries were joined by Italy, and they all signed the Treaty of Paris on July 23, 1952. These six countries, dubbed the "Inner Six" (as opposed to the "Outer Seven" who formed the European Free Trade Association and were suspicious of integration), went even further. In 1967, they signed a treaty in Rome that laid the foundation for the two communities, collectively known as the "European Communities" after their leadership merged.

The community lost some territory during the era of decolonization; Algeria, which had previously been an integral part of France, and therefore the community, gained independence on July 5, 1962 and seceded from it. There were no expansions until the 1970s; Great Britain, which had previously refused to join the community, changed its policy after the Suez crisis and applied for membership in the community. However, French President Charles de Gaulle vetoed Britain's membership, fearing its "American influence".

First expansions of the European Union

As soon as de Gaulle left his post, the opportunity to join the Community opened up again. Along with the UK, Denmark, Ireland and Norway applied and were approved, but the Norwegian government lost the national referendum on membership of the Community and therefore did not join the Community on 1 January 1973 along with other countries. Gibraltar, a British overseas territory, was added to the Community with Great Britain.

In 1970, democracy was restored in Greece, Spain and Portugal. Greece (in 1981), followed by both Iberian countries (in 1986), were admitted to the community. In 1985, Greenland, having received autonomy from Denmark, immediately exercised its right to withdraw from the European Community. Morocco and Turkey submitted applications in 1987, Morocco was rejected because they did not consider European state. Turkey's application was accepted for consideration, but only in 2000 did Turkey receive candidate status, and only in 2004 did formal negotiations begin on Turkey's accession to the Community.

European Union after cold war

The Cold War ended in 1989-1990 and East and West Germany were reunited on October 3, 1990. Consequently, East Germany became part of a community within a unified Germany. In 1993, the European Community became the European Union through the 1993 Maastricht Treaty. Some of the European Free Trade Association states that bordered the old Eastern Bloc even before the end of the Cold War applied to join the Community.

In 1995, Sweden, Finland and Austria were admitted to the EU. This became the 4th EU enlargement. The Norwegian government failed at that time in the second national referendum on membership. The end of the Cold War and the "Westernization" of Eastern Europe left the EU with the need to agree on standards for future new members to assess their suitability. According to the Copenhagen criteria, it was decided that a country must be a democracy, have a free market and be willing to accept all EU law already agreed upon.

EU Eastern Bloc expansions

8 of these countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) and the Mediterranean island states of Malta and Cyprus entered the union on 1 May 2004. This was the largest expansion in human and territorial terms, although the smallest in terms of GDP (gross domestic product). The less developed nature of these countries has caused some member countries to become uneasy, resulting in some restrictions on employment and travel for citizens of the new member countries. Migration, which would have occurred in any case, gave rise to many political clichés (for example, the “Polish plumber”), despite the proven benefits of migrants for the economic systems of these countries. According to the official website of the European Commission, the signatures of Bulgaria and Romania in the accession agreement mark the end of the fifth EU enlargement.

EU accession criteria

Today, the accession process is accompanied by a number of formal steps, starting with the pre-accession agreement and ending with the ratification of the final accession agreement. These steps are controlled by the European Commission (Enlargement Directorate), but actual negotiations are carried out between the member countries of the union and the candidate country. In theory, any European country can join the European Union. The Council of the EU consults the Commission and the European Parliament and decides on the commencement of accession negotiations. The Council can only reject or approve an application unanimously. To obtain approval of an application, a country must meet the following criteria: must be a “European state”; must comply with the principles of freedom, democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and the rule of law.

To obtain membership the following is required: Compliance with the Copenhagen criteria recognized by the Council in 1993:

stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, respect and protection of minorities; existence of a functional market economy, as well as the ability to cope with competitive pressures and market prices within the Union; ability to accept the obligations of membership including commitment to the political, economic and monetary goals of the union.

In December 1995, the Madrid European Council revised its membership criteria to include conditions for the integration of a member state through appropriate regulation of its administrative structures: since it is important that Union legislation is reflected in national legislation, it is important that revised national legislation is implemented effectively through the relevant administrative and judicial structures.

EU accession process

Before a country applies for membership, it usually must sign an associate membership agreement to help prepare the country for candidate and possibly member status. Many countries do not even meet the criteria necessary to begin negotiations before they begin to apply, so they need many years to prepare for the process. An Associate Membership Agreement helps prepare you for this first step.

In the case of the Western Balkans, the special process, the Stabilization and Association processes exist in order not to conflict with the circumstances. When a country formally requests membership, the Council asks the Commission to express views regarding the country's readiness to enter into negotiations. The Council may accept or reject the Commission's opinion.

The Council rejected the Commission's opinion only once - in the case of Greece, when the Commission dissuaded the Council from opening negotiations. If the board decides to open negotiations, the review process begins. This is a process during which the EU and the candidate country examine their laws and EU laws, identifying differences that exist. The Council then recommends that negotiations begin on "chapters" of the law when it decides that there is sufficient common ground for meaningful negotiations. Negotiations usually involve the candidate state trying to convince the EU that its laws and administration are sufficiently developed to implement European law, which can be implemented as deemed appropriate by the member states.

On December 17, 2005, official EU candidate status was granted to Macedonia. The date for the start of accession negotiations with Croatia has been determined. A number of documents related to Turkey, Moldova and Ukraine have also been signed, but the specific prospects for these states’ accession to the EU are not yet clear. According to the EU Commissioner for Enlargement Oli Renn, Iceland, Croatia and Serbia may join the EU in 2010-2011. On April 28, 2008, Albania submitted an official application to join the EU. Norway has held referendums on joining the EU twice, in 1972 and 1994. At the first referendum, the main concerns were associated with restrictions on independence, at the second - with agriculture. In December 2011, an agreement on accession to the EU was signed with Croatia. In July 2013, Croatia became a member of the European Union. In 2009, Iceland applied to join the EU. On June 13, 2013, an official statement was made about the withdrawal of the application to join the European Union.

Main events in the history of deepening EU integration

1951 - Treaty of Paris and the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 1957 - Treaty of Rome and the creation of the European Economic Communities (usually used in the singular) (EEC) and Euratom 1965 - the merger agreement that resulted in the creation single Council and a single Commission for the three European communities ECSC, EEC and Euratom1973 - first enlargement of the EEC (Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain joined) 1979 - first popular elections to the European Parliament 1981 - second enlargement of the EEC (Greece joined) 1985 - signing of the Schengen Agreement 1986 - Single European Act - the first significant change to the EU's founding treaties.

1992 - Maastricht Treaty and the creation of the European Union based on the Communities 1999 - introduction of a single European currency - the euro (in circulation since 2002) 2004 - signing of the EU Constitution (did not enter into force) 2007 - signing of the Reform Treaty in Lisbon 2007 - leaders of France, Italy and Spain announced the creation of a new organization - the Mediterranean Union 2007 - the second wave of the fifth enlargement (the accession of Bulgaria and Romania). Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the creation of the EEC. 2013 - sixth enlargement (Croatia joined)

Currently, the three most common attributes of belonging to the European Union (membership of the EU itself, the Schengen area and the euro area) are not conclusive, but overlapping categories: Great Britain and Ireland signed the Schengen agreement under the terms of limited membership. The UK also did not consider it necessary to join the euro area. Denmark and Sweden also decided to maintain their national currencies during referendums. Norway, Iceland and Switzerland are not members of the EU, but are part of the Schengen area. Montenegro and the partially recognized state of Kosovo Albanians are not members of the EU , nor members of the Schengen Agreement, however, the euro is the official means of payment in these countries.

Economy of the European Union

The economy of the European Union, according to the IMF, produces a PPP GDP of over €12,256.48 trillion ($16,523.78 trillion in 2009). The EU economy is a single market and is represented in the WTO as a single organization. This represents more than 21% of global production. This puts the Union economy in first place in the world in terms of nominal GDP and second in terms of GDP in PPP terms. In addition, the Union is the largest exporter and largest importer of goods and services, as well as the most important trading partner of several large countries, such as, for example, China and India. The head office of the 161st of the five hundred largest companies in the world by revenue (as ranked by Fortune Global 500 in 2010) is located in the EU. The unemployment rate in April 2010 was 9.7%, while the investment level was 18.4% of GDP, inflation was 1.5%, and the government budget deficit was −0.2%. The per capita income level varies from state to state and ranges from $7 thousand to $78 thousand. In the WTO, the EU economy is represented as a single organization.

After the global economic crisis of 2008-2009, the EU economy showed moderate GDP growth in 2010 and 2011, but countries' debts increased in 2011, which became one of the bloc's main problems. Despite joint economic restructuring programs with the IMF in Greece, Ireland and Portugal, as well as the consolidation of measures in many other EU member states, significant risks to the economic growth of countries remain at the moment, including high credit dependence of the population, an aging population. In 2011, Eurozone leaders increased the amount of funding for the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) up to $600 billion. This fund funds the EU member states most affected by the crisis. In addition, 25 of the 27 EU member states (except the UK and the Czech Republic) have announced their intention to cut public spending and adopt an austerity program. In September 2012, the European Central Bank developed a stimulus program for countries that have legally proven the introduction of an emergency austerity regime in the country.

Currency of the European Union

The official currency of the European Union is the euro, used in all documents and acts. The Stability and Growth Pact sets out tax criteria to support stability and economic convergence. The euro is also the most widely used currency in the EU, already used in the 17 member states known as the eurozone.

All other member states, with the exception of Denmark and the United Kingdom, which have specific waivers, have committed to adopting the euro once they have met the requirements necessary for the transition. Sweden, although it refused, announced its possible accession to the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, which is a preliminary step towards accession. The remaining states intend to join the euro through their accession treaties. Thus, the euro is the single currency for more than 320 million Europeans. In December 2006, there were 610 billion euros in cash circulation, making this currency the owner of the highest total value of cash circulating around the world, ahead of the US dollar.

European Union Budget

The functioning of the EU in 2007 was provided by a budget of €116 billion, and €862 billion for the period 2007-2013, which is about 1% of the EU's GDP. For comparison, the UK's spending in 2004 was estimated to be about €759 billion and France's, about €801 billion. In 1960, the budget of the then EEC was only 0.03% of GDP.

Below is a table showing, respectively, GDP (PPP) and GDP (PPP) per capita in the European Union, and for each of the 28 member states separately, sorted by GDP (PPP) per capita. This can be used to roughly compare living standards between member states, with Luxembourg having the highest and Bulgaria having the lowest. Eurostat, based in Luxembourg, is the official statistical office of the European Communities, producing annual GDP data for member states, as well as the EU as a whole, which are updated regularly to support European fiscal and economic policy frameworks.

Economy of the Member States of the European Union

Cost-effectiveness varies from state to state. The Stability and Growth Pact governs fiscal policy with the European Union. It applies to all member states, with specific rules that apply to eurozone members stipulating that each state's budget deficit must not exceed 3% of GDP and public debt must not exceed 60% of GDP. However, many major members are projecting their future budgets with deficits well in excess of 3%, and eurozone countries as a whole have debt in excess of 60 % .The EU's share of the world's gross product (GWP) is consistently around one-fifth. GDP growth rates, while strong in the new member states, have now fallen due to sluggish growth in France, Italy and Portugal.

The thirteen new member states from Central and Eastern Europe have a higher average growth rate than their Western European counterparts. In particular, the Baltic countries have achieved rapid GDP growth, in Latvia it is up to 11%, which is at the level of world leader China, whose average is 9% over the past 25 years. The reasons for this massive growth are the government's implementation of a stable monetary policy, export-oriented policy, trade, low fixed tax rate and the use of relatively cheap labor. Over the past year (2008), Romania had the largest GDP growth of all EU states.

The current map of GDP growth in the EU is most contrasting in regions where strong economies are suffering from stagnation, while new member states are experiencing robust economic growth.

In general, the influence of the EU27 on the increase in gross world product is declining due to the emergence of economic powers such as China, India and Brazil. In the medium to long term, the EU will look for ways to increase GDP growth rates in central European countries such as France, Germany and Italy and stabilize growth in new central and eastern European countries to ensure sustainable economic prosperity.

EU energy policy

The European Union has large reserves of coal, oil and natural gas. According to 2010 data, the domestic gross energy consumption of the 28 member countries amounted to 1.759 billion tons of oil equivalent. About 47.7% of energy consumed was produced in member countries, while 52.3% was imported, with nuclear energy considered primary in the calculations, despite the fact that only 3% of the uranium used is mined in the European Union. The degree of dependence of the Union on imports of oil and petroleum products is 84.6%, natural gas - 64.3%. According to EIA (USA Energy Information Administration) forecasts, European countries' own gas production will decrease by 0.9% per year, which will amount to 60 billion m3 by 2035. Demand for gas will grow by 0.5% per year; annual growth in gas imports to EU countries in the long term will be 1.6%. To reduce dependence on pipeline supplies of natural gas, a special role as a diversification tool is assigned to liquefied natural gas.

Since its creation, the European Union has had legislative power in the field of energy policy; it has its roots in the European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive energy policy was approved at the European Council meeting in October 2005, and the first draft of the new policy was published in January 2007. The main objectives of the common energy policy: changing the structure of energy consumption in favor of renewable sources, increasing energy efficiency, reducing emissions greenhouse gases, creating a single energy market and promoting competition in it.

There are six oil producers in the European Union, mainly in oil fields North Sea. The United Kingdom is by far the largest producer, but Denmark, Germany, Italy, Romania and the Netherlands also produce oil. Considered as a whole, which is not common in oil markets, the European Union is the 7th largest oil producer in the world, producing 3,424,000 (2001) barrels per day. However, it is also the 2nd largest consumer of oil, consuming far more than it can produce at 14,590,000 (2001) barrels per day.

All EU countries are committed to complying with the Kyoto Protocol, and the European Union is one of its strongest supporters. The European Commission published proposals for the EU's first comprehensive energy policy on 10 January 2007.

European Union trade policy

The European Union is the world's largest exporter () and the second largest importer. Internal trade between member states is facilitated by the removal of barriers such as tariffs and border controls. In the eurozone, trade is also helped by having a single currency among most members. The Association Agreement of the European Union does something similar for a wider range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach (“carrot over stick”) to influence policy in those countries.

The European Union represents the interests of all its members within the framework of the World trade organization, and acts on behalf of member states in resolving any disputes.

Agriculture EU

The agricultural sector is supported by subsidies from the European Union under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). This currently represents 40% of total EU spending, guaranteeing minimum prices for EU farmers. It has been criticized as trade-hindering protectionism that harms developing countries. One of the most vocal opponents is Britain, the bloc's second-largest economy, which has repeatedly refused to give the annual UK rebate unless significant reforms are made to the CAP. France, the bloc's third-largest economy, is the most ardent supporter of the CAP. The Common Agricultural Policy is the oldest of the European Economic Community's programs and its cornerstone. The policy aims to increase agricultural productivity, ensure stability of food supplies, ensure decent level the lives of the agricultural population, stabilizing markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for products. Until recently, this was carried out through subsidies and market intervention. In the 70s and 80s, about two thirds of the European Community budget was allocated to the needs of agricultural policy; for 2007-2013, the share of this expenditure item decreased to 34%

European Union Tourism

The European Union is a major tourist destination, attracting visitors from outside the EU as well as citizens traveling within it. Domestic tourism is more convenient for citizens of some EU member states that are part of the Schengen Agreement and the Eurozone.

All European Union citizens have the right to travel to any member country without the need for a visa. If we consider individual countries, France is the world leader in attracting foreign tourists, followed by Spain, Italy and the UK in 2nd, 5th and 6th places respectively. If we consider the EU as a whole, the number of foreign tourists is smaller, since the majority of travelers are domestic tourists from other member countries.

European Union companies

The countries of the European Union are home to many of the world's largest multinational companies and are also home to their headquarters. They also include companies ranked number one in the world in their industry, such as Allianz, which is the world's largest financial services provider; Airbus, which produces about half of the world's jet airliners; Air France-KLM, which is the world's largest airline in terms of total operating income; Amorim, leader in cork processing; ArcelorMittal, the world's largest steel company; the Danone group, which ranks first in the dairy products market; Anheuser-Busch InBev, the largest beer producer; L'Oreal Group, a leading cosmetics manufacturer; LVMH, the largest luxury goods conglomerate; Nokia Corporation, which is the world's largest manufacturer of mobile phones; Royal Dutch Shell, one of the world's largest energy corporations; and Stora Enso, which is the largest world's largest pulp and paper manufacturing plant in terms of production capacity.The EU is also home to some of the largest companies in the financial sector, notably HSBC - and Grupo Santander largest companies in terms of market capitalization.

Today, one of the most widely used methods for measuring income inequality is the Gini coefficient. It is a measure of income inequality on a scale from 0 to 1. On this scale, 0 represents perfect equality for everyone having the same income and 1 represents perfect inequality for one person of all incomes. According to the UN, the Gini coefficient varies across countries from 0.247 in Denmark to 0.743 in Namibia. Most post-industrial countries have Gini coefficients ranging from 0.25 to 0.40.

Comparing the EU's richest regions can be difficult. This is because the NUTS-1 and NUTS-2 regions are heterogeneous, some of them are very large, such as NUTS-1 Hesse (21,100 km²), or NUTS-1 Ile-de-France (12,011 km²), while while other NUTS regions are much smaller, such as NUTS-1 Hamburg (755 km²), or NUTS-1 Greater London (1580 km²). An extreme example is Finland, which is divided for historical reasons into the mainland, with 5.3 million inhabitants, and the Åland Islands, with a population of 26,700, roughly the population of a small Finnish town.

One problem with this data is that in some areas, including Greater London, large quantities There is pendulum migration entering the region, thereby artificially increasing the numbers. This entails increasing GDP without changing the number of people living in the area, increasing GDP per capita. Similar problems can be caused by the large number of tourists visiting the area. These data are used to define regions, which are supported by organizations such as the European Regional Development Fund. It was decided to delimit the nomenclature of territorial units for statistical purposes (NUTS) regions in an arbitrary manner (i.e. e. not based on objective criteria and not uniform throughout Europe), which was adopted at the pan-European level.

The top 10 NUTS-1 and NUTS-2 regions with the highest GDP per capita are among the top fifteen countries of the bloc: and not a single region of the 12 new member countries that joined in May 2004 and January 2007. NUTS provisions set a minimum population size of 3 million, and a maximum size of 7 million for the average NUTS-1 region, and a minimum of 800,000 and a maximum of 3 million for the NUTS-2 region. This definition, however, is not recognized by Eurostat. For example, the Ile-de-France region, with a population of 11.6 million people, is considered a NUTS-2 region, while Bremen, with a population of only 664,000 people, is considered a NUTS-1 region. Economically weak NUTS-2 regions.

The fifteen lowest-ranked regions in 2004 were Bulgaria, Poland and Romania, with the lowest rates recorded in Nord Este in Romania (25% of the average), followed by Northwestern, South Central and North Central in Bulgaria (all 25 -28%). Among the 68 regions with levels below 75% of the average, fifteen were in Poland, seven each in Romania and the Czech Republic, six in Bulgaria, Greece and Hungary, five in Italy, four in France (all overseas departments) and Portugal, three in Slovakia , one in Spain and the rest in the countries of Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

Organizational structure EU

The temple structure, as a way to visualize the existing specifics of the division of competences of the EU and member states, appeared in the Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union. The temple structure is "supported" by three "pillars": The first pillar, "European Communities", combines the predecessors of the EU: the European Community (formerly the European Economic Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). The third organization - the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) - ceased to exist in 2002 in accordance with the Paris Treaty that established it. The second pillar is called the “common foreign and security policy” (CFSP). The third pillar is “police and judicial cooperation in criminal cases."

With the help of “pillars” the treaties delimit policy areas within the competence of the EU. In addition, the pillars provide a clear picture of the role of EU Member State governments and EU institutions in the decision-making process. Within the first pillar, the role of EU institutions is decisive. Decisions here are made by the “community method”. The Community is responsible for issues relating to, inter alia, the common market, the customs union, the single currency (with some members maintaining their own currency), the common agricultural policy and the common fisheries policy, certain migration and refugee issues, as well as the cohesion policy. ). In the second and third pillars, the role of EU institutions is minimal and decisions are made by EU member states.

This method of decision making is called intergovernmental. As a result of the Treaty of Nice (2001), some migration and refugee issues, as well as security issues gender equality at workplaces were moved from the second to the first support. Consequently, on these issues, the role of the EU institutions in relation to the EU member states has strengthened. Today, membership in the European Union, the European Community and Euratom is unified, all states that join the Union become members of the Communities. According to the Lisbon Treaty of 2007, this complex system will be abolished , a single status of the European Union as a subject will be established international law.

European institutions of the EU

The following is a description of the main bodies, or institutions, of the EU. It must be borne in mind that the traditional division of states into legislative, executive and judicial bodies is not typical for the EU. If the EU Court of Justice can be safely considered a judicial body, then legislative functions belong simultaneously to the Council of the EU, the European Commission and the European Parliament, and executive functions belong to the Commission and the Council.

The highest political body of the EU, consisting of the heads of state and government of member countries and their deputies - ministers of foreign affairs. The President of the European Commission is also a member of the European Council. The creation of the European Council was based on the idea of ​​French President Charles de Gaulle to hold informal summits of leaders of the European Union states, which was intended to prevent the decline in the role of nation states within the framework of integration education. Informal summits have been held since 1961, in 1974 at the summit in Paris this practice was formalized at the suggestion of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, who held the post of President of France at that time.

The Council determines the main strategic directions for the development of the EU. Developing a general line of political integration is the main mission of the European Council. Along with the Council of Ministers, the European Council has the political function of amending the fundamental treaties of European integration. Its meetings are held at least twice a year, either in Brussels or in the Presidency State, chaired by a representative of the Member State currently chairing the Council of the European Union. The meetings last two days. Council decisions are binding on the states that supported them. Within the framework of the European Council, so-called “ceremonial” leadership is carried out, when the presence of politicians at the highest level gives the decision taken both significance and high legitimacy. Since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, that is, since December 2009, the European Council has officially entered the structure of the EU institutions. The provisions of the treaty established a new position of President of the European Council, who takes part in all meetings of the heads of state and government of EU member states. The European Council should be distinguished from the Council of the EU and from the Council of Europe.

The Council of the European Union (officially the Council, usually informally referred to as the Council of Ministers) is, along with the European Parliament, one of the Union's two legislative bodies and one of its seven institutions. The Council consists of 28 government ministers of member countries, with composition depending on the range of issues discussed. At the same time, despite the different compositions, the Council is considered a single body. In addition to legislative powers, the Council also has some executive functions in the field of general foreign and security policy.

The Council is composed of the foreign ministers of the member states of the European Union. However, the practice of convening the Council consisting of other sectoral ministers has developed: economy and finance, justice and internal affairs, agriculture, etc. Council decisions have equal force, regardless of the specific composition that made the decision. The presidency of the Council of Ministers is exercised by EU member states in an order unanimously determined by the Council (usually rotation occurs according to the principle of large - small state, founder - new member, etc.). Rotation occurs every six months. In the early periods of the European Community, most Council decisions required a unanimous decision. The method of making decisions by qualified majority vote is gradually becoming increasingly used. Moreover, each state has a certain number of votes depending on its population and economic potential.

Under the auspices of the Council there are numerous working groups on specific issues. Their task is to prepare decisions of the Council and control the European Commission in the event that certain powers of the Council are delegated to it. Since the Treaty of Paris, there has been a tendency for selective delegation of powers from nation states (directly or through the Council of Ministers) to the European Commission. The signing of new “package” agreements added new competencies to the European Union, which entailed the delegation of greater executive powers to the European Commission. However, the European Commission is not free to implement policies; in certain areas, national governments have tools to control its activities. Another trend is the strengthening of the role of the European Parliament. It should be noted that despite the evolution of the European Parliament from a purely advisory body to an institution that has received the right of joint decision and even approval, the powers of the European Parliament are still very limited. Therefore, the balance of power in the system of EU institutions remains in favor of the Council of Ministers. The delegation of powers from the European Council is extremely selective and does not jeopardize the significance of the Council of Ministers.

The European Commission is the highest executive body of the European Union. Consists of 27 members, one from each member state. When exercising their powers, they are independent, act only in the interests of the EU, and have no right to engage in any other activities. Member states do not have the right to influence members of the European Commission. The European Commission is formed every 5 years as follows. The Council of the EU, at the level of heads of state and/or government, proposes a candidacy for the chairman of the European Commission, which is approved by the European Parliament. Further, the Council of the EU, together with the candidate for Chairman of the Commission, forms the proposed composition of the European Commission, taking into account the wishes of the member states. The composition of the “cabinet” must be approved by the European Parliament and finally approved by the EU Council. Each member of the Commission is responsible for a specific area of ​​EU policy and heads the corresponding unit (the so-called Directorate General).

The commission plays main role in providing daily activities EU aimed at implementing the fundamental Treaties. She puts forward legislative initiatives, and after approval controls their implementation. In case of violation of EU legislation, the Commission has the right to resort to sanctions, including appeal to the European Court. The Commission has significant autonomous powers in various policy areas, including agricultural, trade, competition, transport, regional, etc. The Commission has an executive apparatus, and also manages the budget and various funds and programs of the European Union (such as the Tacis program) The main working languages ​​of the Commission are English, French and German. The headquarters of the European Commission is located in Brussels.

European Parliament

The European Parliament is an assembly of 732 deputies (as amended by the Treaty of Nice), directly elected by the citizens of EU member states for a term of five years. The President of the European Parliament is elected for two and a half years. Members of the European Parliament are united not according to nationality, but in accordance with political orientation. The main role of the European Parliament is to approve the EU budget. In addition, almost any decision of the EU Council requires either the approval of Parliament or at least a request for its opinion. Parliament controls the work of the Commission and has the right to dissolve it (which, however, it has never used). Parliament's approval is also required when admitting new members to the Union, as well as when concluding agreements on associate membership and trade agreements with third countries.

The last elections to the European Parliament were held in 2009. The European Parliament holds plenary sessions in Strasbourg and Brussels. The European Parliament was created in 1957. Initially, members were appointed by the parliaments of the member states of the European Union. Since 1979 elected by the population. Parliamentary elections are held every 5 years. Members of the European Parliament are divided into party factions, which represent international party associations. Chairman - Buzek Jerzy. The European Parliament is one of the five governing bodies of the European Union. It directly represents the population of the European Union. Since the founding of Parliament in 1952, its powers have been continuously expanded, most notably as a result of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and, most recently, the Treaty of Nice in 2001. However, the competence of the European Parliament is still narrower than that of the national legislatures of most states.

The European Parliament meets in Strasbourg, other places are Brussels and Luxembourg. On 20 July 2004, the European Parliament was elected for a sixth term. At first, 732 parliamentarians sat in it, and after Romania and Bulgaria joined the European Union on January 15, 2007, there were 785. The chairman of the second half-period is Hans Geert Pöttering. There are currently 7 factions represented in parliament, as well as a number of non-party delegates. In their home states, parliamentarians are members of about 160 different parties, which have united into factions in the pan-European political arena. Since the seventh electoral period 2009-2014. The European Parliament should again consist of 736 delegates (according to Art. 190 EG-Treaty); The Lisbon Treaty sets the number of parliamentarians at 750, including the chairman. The principles of organization and work of the body are contained in the Standing Orders of the European Parliament.

History of the European Parliament of the EU

From 10 to 13 September 1952, the first meeting of the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) was held, consisting of 78 representatives who were chosen from among national parliaments. This assembly had only recommendatory powers, but also had the power to dismiss the highest executive bodies of the ECSC. In 1957, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community were founded as a result of the Treaty of Rome. The parliamentary assembly, which at that time consisted of 142 representatives, belonged to all these three communities. Despite the fact that the assembly did not receive any new powers, it nevertheless began to call itself the European Parliament - a name that was recognized by the independent states. When the European Union acquired its budget in 1971, the European Parliament began to participate in its planning - in all its aspects, except for planning expenditures on the common agricultural policy, which, at that time, accounted for about 90% of expenditures. This obvious senselessness of the parliament even led to the fact that in the 70s there was a joke: “Send your old grandfather to sit in the European Parliament” (“Hast du einen Opa, schick ihn nach Europa”).

Since the 80s, the situation began to gradually change. The first direct parliamentary elections in 1976 were not yet associated with the expansion of its powers, but already in 1986, after the signing of the Single Pan-European Act, parliament began to take part in the legislative process and could now officially make proposals for changing bills, although the last word still remained behind the European Council. This condition was abolished as a result of the next step to expand the competences of the European Parliament - the Maastricht Treaty of 1992, which equalized the rights of the European Parliament and the European Council. Although Parliament still could not put forward legislation against the will of the European Council, this was a great achievement, since no important decision could now be made without the participation of Parliament. In addition, parliament received the right to form the Investigative Committee, which significantly expanded its supervisory functions.

As a result of the reforms of Amsterdam 1997 and Nice 2001, parliament began to play a greater role in the political sphere of Europe. In some important areas, such as pan-European Agricultural Policy, or joint work between the police and the judiciary, the European Parliament still does not have full powers. However, together with the European Council, it has a strong position in legislation. The European Parliament has three major tasks: legislation, budgeting and control of the European Commission . The European Parliament shares legislative functions with the Council of the EU, which also adopts laws (directives, orders, decisions). Since the signing of the Treaty in Nice, in most political spheres, the so-called principle of joint decisions has been in force (Article 251 of the EU Treaty), according to which the European Parliament and the Council of Europe have equal powers, and each bill submitted by the Commission must be considered twice readings. Disagreements must be resolved during the 3rd reading.

In general, this system resembles the division of legislative power in Germany between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. However, the European Parliament, unlike the Bundestag, does not have the right of initiative, in other words it cannot introduce its own bills. Only the European Commission has this right in the pan-European political arena. The European Constitution and the Lisbon Treaty do not provide for the expansion of initiative powers for parliament, although the Lisbon Treaty still allows, in exceptional cases, a situation where a group of EU member states submits bills for consideration.

In addition to the system of mutual lawmaking, there are also two other forms of legal regulation (agricultural policy and anti-monopoly competition), where parliament has less voting rights. This circumstance, after the Treaty of Nice, applies only to one political sphere, and after the Lisbon Treaty it should disappear altogether.

The European Parliament and the Council of the EU jointly form a budget commission, which forms the EU budget (for example, in 2006 it amounted to about € 113 billion)

Significant restrictions on fiscal policy are imposed by the so-called “Mandatory expenditures” (that is, expenditures related to the joint agricultural policy), which amount to almost 40% of the total European budget. The powers of Parliament in the direction of “Mandatory expenditures” are greatly limited. The Lisbon Treaty should eliminate the difference between “Mandatory” and “non-mandatory” spending and give the European Parliament the same budgeting powers as the Council of the EU

Parliament also exercises control over the activities of the European Commission. The Plenum of Parliament must approve the composition of the Commission. Parliament has the right to accept or reject the Commission only as a whole, and not as individual members. The Parliament does not appoint the Chairman of the Commission (unlike the rules in force in most national parliaments of the EU member states); it can only accept or reject the candidacy proposed by the Council of Europe. In addition, Parliament can, through a 2/3 majority, put forward a vote of no confidence in the Commission, thereby causing its resignation.

The European Parliament used this right, for example, in 2004, when the Commission of Free Cities opposed the contested candidacy of Rocco Buttiglione for the post of Justice Commissioner. Then the Social Democratic, Liberal factions, as well as the Green faction, threatened to dissolve the Commission, after which Franco Frattini was appointed instead of Butglione to the post of Commissioner of Justice. The Parliament can also exercise control over the Council of Europe and the European Commission by establishing a committee of inquiry. This right particularly affects those areas of politics where the executive functions of these institutions are great, and where the legislative rights of parliament are significantly limited.

Court of Justice of the European Union

The European Court of Justice (officially the Court of Justice of the European Communities) sits in Luxembourg and is the highest judicial body of the EU. The Court regulates disputes between member states; between member states and the European Union itself; between EU institutions; between the EU and natural or legal persons, including employees of its bodies (the Civil Service Tribunal was recently created for this function). The court gives opinions on international agreements; it also issues preliminary rulings on requests from national courts to interpret the founding treaties and EU regulations. Decisions of the EU Court of Justice are binding throughout the EU. As a general rule, the jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the EU extends to areas of EU competence.

The Court of Auditors was created in 1975 to audit the budget of the EU and its institutions. Compound. The Chamber is composed of representatives of member states (one from each member state). They are appointed by the Council by unanimous vote for a term of six years and are completely independent in the performance of their duties.Functions:1. checks the income and expenditure reports of the EU and all its institutions and bodies with access to EU funds; 2.monitors the quality of financial management; 3. after the end of each financial year, draws up a report on its work, and also submits conclusions or comments on individual issues to the European Parliament and the Council; 5. helps the European Parliament monitor the implementation of the EU budget. Headquarters - Luxembourg.

European Central Bank

The European Central Bank was formed in 1998 from banks of 11 EU countries included in the eurozone (Germany, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg). Greece, which introduced the euro on January 1, 2001, became the twelfth country in the euro zone. The European Central Bank is the central bank of the European Union and the euro zone. Formed on June 1, 1998. The headquarters is located in the German city of Frankfurt am Main. Its staff includes representatives from all EU member states. The Bank is completely independent from other EU bodies.

The main functions of the bank are: development and implementation of the euro area monetary policy; maintenance and management of official exchange reserves of euro area countries; issue of euro banknotes; establishing basic interest rates.; maintaining price stability in the eurozone, that is, ensuring an inflation rate of no more than 2%. The European Central Bank is the “successor” of the European Monetary Institute (EMI), which played a leading role in preparing for the introduction of the euro in 1999. The European system of central banks consists from the ECB and national central banks: Banque Nationale de Belgique, Governor Guy Quaden; Bundesbank, Governor Axel A. Weber; Bank of Greece, Governor Nicholas C. Garganas; Bank of Spain, manager Miguel Fernández Ordóñez; Bank of France (Banque de France), manager Christian Noyer; Monetary Institute of Luxembourg.

All key issues relating to the activities of the European Central Bank, such as the discount rate, accounting of bills and others, are decided by the directorate and the board of governors of the Bank. The directorate consists of six people, including the Chairman of the ECB and the Deputy Chairman of the ECB. Candidates are proposed by the Governing Council and approved by the European Parliament and the heads of state of the eurozone.

The Governing Council is composed of members of the ECB Directorate and the governors of the national central banks. Traditionally, four of the six seats are occupied by representatives of the four major Central Banks: France, Germany, Italy and Spain. Only members of the Board of Governors present in person or taking part in a teleconference have the right to vote. A member of the Governing Council may appoint a replacement if he is unable to attend meetings for a long period of time.

To conduct a vote, the presence of 2/3 of the Council members is required, however, an emergency meeting of the ECB can be convened, for which there is no threshold of attendance. Decisions are made by a simple majority; in the event of a tie, the Chairman's vote has greater weight. Decisions on issues of ECB capital, distribution of profits, etc. are also decided by voting, the weight of votes is proportional to the shares of national banks in the authorized capital of the ECB. In accordance with Art. 8 of the Treaty establishing the European Community was founded European System The Central Bank is a supranational financial regulatory body that unites the European Central Bank (ECB) and the national central banks of all 27 EU member countries. The ESCB is governed by the governing bodies of the ECB.

Created in accordance with the Treaty, on the basis of capital provided by member countries. The EIB has the functions of a commercial bank, operates in international financial markets, and provides loans to government agencies of its member countries.

EU Economic and Social Committee and other units

The Economic and Social Committee is an EU advisory body. Formed in accordance with the Treaty of Rome. Compound. Consists of 344 members called councillors.

Functions. Advises the Council and Commission on EU socio-economic policy issues. Represents various sectors of the economy and social groups (employers, employees and liberal professions employed in industry, agriculture, service sector, as well as representatives public organizations).

Members of the Committee are appointed by the Council by unanimous decision for a period of 4 years. The Committee elects a Chairman from among its members for a term of 2 years. After the admission of new states to the EU, the number of the Committee will not exceed 350 people.

Venue of meetings. The committee meets once a month in Brussels.

The Committee of the Regions is a consultative body providing representation of regional and local administrations in the work of the EU. The Committee was established in accordance with the Maastricht Treaty and has been in force since March 1994. It consists of 344 members representing regional and local authorities, but wholly independent in the performance of their duties. The number of members from each country is the same as in the Economic and Social Committee. Candidates are approved by the Council by unanimous decision based on proposals from member states for a period of 4 years. The Committee elects a Chairman and other officers from among its members for a term of 2 years.

Functions. Consults the Council and the Commission and gives opinions on all issues affecting the interests of the regions. Place of holding sessions. Plenary sessions are held in Brussels 5 times a year. Also an EU institution is the European Ombudsman Institute, which deals with citizens' complaints regarding the mismanagement of any EU institution or body. The decisions of this body are not binding, but have significant social and political influence. As well as 15 specialized agencies and bodies, the European Monitoring Center for Combating Racism and Xenophobia, Europol, Eurojust.

European Union Law

A feature of the European Union that distinguishes it from other international organizations is the presence of its own law, which directly regulates the relations of not only member states, but also their citizens and legal entities. EU law consists of the so-called primary, secondary and tertiary (decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Communities). Primary law - EU founding treaties; contracts amending them (revision contracts); accession agreements for new member states. Secondary law - acts issued by EU bodies. Decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union and other judicial bodies of the Union are widely used as case law.

EU law has direct effect on the territory of EU countries and takes precedence over the national legislation of states.

EU law is divided into institutional law (rules regulating the creation and functioning of EU institutions and bodies) and substantive law (rules regulating the process of implementing the goals of the EU and EU Communities). EU substantive law, like the law of individual countries, can be divided into branches: EU customs law, EU environmental law, transport law EU, EU tax law, etc. Taking into account the structure of the EU (“three pillars”), EU law is also divided into the law of the European Communities, Schengen law, etc. The main achievement of EU law can be considered the institution of four freedoms: freedom of movement of persons, freedom of movement of capital, freedom of movement of goods and freedom of provision of services in these countries.

Languages ​​of the European Union

In European institutions, 23 languages ​​are officially used on equal terms: English, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Greek, Danish, Irish, Spanish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, German, Dutch, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Finnish, French, Czech , Swedish, Estonian. At the working level, English and French are usually used.

Official languages ​​of the European Union - languages ​​that are official in the activities of the European Union (EU). All decisions taken by EU official bodies are translated into all official languages, and EU citizens have the right to contact EU authorities and receive a response to their requests in any of the official languages.

At events on top level Measures are being taken to translate participants' speeches into all official languages ​​(if necessary). Simultaneous translation into all official languages, in particular, is always carried out at sessions of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Despite the declared equality of all languages ​​of the Union, with the expansion of the EU borders, “European bilingualism” is increasingly observed, when in fact in the work of authorities (with the exception of official events) the languages ​​used are mainly English, French and, to a lesser extent, German (the three working languages ​​of the Commission) - with other languages ​​being used depending on the situation. In connection with the expansion of the EU and the entry into it of countries where French is less common, the positions of English and German have strengthened. In any case, all final regulatory documents are translated into other official languages.

In 2005, about 800 million euros were spent on paying translators. Back in 2004, this amount amounted to 540 million euros. The European Union stimulates the spread of multilingualism among residents of member countries. This is done not only to ensure mutual understanding, but also to develop a tolerant and respectful attitude towards linguistic and cultural diversity in the EU. Measures to promote multilingualism include the annual European Day of Languages, affordable language courses, promotion of learning more than one foreign language and learning languages ​​in adulthood.

Russian is the native language of more than 1.3 million people in the Baltic countries, as well as a small part of the German population. Older generation The population of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania mainly understands and speaks Russian, since in the USSR it was compulsory to study in schools and universities. Also, many older people in Eastern European countries understand Russian, where it is not the native language of the population.

The European Union debt crisis and measures to overcome it

The European debt crisis or sovereign debt crisis in a number of European countries is a debt crisis that first hit in 2010 peripheral countries European Union (Greece, Ireland), and then covering almost the entire euro zone. The crisis in the government bond market in Greece in the fall of 2009 is said to be the source of the crisis. For some eurozone countries, it has become difficult or impossible to refinance public debt without the help of intermediaries.

Since the end of 2009, due to the increase in public and private sector debt around the world and the simultaneous downgrading of the credit ratings of several EU countries, investors began to fear the development of a debt crisis. IN different countries Various reasons led to the development of the debt crisis: in some places, the crisis was caused by the provision of emergency government assistance to banking sector companies that were on the verge of bankruptcy due to the growth of market bubbles, or by government attempts to stimulate the economy after the market bubbles burst. In Greece, the increase in public debt was caused by wastefully high wages for civil servants and significant pension payments of 347 days. The development of the crisis was also facilitated by the structure of the eurozone (a monetary rather than a fiscal union), which also negatively affected the ability of the leadership of European countries to respond to the development of the crisis: the member countries of the eurozone have a single currency, but there is no uniform tax and pension legislation.

It is noteworthy that due to the fact that European banks own a significant share of government bonds of countries, doubts about the solvency of individual countries lead to doubts about the solvency of their banking sector and vice versa. Starting from 2010, investor concerns began to intensify. On May 9, 2010, the finance ministers of leading European countries responded to the changing investment environment by creating the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) with resources of 750 billion euros to ensure financial stability in Europe through the implementation of a number of anti-crisis measures. In October 2011 and February 2012, eurozone leaders agreed on measures to prevent an economic collapse, including an agreement for banks to write off 53.5% of Greek government debt held by private creditors and increase the volume of funds from the European Financial Stability Facility to about €1 trillion, as well as increasing the level of capitalization of European banks to 9%.

Also, in order to increase investor confidence, representatives of the EU leading countries concluded an agreement on fiscal stability (en:European Fiscal Compact), within the framework of which the government of each country assumed obligations to amend the constitution on the obligation of a balanced budget. At that time As the volume of government bond issues increased significantly only in a few eurozone countries, the growth of government debt began to be perceived as a common problem for all countries of the European Union as a whole. However, the European currency remains stable. The three countries most affected by the crisis (Greece, Ireland and Portugal) account for 6 percent of the eurozone's gross domestic product (GDP). In June 2012, Spain's debt crisis rose to the forefront of the eurozone's economic problems. This led to a sharp increase in the rate of return on Spanish government bonds and significantly limited the country's access to capital markets, which led to the need for bailouts of Spanish banks and a number of other measures.

On May 9, 2010, the finance ministers of leading European countries responded to the changing investment environment by creating the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) with resources of 750 billion euros to ensure financial stability in Europe through the implementation of a number of anti-crisis measures. In October 2011 and February 2012, eurozone leaders agreed on measures to prevent an economic collapse, including an agreement for banks to write off 53.5% of Greek government debt held by private creditors and increase the volume of funds from the European Financial Stability Facility to about €1 trillion, as well as increasing the level of capitalization of European banks to 9%. Also, in order to increase investor confidence, representatives of the leading EU countries concluded an agreement on fiscal stability (en:European Fiscal Compact), within the framework of which the government of each country assumed obligations to amend the constitution to require a balanced budget.

While the issuance of government bonds has increased significantly in only a few eurozone countries, the growth of government debt has come to be perceived as a common problem for all countries of the European Union as a whole. However, the European currency remains stable. The three countries most affected by the crisis (Greece, Ireland and Portugal) account for 6 percent of the eurozone's gross domestic product (GDP). In June 2012, Spain's debt crisis rose to the forefront of the eurozone's economic problems. This led to a sharp increase in the rate of return on Spanish government bonds and significantly limited the country's access to capital markets, which led to the need for bailouts of Spanish banks and a number of other measures.

Sources for the article "European Union"

images.yandex.ua - Yandex pictures

ru.wikipedia.org - free encyclopedia Wikipedia

youtube - video hosting

osvita.eu - European Union Information Agency

eulaw.edu.ru - Official website of the European Union

referatwork.ru - European Union Law

euobserver.com - News site specializing in the European Union

euractiv.com - EU policy news

jazyki.ru - EU language portal

The history of the formation of the European Union began in 1951 with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which included six countries (Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France and Germany). Within countries, all tariff and quantitative restrictions on trade in these goods were lifted.

March 25, 1957 The Treaty of Rome was signed to create European Economic Community(EEC) on the basis of the ECSC and the European Atomic Energy Community.

In 1967, three European communities (the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community) merged to form the European Community.

On June 14, 1985, the Schengen Agreement on the free movement of goods, capital and citizens was signed - an agreement providing for the abolition of customs barriers within the European Union while simultaneously tightening controls at the external borders of the EU (came into force on March 26, 1995).

On February 7, 1992, the Treaty establishing the European Union was signed in Maastricht (Netherlands) (came into force on November 1, 1993). The agreement concluded the work of previous years regarding the settlement of monetary and political systems European countries.

In order to achieve the highest form of economic integration between EU states, the euro was created - the single EU monetary unit. The euro was introduced in non-cash form on the territory of EU member states on January 1, 1999, and cash banknotes on January 1, 2002. The euro replaced the ECU, the conventional unit of account of the European Community, which was a basket of currencies of all EU member states.

The EU is responsible for issues relating to, inter alia, the common market, the customs union, the single currency (with some members maintaining their own currency), the common agricultural policy and the common fisheries policy.

The organization includes 27 European countries: Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Hungary, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Estonia. On January 1, 2007, Bulgaria and Romania officially joined the European Union.

European Union institutions:

The highest political body of the European Union is European Council. As a meeting of heads of state at the highest level, the Council effectively determines the tasks of the Union and its relations with member states. The sessions are presided over by the president or prime minister of the country holding the rotating presidency of the EU's governing bodies for six months.

The highest executive body of the European Union is European Commission (CEC, Commission of the European Communities). The European Commission consists of 27 members, one from each member state. The Commission plays a major role in ensuring the day-to-day activities of the EU. Each commissioner, like a minister of the national government, is responsible for a specific area of ​​work.

European Parliament is an assembly of 786 deputies directly elected by citizens of EU member states for a term of five years. Deputies unite in accordance with their political orientation.

The EU's highest judicial body is European Court(official name - Court of Justice of the European Communities). The court consists of 27 judges (one from each member state) and nine advocates general. The Court regulates disagreements between member states, between member states and the European Union itself, between EU institutions, and issues opinions on international agreements.