Uncontrolled territories can be divided into several types. What groups or types can drugs be divided into?

Novice users often have no idea at all about their hard disk partitions and hard drive logical drives. At first, this does not interfere with their work on the computer at all, although it does not allow them to use it more productively. But sometimes you have to deal with more responsible things, and then ignorance simple rules can turn into serious problems, up to the complete inoperability of the operating system and the loss of important data.

In fact, it is enough to remember a few simple things and keep this information in mind during any actions with hard disk partitions.

What is a section

I'll start with the fact that the new, freshly bought HDD completely unsuitable for work without prior preparation. In order to be able to save data to it and read them, for this data you must first create special "storages" - partitions, and prepare these "storages" for "storage" and storage of your files - format, i.e. create a file system on them. Once at least one partition has been created and formatted, it can already be used.

Sometimes it happens that the hard drive has only one partition that occupies the entire hard drive. Especially often this can be observed in newcomers who have just bought a computer. This option is the simplest, but also the most unsuccessful, because. and the operating system and your data are stored in one place, and in case of any problems with the operating system, or when reinstalling the OS, you risk losing everything at once.

More practical is the option when the hard drive is divided into several partitions - at least two. The operating system itself is on one partition, and your files are stored on the other. In this case, in case of problems or reinstallation of the operating system, only the partition on which it was installed will suffer. Everything else will remain untouched.

In addition, the division into several sections will allow you to more conveniently organize the storage of files - you can, for example, allocate a separate section for music or video if you have a lot of them; or if you often work with torrents, you can allocate a separate piece of your hard drive for them.

It also simplifies computer maintenance - for example, it is much easier and faster to defragment several relatively small partitions in turn than one huge piece. Similarly - and with scanning of a disk by an antivirus.

In general, we figured it out with convenience - here everyone is free to contrive to the best of their needs. However, there are a few simple rules, the violation of which is fraught with complete data loss.

I'll start in order.

Rule #1

Just one hard drive can have no more than 4 main sections Less is possible, more is not. These requirements do not depend on any operating system - they are dictated by the current level of development of the computer's electronic filling. And you won't be able to overcome them. If more than 4 sections are required, then another rule comes into force.

I was not in vain to mention MAIN sections - this is not just a word, it denotes one of two types of sections. In addition to the main one, the section can also be additional (extended). And in this regard, the rule about 4 partitions is somewhat transformed - on one hard disk there can be up to 4 main sections, or up to 3 main sections plus one additional(there can be only one extended partition on a disk).

What does this give us? The fact is that an additional (extended) partition, in fact, is a container inside which you can create an UNLIMITED number of logical disks. And for the user there will be absolutely no difference between working with the main partition and working with a logical disk. Thus, by creating an extended partition and logical disks inside it, we can divide the hard drive according to our needs as we need.

Please note that if you delete an extended partition, all logical drives included in it will also disappear.

Rule #2

One of the sections is required it should be active (in Linux - have the flag boot). It is on it that the boot files that will run the operating system are located. At the same time, the system itself can be located in another place, but the files from which its launch begins are only there.

Most often, the first partition of the hard disk becomes active (disk C:/ on Windows), but it doesn't required condition. In addition, you can always manually reassign any other main partition as active, but you should not forget to move the boot files there too, otherwise the operating system will not start.

Rule #3

If you are going to install several operating systems on one computer, then each of them should be installed in a separate partition ( theoretically, you can put it in one, but subsequent problems after that cannot be avoided). Operating systems of the Windows family can only be installed on primary partitions. Accordingly, if you are going to install two Windows in multiboot mode, then they will take up two main sections from you. Linux operating systems do not have this limitation and can be installed anywhere.

File systems

Before you can use a partition, you need to format it - create a file system on it (mark it in a special way).

There are quite a few file systems now. a large number of and all have different characteristics.

Operating systems of the Windows family can only work with FAT, FAT32 and NTFS file systems.

FAT is a very outdated system, and its use today is hardly justified. FAT32 more modern, but has serious limitations. that hinder its full use. For example, the maximum file size that FAT32 supports is about 4 GB. That is why, if you try, for example, to copy an image of a full DVD disc to a flash drive ( which are formatted in FAT32 by default) You will receive a message about the lack of free space, although in fact there is still plenty of space. Because of this, it is practically impossible to use it on partitions where video is being processed ( and under the section with torrents it is problematic to use).

The best choice for working under Windows today would be the file system NTFS. It does not have such restrictions as FAT32, has additional security features, is more stable and reliable.

For UNIXs, which includes Linux, there are many more file systems. Each of them has its advantages and disadvantages and is more suitable for certain tasks. The default on Linux is ext4, but you can use any other. You can easily find information on which of the Linux file systems is most suitable for your tasks on the Internet.

A few words about compatibility

Windows does not understand any other file systems than its own. Access from underneath Linux partitions was only possible with special programs or plugin for Total Commander. Unfortunately, a plug-in for Windows has not yet been written for the most modern Linux file systems.

Linux, on the other hand, has always understood FAT and FAT32 perfectly, and in the last 2-3 years it has been working with NTFS without problems through a special driver. NTFS-3g, both for reading and for writing. Plus, it supports most of the additional features of NTFS. So from Linux you will always have full access to Windows partitions.

Mention should be made of various household appliances - DVD players, satellite receivers, etc. All this technique can only work with FAT and FAT32. NTFS, and even more so UNIX file systems ( with extremely rare exceptions) is completely incomprehensible to her. This should be remembered if you exchange data between such equipment and a computer.

Tools for the job

A few words about the tools for working with partitions.

I'll start with Windows. Includes standard tool Disk Management. It can be reached via Control Panel or by right-clicking on the icon My computer => Manage and selecting in the left column Disk Management.

Note that three partitions in the screenshot are marked as unknown partitions. These are partitions with Linux - Windows sees them, but it can neither determine nor even work with them.

also in Disk management you can clearly see the main and additional sections, as well as the active section ( tagged as System- it contains download files; the OS itself is installed in the partition marked as - i.e. Windows swaps labels). Of all the features, this tool provides only creating and deleting partitions, as well as reassigning the active partition and changing the drive letter ( functionality has increased slightly in Vista and Windows 7). If nothing else was at hand, then sometimes this is enough.

Important to remember , What Disk Management- the tool is inconvenient, poorly functional and extremely dangerous, especially in inexperienced hands. It is assumed that the user who uses it knows exactly what he is doing, because. any changes are applied immediately, without question, and it is impossible to see in advance what certain actions will lead to.

Therefore, I advise you to use it only in extreme cases.

Much more opportunities, convenience and security have various programs from the cohort Partition Magic-ov, for example, . There are a fairly large number of such programs, all of them are different and in last years many of them have changed owners-developers and changed their name. Therefore, if you decide to pick up one of them for yourself, you will have to attend to an independent search on the wide expanses of the Internet. This is not difficult, especially since the leaders in this area can be counted on the fingers.

Acronis Disk Director Suite

In my opinion ( exclusively on mine - because. many may have a different opinion on this matter), the most powerful and convenient program for working with a hard disk and partitions is .

The program is Russian (although occasionally its variants come across with English language) and is very easy to use. At the same time, it fully provides the full range of possible operations with a hard disk. In addition, almost all your actions on sections occur without losing the information that is on them.

All operations that you carry out on sections are instantly displayed in a graphical form so that everything can be evaluated visually. But the actions themselves are not performed at the same time - only after you evaluate everything yourself, and the result completely and completely satisfies you, you can press the button " Apply". Up to this point, you can undo all actions step by step.

If several hard drives are connected to the computer, all of them will be shown in the program window - one above the other. Primary partitions are marked with green flags, and the active partition is marked with a red flag.

In addition, when starting Acronis Disk Director Suite offers a choice of two modes of operation - automatic, in which all operations can be carried out with the help of "masters", and manual mode, in which all power is at the mercy of the user. The second mode, IMHO, is more convenient and flexible, but beginners can also use the automatic one.

Also in the program there is a complete and very detailed help.

One more possibility should be mentioned - from the program window you can create and burn a special boot disk that will contain files Acronis Disk Director Suite. This thing is very convenient and extremely useful in the household - after all, having this disk, there is no need to install the program itself and even the presence of an operating system. From this disk, you can boot your computer and perform any operations with partitions.

Now about the unpleasant. It lies in the fact that the program is relatively rarely updated, so sometimes situations arise when it cannot work with the most modern hard drives. This is more about its version on the boot disk, because. If Acronis Disk Director Suite installed in the operating system, then it will use the drivers from the Windows kit to work with the disk. She also has some problems with Unix file systems - she does not understand the most modern file systems ( You can see it in the screenshot below.), although it works "with a bang" with the old classic ones.

Came out the other day a new version Acronis Disk Director Suite for English-speaking users (there is no new Russian version yet), which already works without any problems with the newest hard drives. But the problems with modern Unix file systems in it have not yet been resolved.

GParted

Another powerful and universal tool to work with the hard disk is a program GParted from the Linux box.

It can be found on almost all Linux Live-CDs.

The story about the possibilities of the program can be fit in one phrase: "Almost everything can." The interface is simple and unpretentious, and the work is absolutely transparent and understandable. All your actions are also first displayed visually, and are performed only after pressing a special button, when you decide that everything suits you.

Besides, GParted supports much large quantity file systems, including the most modern ones.

If you have several hard drives, only one will be shown in the program window at a time. To work with others, use the drop-down list on the panel (on the right), which lists all connected hard drives.

GParted cannot work with partitions that are currently mounted (there will be a warning icon next to such a partition). To perform any actions with such partitions, they must first be unmounted.

A few notes about the programs that are included in the installers of operating systems and can be used when installing the OS.

At Windows installation all partitions of the hard disk will be seen exactly the same, without dividing into basic and extended. The differences will be only in marks and sizes, and it is extremely easy to get confused. Therefore, it is advisable to use it only if you are installing an operating system on a new hard drive for the first time. If your disk has already been used, and there is some information on it, it is best to take care of everything in advance in third party program, and reduce the actions in the installer only to selecting the desired partition and formatting (if necessary).

A similar situation with Linux installation. Although everything is defined correctly there, it is not displayed very clearly, and the work is less transparent than in the same GParted.

So it’s best to create partitions of the right size in the right place before installation and format them into any Linux file system, and when installing the OS, ignoring the proposed automatic options and choosing manual partitioning, simply mount them in the right places and change the file system to another if necessary, simply by ticking the box Format in front of their sections.

For greater clarity, I recommend carefully studying the screenshots to the article ( screenshots are clickable - when you click on them, full-size pictures will open in separate tabs). I draw your attention to the fact that everywhere is depicted THE SAME hard drive only different programs. This disk contains two OS in multiboot mode - Windows and Linux, which coexist quite peacefully on one computer. Each of the operating systems is allocated 3 sections ( separation is not perfect, but quite acceptable). Carefully review what and how it looks in each of the programs.

"The physical nature of stars" - The spectra of stars are their passports with a description of all stellar features. The radii of white dwarfs are about 0.01 R of the Sun. The luminosity of a star is related to the radius of the star by the formula L = ?T4 ? 4?R2 or. Red supergiants are even more luminous. The blue haze that accompanies the Pleiades is scattered dust that reflects starlight.

"Physical properties of water" - At what temperature does water freeze? Water by chemical composition can be called oxygen hydride. The dependence of the boiling point on pressure. Water boils at 1000C. What is water? Four elements of Aristotle. At what temperature does water boil? the boiling point of any hydride, as well as any other compound.

"Chemical and physical phenomena" - Task 1. Have you already learned to distinguish chemical phenomena from physical ones? What phenomena do we call physical? Physical and chemical phenomena. Text. Practical work. Make a conclusion. Is a chemical or physical phenomenon occurring? physical phenomena. Chemical phenomena are... Contents: Signs of chemical reactions.

"Physical properties of metals" - The crystal lattice of a metal. "Tic-tac-toe". Shiny, model of the structure of the atom. Durable, Not transparent, silver-gray (except for copper - red and gold - yellow), Simple substances - metals. Conduct Heat, Laboratory Work « Physical Properties metals". Physical properties of metals:

"Physical quantities" - Speed. mechanical movement. The result of any measurement always contains some error. Phone interaction. The direction of movement can be rectilinear, linear, and erratic. Speed ​​units. The numerical value of a physical quantity is an abstract number included in the value of the quantity.

"Physical phenomena in nature" - Sound. Electrical. Optical. Mechanical. On the Kulikovo field. Optical phenomena. magnetic phenomena. Further. electrical phenomena. What does physics study? mechanical phenomena. All sorts of changes occur in nature - natural phenomena or physical phenomena. Thermal. Wrong! Magnetic.

It is conditionally possible to divide all mafia players into several types, depending on the nature of the person himself:

Mathematician

Psychologist

Paranoid

All types in most cases are presented in pure form and do not mix with each other. The type of player behind the character changes over time and depends both on the experience of playing the mafia, and on personal life experience.

One of the most powerful types of players, one might even say the last stage in the development of a person as a mafia player. Strategists are distinguished not only by their analytical mindset and the ability to draw logically reliable conclusions, but also by the ability to use them in a specific game situation. A strategist may not always act logically, but everything he does is always deliberate and calculated, and often his actions lead to victory. The strategist can be identified by phrases like "by planting this player, we will get a lot of information on other players, even if it is peaceful."

Sees the picture of the game as a whole, and not in separate pieces;

Not subject to paranoia;

The ability to argue your position allows you to ingratiate yourself with other Strategists, Logicians and sometimes Psychologists.

From time to time, he can make the "mistake of professional chess players" (foreseeing events 3 moves ahead, does not notice the current move);

Unable to use psychology and intuition;

He builds his game according to the laws of logic, which can be broken by the unpredictable actions of Paranoids and Intuitives.

A strong type of player with mafia experience. He has an analytical mindset and knows how to build logical chains. Unlike the Strategist, he is not able to think big and ahead, but at a critical moment he is able to determine the fulcrum from which other strategists and logicians can build on and, ultimately, complete the game with a victory. The logic in the party can be recognized by his speeches, which are built, as a rule, on information received from the voting process.

Establishes "polarities" (takes two players who are not paired) and can, thanks to this, calculate the entire mafia team independently of each other;

The ability to perceive arguments allows you to play in a team with other Logicians and Strategists;

The experience of the game allows you to hear "false" and "broken" logic in the speeches and arguments of other players.

The whole game Logic can easily break one well-made alibi;

Not able to play without enough information to reason (almost blind at the beginning of the game).

Mathematician

The average type of player who, as a rule, uses purely technical methods to calculate the mafia in the game. Most often, this type of player is formed under the influence of a person’s profession or personal hobbies. By and large, the Mathematician is a Logician who prefers not to take risks, but to act for sure. The mathematician is easy to recognize at the final stage of the game, when his "picture came together" and he puts the whole game "on the shelves" in one speech.

With enough data at the end of the game is never wrong;

Easily gets along with other Mathematicians and Logicians in the game;

Confidence in the correctness of his conclusions makes other players believe him;

Sequence of actions (which is often neglected by the Strategist);

A good memory allows you to keep a complete voting history in mind.

Not able to play without enough information to reason (almost blind at the beginning of the game);

Excessive self-confidence in one's rightness often clouds the mind and the Mathematician can miss an important detail in the general scheme of the game;

Thinking about another theory, you may miss important information out of sight (partial loss of concentration).

Psychologist

A universal type of player that combines all the necessary qualities for playing mafia. Often the possibilities of a psychologist are dictated by personal life (and not just gaming) experience. Lacking strong analytical skills, he can figure out the mafia without someone else's help. The psychologist can be recognized in the game by abundant communication and asking questions. Confident in his abilities, he often interprets the reactions of other players to the events in the way he needs (but not always right).

Able to understand the train of thought and arguments of the Logician, Strategist and Mathematician, and at the same time have his own vision of what is happening;

It has no limits to the development of its abilities (how many people, so many psychological portraits), thinks outside the box;

Able to play without sufficient information, as he independently extracts it from the behavior of other players (very useful at the beginning of the game);

Evaluates players in a variety of ways (both by game criteria and by behavioral ones);

Can see "through" an alibi.

Difficulties in arguing one's position on late stages games (when choosing between behavioral and game criteria in the last stages of the game, in most cases priority is given to the game);

Even the most experienced Psychologists often interpret player behavior incorrectly, which can lead to trusting the wrong people and ultimately lead to a losing game.

Paranoid

A weak type of player who is characterized by fixation on one or more conclusions as being true and building his entire game on the basis of the latter. Paranoids can be conditionally divided into passive and active. Passive choose a "trusted" player who is trusted, despite all the arguments against them. The active ones, upon discovering certain facts that speak against one specific player, begin to "pressure" this player no matter what. The paranoid in the party can be recognized by phrases like "But Carthage must be destroyed!".

The most dangerous player for the mafia, who is not affected by either convictions or arguments if he is paranoid about them;

In skillful hands, it can serve as a "righteous weapon" for a peaceful city;

Not subject to doubt and hesitation;

He copes with the role of the commissioner better than any Logic and Strategist.

It is similar to a bull that will not calm down until it breaks a red rag (only the announcement of the player who is being paranoid by a proven peaceful one can muffle paranoia);

If paranoia falls on a peaceful person, then he actually plays for the mafia team;

Not able to take arguments and play as a team.

A weak type of player who builds his game on internal feelings of involvement or non-involvement of certain players in the mafia. Almost the exact opposite of Logic. Intuitives are rarely useful in a game, but sometimes, at a decisive moment, games can, contrary to logic, do right choice than end the game with a win. Intuitives always rely on their intuition and explain their choice simply "It seems to me that ...".

Can find the mafia without sufficient information, both at the beginning of the game and at its end;

Can see "through an alibi";

Already at the beginning of the game, they are able to make a complete picture of the teams at the table.

The inability to prove and argue properly their position almost always leaves the Intuitives alone with their own conclusions;

Rarely accept logical reasoning, which leads to disagreement with the Logicians, Strategists and Mathematicians in the party;

When intuition is silent, Intuition becomes useless in every way;

They are subject to influence from the outside, which makes them retreat from their inner feelings and follow the lead of the manipulator.

Depending on the chosen tactics, players are divided into the following types:

suicide bomber

Instigator

The tactics of the game is chosen individually for each game and does not depend on the internal factors of the person himself.

Tactics of the game for any role. The leader takes responsibility for the outcome of the game and leads the game in the direction he has chosen.

leader of the peaceful

Usually there are 1-2 people in the party who want and can lead the rest of the players. A player who has played at least one game according to the tactics of the Leader knows that, most likely, he will not live more than 1-2 days from the moment he put on the crown. This factor stops many from choosing this tactic, but not all. When one Leader dies, another usually takes his place, or the peaceful team crumbles into small pieces, which usually leads to their defeat. Without a leader, civilians have a chance to win only if the mafia is inexperienced players or they make a lot of mistakes. Most often, the Leader manifests himself on the second game day. When no one has taken the role of Leader, the logic of the game obliges the Commissar to do so.

mafia leader

On the second game day, when a nascent Civilian Leader appears in the game, the mafia is faced with a choice: accept the Leader of the civilians and support him, in the hope that he will make a mistake, or create a Leader from among his number. If the mafia chooses the first option, then with the experience of the Leader of the peaceful, the mafia loses if it does not kill him before the right moment. If the mafia decides to take risks, then a second Leader (often a false commissar) appears in the game. Usually this day decides everything, since in most cases one of the two Leaders will be imprisoned. This happens because the two of them have different vectors and different landing candidates, and the players at the table understand that these two are from different teams.

Tactics of the game for any role. The vassal is not an individual force, but follows a player he trusts.

Vassal of the peaceful

Often such tactics are chosen by auxiliary peaceful roles (doctor, maniac) who are grouped around the Commissar or Leader of the civilians. The vassal of civilians is not terrible for the mafia, since the one he follows. If Vassal follows the mafia, then he plays for the mafia team, which usually leads to the defeat of civilians, in which Vassal is 99% guilty. At the beginning of the mafia game, it is important to decide which of the civilians chose the tactics of the Vassal, and ingratiate himself with him. Failing that, kill whoever he follows. Having lost a confidant, the Vassal is looking for a new person to trust (often a new Leader).

mafia vassal

Most average mafia players choose this tactic for themselves. Its meaning is simple, and is embedded in the very principles of the mafia game - "Grow into confidence, make you make a mistake, win!". Mafia vassal breaks into the peaceful team, following the Leader, creating the illusion that he himself is peaceful (plays exactly like us, which means he is one of us). If a team of civilians eliminated all suspicious persons, and the game is not over yet, then everyone understands that the mafia is among the trusted persons, and the game literally comes down to the beginning - no one trusts anyone, everyone suspects everyone. This tactic is very beneficial to the mafia, if it is skillfully used.

Tactics of the game for any role. As a rule, the tactics of beginners. Silent refuses to give information about himself and is completely immersed in watching what is happening.

Silent peaceful

Often a peaceful player who has chosen the tactics of the Silent One only makes his team worse, because he does not make himself clear that he is peaceful. They say about such players "there is zero information on him, he is silent!" and quite often for this they are imprisoned in the daytime voting. If Silent is an experienced player, then he hears and notices twice as much as other players. Sometimes the tactics of the Silent One can be replaced by the tactics of the Leader, when, having listened carefully to everyone, the Silent One believes that the time has come to act actively. This tactic can sometimes be chosen by the Commissioner, acting on the principle of "Hiding, the lion is preparing to jump!". Often the non-violent player with the Silent tactic is one of the first to die, as the mafia is afraid of those they know nothing about, and they develop paranoia that the Silent One has an active role.

Silent Mafia

Risky tactics, so experienced players are almost never used. If the Silent Mafia is experienced, then most likely such tactics were chosen by him for the subsequent false commissar or in order not to give an extra alibi to other peaceful players. Often, the Tactics of Silent among the players of the mafia provokes other mafiosi to play the tactics of the Beetle and plant their own.

suicide bomber

Tactics of the game for civilians. A suicide bomber sacrifices himself for the sake of his team's victory, posing as a mafia shot. In 90% of cases, the Suicide bomber is opened by a false commissar (or another false role) in order to be killed by the mafia instead of the Commissioner covered by him. An experienced suicide bomber usually takes one mafia with him, calling it "proven". Such Gambits require a high level of professionalism and are highly valued among players. Death Men's mistakes are often worth a peaceful victory, because in case of an unsuccessful false commission (or simply unconvincing in the eyes of a real Commissioner), such players do not die, but go to jail on the next vote (and it is rarely possible to convince that it was a mistake, and not malicious intent). That is why the suicide bomber tactics are very rare, since there are only two alternatives - either he died or was imprisoned.

Mafia tactics. A beetle among the mafia plays for civilians, helping them to plant their partners, while receiving an ironclad alibi. If the Commissioner is eliminated in time, then the experienced Beetle will almost always survive until the decisive moment in the game and, thanks to his alibi, will win. The tactics of a true mafioso are very popular with the public and therefore very seductive (unlike the Death Man). But the received alibis still need to be able to dispose of, so this tactic is recommended to be used only by experienced players. An inexperienced Beetle will most likely give himself away with petty alogisms in behavior, and will be imprisoned, despite the alibi. If two Beetles (or more) appear in the mafia team at once, then this is fraught with the fact that at some point the civilians will understand that the mafia made alibis (since there are too few suspects left) on partners and all alibis will be canceled.

Instigator

Mafia tactics. A tactic related to that of the Mafia Vassal, but differs by the lack of a cohesive team between the Instigator and the Leader. Usually this tactic is used by several mafiosi at once and is aimed at persuading the Leader to make a certain choice (favorable to the mafia) at a critical moment in the game. If there is only one Instigator, then, most likely, he will only give himself away by switching to such tactics (if he has not yet played according to the mafia Vassal tactics). It is recommended to switch to this tactic to several mafiosi at once and incite to vote against different players (the so-called "fork", when one mafioso calls to vote against one peaceful, and the second - against the other), so that in case of exposure, the illusion will be created that these two play in different teams.

Quasi-states possessing all the attributes of a normal state, whose authorities fully control their territory. These are, for example, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Many quasi-states pay great attention to state building and, in particular, to the creation of their own special identity, necessary for the legitimization of their territory and borders. Quasi-states strive for full international recognition and entry into the UN, usually justifying their demands by the ethno-cultural specifics of the population, the right of peoples to self-determination, relative economic independence, and the duration of de facto existence within the current borders.

Uncontrolled territories, which are a mosaic of areas with unstable borders, under the control of local princes - large land owners, warlords, criminal leaders, etc. If they have common interests for some time, these leaders can cooperate among themselves, but they can also wage a war of all against all. Examples of such geopolitical "black holes" are Garm, Northern Afghanistan, Shan, northern regions of Cambodia, south

Sudan, southern Angola, Sierra Leone, a significant part of Colombia, etc.

NT can be classified on other grounds, for example origin and function. So, NT are distinguished, resulting from:

Self-determination of a region with a special ethnic or ethno-cultural structure of the population (Northern Cyprus, Palestine);

Decay multinational state(Abkhazia, Transnistria, etc.);

civil war and/or foreign military intervention (Northern Afghanistan, Bosnia);

Activities of criminal and terrorist groups ("Golden Triangle", part of Colombia).

It is also possible to classify NT according to the time of existence, the number and nature of subjects of political activity, economic basis, geopolitical role, etc.

The number of unrecognized states is growing, despite the resistance of existing countries. After all, many legitimate states are multinational and, therefore, are themselves at risk of separatism.

This is evidence of a clear gap between the scale of world economic processes leveling the cultural characteristics of countries and regions, which have long outgrown the framework of individual states, and the socio-cultural diversity of the world.

Most of the NT is located along the geopolitical "faults" - at the boundaries between civilizations: Western and Eastern Christian, between Christian civilizations and the Islamic world. However, the causes of events around NT can by no means be reduced to a "clash between civilizations", in terms of. S. Huntington. Civilizations are based not only on a religious community, but also on a complex set of ideas and ideas that underlie culture, social practice and international relations.

Unrecognized states and other territories not controlled by the central authorities appear most often in areas with an ethnically mixed population, whose self-consciousness (identity) is complex and changeable.

Such areas are typical of the former frontier between empires, which considered them as strategic footholds. For centuries, they were under the control of one side or the other, which led to the emergence of complex mixed identities, which, in turn, became the object of manipulation by interested political forces and powers.

These areas are called limitrophes. As you move away from the core of civilization, its signs gradually weaken, and vice versa, the properties of the neighboring civilization become more and more noticeable. Areas that combine features of both or even several civilizations are likened to straits between islands. The peoples living in these straits are constantly forced to defend their identity against the "advancing land" - the nuclei of neighboring civilizations, as a result of which the "straits" are particularly conflict-prone [Tsymbursky, 2000]. Such a "strait" separates the Russian civilizational core from the center of the Western Christian, or European, and Muslim civilizations.

The collapse of the USSR and the actual withdrawal of Russia from most of the limitrophe is associated with the emergence of an area of ​​geopolitical instability and several unrecognized states on its borders. However, attempts at a geopolitical forecast based on the concept of the limitrophe bring us back to the traditional geopolitics of power. Of course, the emergence of NT cannot be explained only by rivalry between major powers: the international community is always opposed to separatism in principle.

One of the unrecognized states until recently was Chechnya. Recovery constitutional order in the Chechen Republic is still far from being completed and cost the country two wars.

Russia is deeply involved in conflicts connected with the other four unrecognized republics on the territory of the former USSR. These are Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno-Karabakh, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic - PMR.

Abkhazia and South Ossetia are directly adjacent to Russian borders, while events in others directly affect Russian interests. Many citizens of the Russian Federation live in the unrecognized republics. Most of them are in Transnistria, where about 75 thousand people have Russian citizenship. Russia is the main, and in some cases the only participant in the political

regulation of conflicts around the unrecognized republics and the guarantor of a ceasefire.

Scenarios for the evolution of the world boundary system

neoliberal scenario provides for a linear evolution of all borders - from alienating to integration - due to the influence of the processes of internationalization and economic liberalization, new technologies and the development of communications, the growing well-being of the population on both sides of each pair of neighboring countries. In addition, people's awareness of the dangers of exacerbation of global environmental, energy and other problems stimulates the development international cooperation, including the peaceful resolution of territorial disputes on the basis of international law between neighboring countries, or at least overcoming contradictions on the basis of separating the economic and ideological functions of the border. Neoliberal theorists tend to believe that the excesses of nationalism and the absolutization of the right of nations to self-determination can be overcome through democratization political life"in breadth" (in the "new" countries) and "in depth".

realistic scenario is based on the belief that hostile relations between neighboring countries can be improved and "frozen" border zones will thaw, since the objective selfish interests of each country will dictate a wider use of rational negotiation mechanisms to resolve border problems.

But it is clearly premature to draw overly optimistic conclusions. Nationalism remains a key element in the hierarchy of territorial identities, and thus the relationship between population and territory is far from rational, based primarily on economic principles and security considerations. Territory and boundaries retain their symbolic, emotional role for many people.

Recent events in the former Yugoslavia have shown that it is still too early to write off purely territorial motives in the spirit of the traditional geopolitics of power in the political and military-strategic planning of the leading states. Because the application nuclear weapons impossible, old geopolitical arguments about the importance of controlling strategic corridors and mountain passes passable for heavy military equipment, retain some significance and have even been confirmed during

wars in the former Yugoslavia, between Georgia and Abkhazia, when the Abkhaz units received reinforcements from the North Caucasus along the mountain paths.

The territory retains a certain role as a resource, as an ecological reserve (for example, to accommodate "dirty" industries or military training grounds, which should be removed from areas with dense settlement), as well as as a reservoir of potential mineral reserves and as a reserve of agricultural land, in which many countries, especially mountainous and located in the arid belt, experience an acute shortage.

We must not forget that theoretical discussions, alas, concern mainly

"integration", open, peaceful and well-delimited and internationally recognized borders, which lie mainly in Europe and North America and make up only 8% of the total length of land state borders in the world.

Only the countries of Asia and Africa account for about 2/3 of their length (Table 19), and it was in the countries of these continents that the needs and aspirations of the population were ignored when drawing the borders. Even in Europe, only 2% of the length of land

Table 19 Geography of state borders in the world

Note: the table was compiled before the collapse of the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Ethiopia.

Source: Foucher, 1991.

borders to collapse socialist system were legitimized by voting in referendums. About 42% of the entire length of the land borders in Africa are astronomical and geometric, i.e. drawn along parallels and meridians, equidistant lines, etc., without any correspondence to social realities.

Borders on the Black Continent were imposed on Africans by the colonial authorities: about 20% of the current land borders were drawn by the British administration, about 17% by the French, as a rule, with complete disregard for ethnic, economic and socio-cultural space. If until now violence has been relatively rarely used in Africa to resolve territorial disputes, it is only because most governments have recognized the wisdom of the famous decision of the Organization of African Unity on the inviolability of post-colonial borders, adopted in 1964.

Pessimistic scenario provides for the disintegration of many current states along ethnic lines. The most apocalyptic version of the pessimistic scenario is the struggle for self-determination of the "majority minorities" in the countries of Asia and Africa. For example, in a number of countries there are several hundred peoples (see Table 7). One can imagine what will happen if they begin to fight for self-determination. Unfortunately, the pessimistic scenario is supported by the fact that social modernization (industrialization, urbanization, raising the average level of education) often leads, as in many former republics, to Soviet Union and the autonomies of Russia itself, to increased competition between the titular groups and "migrants" for power, control over resources, prestigious and better paid jobs, housing, and land. This competition gives rise to outbreaks of radical nationalism, as the "titular" political and intellectual elites use group solidarity and identity as a means of political mobilization of ethnic groups in the struggle for economic benefits. The trajectory of the development of fundamentalist movements in Iran, Algeria and some other Arab countries was similar.

The risk of disintegration of states depends on many factors:

Geopolitical (the split is facilitated by the location of areas with a predominance of minorities on the periphery of the state territory, near the area inhabited by a kindred ethnic group);

Demographic (the absolute size of the minority and its share in the population of the country as a whole and the administrative region in which it lives, the degree of its territorial concentration, the share among urban residents);

Historical (the fact that a minority has experience of its own statehood or autonomy, "experience" of entering the current state, etc.);

Economic (the level of urbanization, gross income per capita relative to the average for the country, the balance of migration as an indicator of the economic situation: a significant balance of migration, both positive and negative, usually leads to increased ethno-political tensions);

Cultural (share of the minority speaking the native language, differences in religion with the majority);

Political (the level of political mobilization of the minority, including the presence and influence of nationalist parties and movements, other manifestations of nationalism).

Assessment of the risk of disintegration of modern European states on the basis of quantitative and qualitative indicators reflecting the above factors, showed that it is greatest at the border between the most and least developed, between Muslim and Orthodox countries and regions of the former USSR [see: Kolosov and Treyvish, 1996]. The de jure collapse of even one state is fraught, as the events in the former Yugoslavia once again showed, with a total revision of the entire territorial-political organization and system of borders in Europe.

Remain a political reality territorial disputes, and armed conflicts caused by them cannot be ruled out in the near future. Although the effectiveness of the legal procedures adopted by the international community for settling territorial conflicts and establishing and maintaining peace where violence has been used is increasing, they are clearly insufficient to put an end to bloody border wars. At the same time, the use of force to compel participants in territorial conflicts to comply with decisions international organizations remains an extremely acute and controversial problem in international politics.

Borders as such are rarely the cause of war – more often than not, they determine the factors contributing to the outbreak of conflict. Weak states with little state territory

rhetoria usually have more extended borders in relation to their area and have less ability to influence their neighbors. So, partisan movements V South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s they had bases on the territory of neighboring countries, called "frontline", thereby increasing the risk of the spread of hostilities.

Nationalist movements remain a powerful force in many regions of the world.

The principle of the unrestricted right of nations to self-determination is in obvious contradiction with another fundamental principle of international law - the inadmissibility of violating the territorial integrity and inviolability of the borders of sovereign states.

These are the main factors that cast doubt on the feasibility of neoliberal and even realistic scenarios for the evolution of the world's border system. Therefore, it is important to identify areas of the highest risk of destabilization, including exacerbation of territorial and border conflicts, especially in zones of contact between the most developed and developing countries, and in general, strong economic, social and cultural gradients. How to measure these gradients and evaluate risks is the subject of further current research.

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