The post-war structure of the world - the creation of a socialist system. Start of the Cold War

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Post-war arrangement of the world and ensuring international security

To determine the specific guilt of the persons who unleashed the Second World War, the allied states - the USSR, the USA, England and France created the International Military Tribunal. He began work in Nuremberg on November 20, 1945, and ended it on October 1, 1946, with the death sentence on twelve major war criminals. According to the indictment, they were sentenced to death penalty by hanging: Goering, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sukel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart and Bormann (in absentia); to life imprisonment: Hess, Funk, Raeder; to 20 years in prison: Speer and Schirach; to 15 - Neurat, Doenitz.

Created in accordance with the agreements at the conference, the so-called Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA) developed draft peace treaties between the USSR and the states that were allies of Nazi Germany: Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Finland. After their consideration by the Paris Peace Conference (1946), these treaties were approved and signed on February 10, 1947. They met the interests of ensuring the free and independent development of the peoples of these countries, contributed to the strengthening of their international positions and became a serious contribution to the elimination of the consequences of the Second World War, to the strengthening of peace in Europe.

This kind of cooperation, perhaps, was the last joint action of the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition. In subsequent years, unfortunately, development took a completely different path. Our former allies soon began to break the ties that connected the main participants in the war against the powers of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. At the same time, the main stake was placed on atomic weapons.

So, already with great difficulties there were negotiations on the conclusion of a state treaty with Austria. It took 33 meetings of the Ministerial Council, 260 meetings of deputy foreign ministers, 35 meetings of the special Vienna Commission. The reason for these difficulties is simple - the United States was interested in Austria primarily as an "Alpine fortress", as a springboard for a possible subsequent struggle against the USSR and the countries of people's democracy.

But the main issue was still the German question. Giving an assessment of the results of the Potsdam Conference, the newspaper Pravda wrote on August 3, 1945: "The fundamental interests of the peoples of Europe are to permanently eliminate the threat of German aggression, to prevent the revival of German imperialism, to ensure lasting peace among the peoples and universal security."

Political principles for dealing with Germany

The political principles for dealing with Germany, developed by the Soviet side, were formulated in the draft declaration "On the Political Regime in Germany", prepared in July 1945. Its main provisions boiled down to two important points:

1) it is impossible to identify the German people with the Hitlerite clique and pursue a policy of revenge, national humiliation and oppression towards them;

2) it is necessary to provide conditions for the development of Germany as a single, peace-loving state.

This meant that the Soviet side was in favor of recognizing the German people's right to self-determination and choosing their own path of socio-economic and state structure.

What was the position of the other side? The United States and England, which developed their proposals - and they concerned the dismemberment of Germany, the distribution of its territory among other European states, - for some reason did not introduce them for discussion at the conference. For example, the American Admiral Leahy, one of Truman's closest advisers, reports in his memoirs that the US President is heading to the Potsdam Conference with a plan to divide Germany into "separate sovereign states Leahy writes that Truman wanted to propose that "the Council of Foreign Ministers should make recommendations to governments on the dismemberment of Germany" and that already at the Potsdam Conference "the intention to grant the Rhineland independence and sovereignty as a separate state in the future" be declared. , Truman spoke out in favor of "so that ... a South German state was created with its capital in Vienna." The need to reorganize the life of the German people on a democratic and peaceful basis then, apparently, was of the least concern to the Western powers. The directive of the US President to the American command in Germany said : "Germany is occupied not for the sake of her liberation, but because she is a defeated, enemy country."

The principles of the joint policy of the states of the anti-Hitler coalition in the German question were fixed by the participants of the Potsdam Conference in the agreement "Political and economic principles to be followed in dealing with Germany in the initial control period."

What was the essence of these principles?

Ultimately, to the demilitarization and democratization of Germany. In accordance with the decisions of the Crimean Conference, they provided for the complete disarmament of Germany and the elimination of all industry in it that could be used for military production.

The conference participants agreed on the need to "destroy the National Socialist Party and its affiliates and affiliated organizations, dissolve all Nazi institutions, ensure that they do not re-emerge in any form, and prevent all Nazi and militaristic activity or propaganda." The three powers also pledged to take other measures necessary to ensure that Germany would never again threaten her neighbors or the preservation of world peace.

Signing of an agreement on reparations

The conference participants also signed a special agreement on the question of reparations. They proceeded from the fact that Germany had to compensate to the greatest extent possible the damage that she had caused to other peoples. The reparations claims of the Soviet Union were to be satisfied by withdrawal from the zone occupied by the USSR of the corresponding German investments (assets) abroad. It was also stipulated that the USSR would receive additionally from the western zones of occupation: 1) 15% of the complete industrial equipment withdrawn for payment of reparations in exchange for food and other products from the Soviet zone of occupation; 2) 10% of the withdrawn industrial equipment - without payment and compensation.

However, the more time passed after the meeting in Potsdam, the further the Western powers moved away from its decisions. Whereas demilitarization and denazification were carried out consistently in the Soviet zone of occupation, in the western zones these decisions were actually frustrated.

Looking back, we can state with confidence: the full and conscientious implementation by the Western powers of the Potsdam agreements on Germany, finally consolidating the new situation in Europe created by the victory of the anti-Hitler coalition, would have prevented not only the subsequent split of Germany, but also the transformation of the continent into the main center " cold war". The agreements laid the necessary foundation for the birth of a peaceful, democratic united Germany. "If the German people's own efforts are constantly directed towards achieving this goal," the report on the Berlin conference said, "then it will be possible for it over time to take a place among the free and peaceful peoples of the world."

Unfortunately, defeated Germany became more and more the object of the unseemly political machinations of Washington and London. The disruption of the peace treaty with a united Germany, the conclusion of which was envisaged by the Potsdam agreements, became one of the main steps taken by the United States and Great Britain, as well as France that joined them, which led to the split of Europe into opposing alliances and, as a result, to the revival now in a new one, " West German" form of the "German factor" in world politics.

Europe was still in ruins, and Washington was already actively working on plans for an atomic war against its ally in the fight against German fascism and Japanese militarism - the Soviet Union. In the bowels of the Pentagon, as it later became known, projects for the destruction of the USSR were born, one more fantastic than the other90.

In general, the first post-war decades went down in history as a period of the Cold War, a period of sharp Soviet-American confrontation that more than once brought the world to the brink of a "hot" war.

What is the "cold war"?

Apparently, not only a certain level of political tension between states and an arms race, but above all the global nature of the Soviet-American confrontation. In addition, one must take into account the situation of "nuclear impasse", in which the huge reserves of destructive power accumulated by the US and the USSR could not be used. The "Cold War", as it were, replaced the "Hot War", became its surrogate. It is generally accepted that the start of the Cold War was laid by W. Churchill's speech on March 5, 1946, at Westminster College in the American city of Fulton, where he actually called for the formation of a military-political alliance against the USSR. US President G. Truman, who was present in the hall, loudly applauded the speaker.

There is another way of looking at this problem: the beginning of the Cold War was marked by the so-called "long telegram" sent to Washington from the US embassy in Moscow by then-young American diplomat J. Kennan. Subsequently, it was set forth in the article "Sources of Soviet Behavior", which appeared in one of the American magazines and signed with the pseudonym "Mr. X". It was about putting constant pressure on the USSR so that it was forced to abandon the socialist choice.

After the Second World War, the United States literally got bogged down in a system of multilateral agreements and treaties - NATO, SEATO, CENTO, ANZUS were created, a network of military bases was deployed, American troops were firmly entrenched in Europe and other regions. And although from time to time voices were heard in America in support of isolationism and attempts were made to limit American obligations in the world, but a return to the former was not foreseen.

What are the causes of the Cold War?

In the scientific literature, there are two main points of view on this issue:

1. It can be described as traditional: the Americans are to blame for everything, our actions were only a reaction to a provocation by the United States. Stalin perfectly understood the real correlation of forces and therefore behaved with the utmost caution.

2. According to another point of view, the main blame for the Cold War lies with Stalin. For example, some actions of the USSR in Eastern Europe, "provoking" the war in Korea, tough ideological rhetoric, etc.

But both of these points of view are one-sided. Neither Stalin nor Truman had the desire or even the readiness to wage a major war. But there was something else - the desire to consolidate those spheres of its influence in the world that became the result of the Second World War. In this sense, 1947 is a turning point. And not even because the "Truman Doctrine", "Marshall Plan" were adopted at that time, but because this was the milestone after which it became impossible to return to the ideals of the United Nations, which were formed on final stage Second World War.

How was the geopolitical situation at that moment?

United States of America and Soviet Union became the powers that expanded their "spheres of influence" to the greatest extent as a result of the war. The USSR dominated Eastern Europe, the USA dominated Western Europe. But gradually it became clear that these "acquisitions" are quite illusory.

As for Eastern Europe, sympathies for the USSR were really very strong here, the communists had a broad social base, and the old émigré governments, where they were, could not seriously challenge the left forces. But by 1946, it should have been obvious to Stalin that Eastern Europe could easily get out of his direct political control. The development of the Eastern European countries was associated with the search for their own, national paths to socialism.

Similar processes, although under a different sign, took place in Western Europe. The influence that the United States has acquired in this part of the continent has gradually begun to fade. Communists in France, Italy and other countries won elections, american soldiers irritated the Europeans.

Such a development of events in Western Europe was unacceptable for Truman, and what was happening in Eastern Europe could not suit Stalin. They were not only opponents, but also partners in construction new system international relations - a system of rigid bloc relations that would discipline the allies and secure the status of "superpowers" for the USSR and the USA.

The consequences of the defeat of the fascist states

The chain reaction of profound social changes that began as a result of the defeat of the fascist states eventually led to a general shift to the left of the entire public life in the world, to the formation of a world socialist system, the destruction of colonial empires, the emergence of dozens of independent developing states in Europe and Asia. The international working class made an enormous contribution to the victory over German fascism. Despite heavy human losses during the war years, its number in the 50s was over 400 million people. In the post-war period, class consciousness, political activity and organization of the working class increased significantly. He strengthened his cohesion not only nationally, but also internationally. Thus, in September-October 1945, in Paris, representatives of 67 million workers from 56 countries organized in trade unions, with the active participation of Soviet trade unions, created the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU).

The powerful upsurge of the democratic movement during these years significantly expanded the socio-economic and political gains of the working people. A new stage began in the development of social legislation in many bourgeois countries. In a number of Western European states (for example, in Italy, France), where the big bourgeoisie compromised itself by collaborating with the Nazi occupiers, hatred of the collaborators united the working people to fight against the domination of capital in general. In this situation, the ruling circles resorted to political and social maneuvering and made some concessions to the working people. The legislation included provisions on the right to work and equal pay for equal work, on protecting the interests of workers with the help of trade unions, on equal rights for men and women, on the right to rest, education, and material security in old age.

The number of people who had the right to vote was greatly expanded. Voting rights were granted to women in France (1945), Italy (1946), Belgium (1948). The age limit was lowered to 21-23 in Sweden and the Netherlands (1945), in Denmark (1952).

Nationalization of enterprises and democratization of industrial relations

UN fascism tribunal

For the first time in the history of a number of Western European countries, left-wing forces succeeded in achieving widespread nationalization of enterprises and democratization of production relations. For example, in France, all large enterprises for the production of gas and electricity, the largest insurance companies, passed into state ownership. The Committees Act was passed, which for the first time gave French workers access to participation in management.

Large-scale nationalization of industry and banks was carried out in Austria. New law The works councils gave the working class of Austria the opportunity to participate in the management of enterprises. In Germany, the principle of workers' representation in enterprises was legally fixed. This provision has also entered into the practice of concluding collective agreements in Italy. A number of leading industries in Great Britain underwent nationalization, and the right to participate in the management bodies of state-owned enterprises was assigned to the British trade unions.

A number of measures have also been taken in the area of occupational safety and health of workers. Thus, insurance against accidents at work was introduced in France and Great Britain (1946), for sickness and disability - in Belgium (1944), old-age pensions - in Switzerland (1946), unemployment benefits - in Belgium (1944). ), the Netherlands (1949). There was a further reduction of the working week: in the USA - from 48 hours in 1939 to 40 hours in 1950, in Western Europe - from 56 hours to 48 hours. Western European trade union committees have achieved an increase in paid leave to two to four weeks.

The organized working class, schooled in the anti-fascist struggle, strongly supported the leftist policy in the labor and democratic movement. This led to a general strengthening of the political role of the communist parties. If in 1939 there were 1 million 750 thousand people in the communist parties of the capitalist countries, then in 1945 - 4 million 800 thousand. The parliamentary elections in the countries of Western Europe in 1945-1946 testified to the significant influence of the communist parties. Their representatives became members of the governments of France, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Luxembourg, Norway, and Finland. The influence of the communists in Sweden increased, the Communist Party of Great Britain strengthened its positions, the Communist Party of the USA was restored (July 1945), and the Communist Party of Japan came out of the underground. As a result, an anti-communist campaign was launched in a number of capitalist countries. Repressions began against the communists, leaders of the labor and democratic movement in the United States. Communists in England were persecuted. In France and Italy, bourgeois circles succeeded in expelling them from governments. In Germany, members of the Communist Party were forbidden by law from 1950 to be in the public service. Somewhat later, a lawsuit was initiated against the Communist Party of Germany. The Japanese Communist Party was persecuted by the American occupation authorities.

In the post-war period, socialist and social democratic organizations continued their activities or re-formed. Their ranks were noticeably replenished: by the beginning of the 1950s, they numbered about 10 million members (before the war - 6.5 million). In November-December 1947, a representative conference of social democratic parties was held in Antwerp, which established the Committee of International Socialist Conferences (COMISCO), which united the social democratic parties of 33 states.

In 1951, the Socialist International was founded at the founding congress in Frankfurt am Main. It included 34 socialist and social democratic parties, mostly European, with about 10 million members.

The expansion of the membership of the Socialist International and the entry into its ranks of the socialist parties of Asia, Africa and Latin America led to the strengthening of progressive tendencies within it.

And how were relations built in the post-war decades between the two main detachments of the socialist movement - the communist and the social democratic?

First of all, on the basis of mutual understanding, intolerance, and sometimes confrontation. Today's new thinking creates the prerequisites for the transition to a permanent political dialogue.

A direct result of the growing political maturity of the working people and the growing role of the masses of the people was the creation of a number of international democratic organizations. Among them are the World Federation of Democratic Youth (November 1945), the International Democratic Women's Federation (December 1945), etc.

After the Second World War, the colonial system of imperialism disintegrated. Great Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Portugal could no longer maintain their dominance in their possessions with the help of military administration. In 1949, the Chinese People's Republic, which had a strong impact on the national liberation movement in Korea, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia. India won independence. Burma, Indonesia, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Sudan, and a number of other former colonial countries gained political independence. Within ten years, almost half of the the globe. The Non-Aligned Movement appears.

There are various definitions of the concept of "international security".

Security is a set of measures to create the most effective guarantees of world peace both for a given state and on a global and regional scale, to protect states and peoples from the threat of wars, especially nuclear war.

Security as a policy is not static, it is dynamic. There is no security, even in relation to individual regions of the world, that would be established forever. Its achievement requires political will and constant efforts. Naturally, in different periods and in different circumstances, different methods of ensuring security become important. They are derived from the class structure of society, from the economic and social relations. During historical development these methods were of the most diverse nature, took various forms.

Today, a watershed in understanding the essence of security policy lies between those who see in it almost nothing higher than military, military-technical categories and are inclined to make the solution of its problems dependent only on the number of units and quality of weapons, and those who see here, first of all, a flexible and complex form of political relationships.

What are the main directions in the period under review sought to ensure peace and international security?

The United Nations (UN) has become a recognized center in the system of international relations. It was created in April-June 1945 at a conference in San Francisco by representatives of 50 states, which are considered founding states.

The tasks of the UN were recognized as maintaining peace, guardianship over backward countries in order to lead them to "self-government or independence."

The Charter of this organization included the requirement of the Soviet Union for unanimous decision-making on particularly important issues, which did not allow the United States and other powers to impose resolutions they liked by a majority of votes.

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Post-war order of the world. Beginning of the Cold War

Decisions of the Potsdam Conference.

The Conference of the Heads of Government of the USSR, the USA and England in Potsdam worked from July 17 to August 2. A system of quadripartite occupation of Germany was finally agreed upon; it was envisaged that during the occupation the supreme power in Germany would be exercised by the commanders-in-chief, the armed forces of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France - each in his own zone of occupation.

A bitter struggle flared up at the conference over Poland's western borders. The western border of Poland was established along the Oder and Neisse rivers. The city of Königsberg and the area adjacent to it were transferred to the USSR, the rest of East Prussia went to Poland.

US attempts to make diplomatic recognition of some Eastern European countries contingent on a reorganization of their governments ended in failure. Thus, the dependence of these countries on the USSR was recognized. Three governments have confirmed their decision to bring the main war criminals to justice.

The generally successful solution of important political problems for the USSR in Potsdam was prepared by the favorable international situation, the successes of the Red Army, and the US interest in the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan.

Formation of the United Nations.

The UN was created at the final stage of World War II at a conference in San Francisco. It opened on April 25, 1945. Invitations were sent to 42 states on behalf of the four great powers - the USSR, the USA, Britain and China. The Soviet delegation managed to organize an invitation to the conference for representatives of Ukraine and Belarus. A total of 50 countries participated in the conference. On June 26, 1945, the conference ended its work with the adoption of the UN Charter.

The UN Charter obliged the members of the organization to resolve disputes among themselves only by peaceful means, to refrain in international relations from the use of force or threats to use force. The charter proclaimed the equality of all people, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as the need to respect all international treaties and obligations. The main task of the UN was to promote world peace and international security.

It was established that a session of the UN General Assembly should be held annually with the participation of delegates from all UN member countries. The most important decisions of the General Assembly must be taken by a 2/3 majority vote, less important decisions by a simple majority.

In matters of maintaining world peace the main role assigned to the 14-member United Nations Security Council. Five of them were considered permanent members (USSR, USA, England, France, China), the rest were subject to re-election every two years. The most important condition was the established principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council. Their consent was required for any decision to be made. This principle protected the UN from turning it into an instrument of diktat in relation to any country or group of countries.

Beginning of the Cold War.

Already by the end of the war, the contradictions between the USSR, on the one hand, and the USA and Great Britain, on the other, were sharply outlined. The main issue was the question of the post-war structure of the world and the spheres of influence of both sides in it. The tangible preponderance of the West in economic power and the monopoly on nuclear weapon allowed to hope for the possibility of a decisive change in the balance of power in their favor. Back in the spring of 1945, a plan of military operations against the USSR was developed: W. Churchill planned to start World War III on July 1, 1945 with an attack by Anglo-Americans and formations of German soldiers against Soviet troops. Only by the summer of 1945, due to the obvious military superiority of the Red Army, this plan was abandoned.

Soon, both sides gradually switched to a policy of balancing on the brink of war, an arms race, and mutual rejection. In 1947, the American journalist W. Lippman called this policy the "cold war." The final turning point in relations between the USSR and the Western world was W. Churchill's speech at the military college in the city of Fulton in the USA in March 1946. He called on the "English-speaking world" to unite and show the "Russians strength." US President G. Truman supported Churchill's ideas. These threats alarmed Stalin, who called Churchill's speech a "dangerous act". The USSR actively increased its influence not only in the countries of Europe occupied by the Red Army, but also in Asia.

USSR in the post-war years

Changing position of the USSR in the international arena. Despite the fact that the USSR suffered very heavy losses during the war, international arena he came out not only not weakened, but became even stronger than before. In 1946-1948. In the states of Eastern Europe and Asia, communist governments came to power, heading towards building socialism along the Soviet lines. However, the leading Western powers pursued a policy of force in relation to the USSR and the socialist states. One of the main means of deterring them was atomic weapons, the possession of which was enjoyed by the United States. Therefore, the creation of an atomic bomb became one of the main goals of the USSR. This work was headed by the physicist i.v. Kurchatov. The Institute of Atomic Energy and the Institute of Nuclear Problems of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR were created. In 1948, the first atomic reactor was launched, and in 1949, the first atomic bomb was tested at the test site near Semipalatinsk. In the work on it, the USSR was secretly assisted by individual Western scientists. Thus, a second nuclear power appeared in the world, the US monopoly on nuclear weapons ended. Since that time, the confrontation between the US and the USSR has largely determined the international situation.

Economic recovery. Material losses in the war were very high. The USSR lost a third of its national wealth in the war. Agriculture was in deep crisis. The majority of the population was in distress, its supply was carried out using a rationing system. In 1946, the Law on the five-year plan for the restoration and development of the national economy was adopted. It was necessary to accelerate technological progress, to strengthen the country's defense power. The post-war five-year plan was marked by large-scale construction projects (hydroelectric power stations, state district power stations) and the development of road transport construction. The technical re-equipment of the industry of the Soviet Union was facilitated by the export of equipment from German and Japanese enterprises. The highest rates of development were achieved in such sectors as ferrous metallurgy, oil and coal mining, construction of machines and machine tools. After the war, the countryside found itself in a more difficult position than the city. The collective farms carried out tough measures for the procurement of bread. If earlier the collective farmers gave only part of the grain "to the common barn", now they were often forced to give all the grain. The discontent in the village grew. The sown area has been greatly reduced. Due to the depreciation of equipment and the lack of labor, field work was carried out late, which negatively affected the harvest.

The main features of post-war life. A significant part of the housing stock was destroyed. The problem of labor resources was acute: immediately after the war, many demobilized people returned to the city, but the enterprises still lacked workers. We had to recruit workers in the countryside, among the students of vocational schools. Even before the war, decrees were adopted, and after it continued to operate, according to which workers were forbidden, under pain of criminal punishment, to leave enterprises without permission. For stabilization financial system in 1947 the Soviet government carried out a monetary reform. Old money was exchanged for new money in the ratio of 1 o: 1. After the exchange, the amount of money in the population decreased sharply. At the same time, the government has reduced the prices of consumer products many times. The card system was abolished, food and industrial goods appeared on open sale at retail prices. In most cases, these prices were higher than rations, but significantly lower than commercial ones. The abolition of cards improved the situation of the urban population. One of the main features of post-war life was the legalization of the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church. In July 1948, the church celebrated the 500th anniversary of self-government, and in honor of this, a meeting of representatives of local Orthodox churches was held in Moscow.

power after the war. With the transition to peaceful construction, structural changes took place in the government. In September 1945, the GKO was abolished. On March 15, 1946, the Council of People's Commissars and People's Commissariats were renamed the Council of Ministers and ministries. In March 1946, the Bureau of the Council of Ministers was created, chaired by L.P. Beria. He was also instructed to supervise the work of the internal affairs and state security agencies. Quite a strong position in the leadership held A. A. Zhdanov, who combined the duties of a member of the Politburo, Orgburo and secretary of the Central Committee of the party, but in 1948 he died. At the same time, the positions G. M. Malenkova, who had previously held a very modest position in the governing bodies. Changes in party structures were reflected in the program of the 19th Party Congress. At this congress, the party received a new name - instead of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), it began to be called Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). IN last years Stalin's life, the repressions continued. So, in 1949, a trial was organized in the “Leningrad case”. A number of leading workers, natives of Leningrad, were accused of creating an anti-Party group and of wrecking work. The chairman of the State Planning Committee of the USSR N.A. was also arrested and executed. Voznesensky. He was accused of incompetent leadership of the State Planning Commission, anti-state actions. At the end of 1952, the "doctors' case" arose. Renowned physicians who served statesmen, were accused of espionage and assassination attempts on the leaders of the country.

Ideology and culture. The ideological dictatorship, which weakened during the war years in all spheres of the country's public life, was sharply strengthened again in the postwar years. A. Dovzhenko's film "Ukraine on Fire" and L. Lukov's film "Big Life" were criticized. Dovzhenko's film was said to extol Ukrainian nationalism. The film "Big Life" told about the restoration of Donbass. Expressing his opinion about this picture, Zhdanov noted that “the Donbass that we now have is not shown, our people are not the people who are shown in the film. The people of Donbass are shown perversely in the film, as people of little culture, drunkards who do not understand anything about mechanization ... ". The films “Light over Russia” by S. Yutkevich, “The Young Guard” by S. Gerasimov and others were also criticized.

Scientific discussions. In the late 40s - early 50s. 20th century there were numerous discussions on various issues of science and culture. On the one hand, these discussions reflected the progressive development of many branches of knowledge, on the other hand, the top leadership organized them primarily with the aim of strengthening ideological control over society. The scientific discussion took place in August 1948 at the regular session of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. V. I. Lenin (VASKhNIL). This discussion led to the approval of the monopoly position of the group of Academician T. Lysenko in the field of agrobiology. Theoretical genetics with its doctrine of heredity, which had long been recognized in broad scientific circles, was destroyed. Such branches of biological science as medicine and soil science were influenced by Lysenko's theory. Cybernetics, far removed from biology, which personified the progress of science in the West, also suffered. In the USSR, both genetics and cybernetics were declared "pseudosciences". Various concepts in physics, such as Einstein's general theory of relativity and others, received a negative assessment.

Development Soviet culture

USSR in the years of perestroika.

National Policy.

By the end of the 80s. xx c. escalated sharply national question. In some union republics, friction began between the indigenous people and the Russian population. There were also clashes between representatives of different nations.

The first serious test of the strength of the state structure was the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, populated mainly by Armenians, but administratively belonging to Azerbaijan. The Armenians sought to unite with Armenia. Soon a full-scale war began here.

Similar conflicts also arose in other regions (South Ossetia, the Ferghana Valley, etc.). Because of these events, many people became refugees. The party leadership of a number of republics headed for secession from the USSR. In order to put pressure on the Center, it encouraged the performances of the nationalist-minded titular intelligentsia and students. A large demonstration of this kind took place in April 1989 in Tbilisi. During it, several people died in a stampede, the press blamed the troops for their deaths. The central government made concessions to the local authorities, but this only whetted their appetites.

The policy of "glasnost".

The policy of "glasnost" meant freedom in expressing opinions and judgments. As glasnost developed, it became increasingly difficult to control it. Increasingly frequent revelations and criticisms, more and more often, concerned not only individual shortcomings, but also the foundations of the system as a whole.

Glasnost served as an instrument of the political course of the reformers. The secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU was considered the main supporter of glasnost. A. Yakovlev, who was the initiator of holding meetings in the Central Committee with the participation of fund managers mass media. People advocating for the renewal of society were appointed to the posts of chief editors of leading journals. Such magazines printed many bold works. A large number of newspapers appeared, including tabloids, where any articles could be printed.

Glasnost also influenced art. Writers were free to publish their works. In theaters, along with classical performances, new works were staged. The same situation was in the cinema. Now directors have the opportunity to make films on almost any topic without fear of censorship.

The consequences of the policy of "glasnost" were contradictory.

Of course, people could now safely speak the truth without fear of repercussions. On the other hand, freedom quickly turned into irresponsibility and impunity.

The costs of glasnost outweighed its gains. The phenomenon of accustoming to revelations appeared, which soon captured the whole society. The most ominous compromising material no longer evoked any other reaction than squeamish fatigue and a desire to get rid of public dirt. Excessive publicity has given rise to indifference and cynicism in a society overfed with “negativity”.

GKChP and the collapse of the USSR.

The policy of perestroika, the reforms carried out in the economy, did not lead to positive results. On the contrary, since 1989 there has been a growing decline in production, both in industry and in agriculture. The situation with foodstuffs and industrial goods, including everyday items, has deteriorated sharply.

In general, the foreign policy of the USSR was unsuccessful, in which, along with Gorbachev, the Minister of Foreign Affairs played an important role E.A. Shevardnadze. True, great progress was made in relations with the leading capitalist countries, the confrontation between the USSR and the USA was sharply reduced, and the danger of a world thermonuclear war was eliminated. The process of reducing armaments began, short-range and medium range. However, the Soviet Union made significant unilateral concessions to the West. The processes of democratization initiated by Gorbachev in the countries of Eastern Europe led there to the coming to power of forces hostile to the USSR.

The desire of the republics of the USSR for independence grew.

The most acute situation has developed in the Baltic republics, whose parliaments have adopted decisions on the independence of their countries. In order to preserve in some form single state Gorbachev conceived the idea of signing a new union treaty, according to which a significant part of state powers was transferred from federal center republics. Thus, there was a threat of the collapse of the USSR.

President Gorbachev, announcing this, went to rest at his dacha in Foros (Crimea). At this time, supporters of the preservation of the USSR were preparing to declare a state of emergency in the capital. On August 18, Gorbachev was presented with the composition of the GKChP (State Committee for the State of Emergency) and offered to sign a decree on the introduction of a state of emergency in the country. Gorbachev refused.

Then the GKChP announced the inability of the president to fulfill

his duties and assigned the vice president to perform his functions G. Yanaev. The GKChP advocated the preservation of the USSR. Its members announced the termination of the activities of political parties, the closure of some newspapers.

In response to this, B.N. Yeltsin, elected President of the RSFSR in June 1991, issued a decree in which he qualified the actions of the State Emergency Committee as a coup d'etat, and its decisions were declared illegal. Soon the leaders of the State Emergency Committee were arrested, and the activities of the Communist Party were suspended.

The August events led to the acceleration of the collapse of the USSR.

Ukraine declared its independence, followed by Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. On December 8, 1991, the leaders of the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus terminated the agreement on the formation of the USSR in 1922. At the same time, the Agreement on the formation Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). It included all the former republics of the Soviet Union, with the exception of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.

The results of the restructuring.

During perestroika, a policy of "glasnost" was established. But most perestroika laws did not bring the desired results. In addition, Gorbachev did not take into account the complexity of the situation in the republics, which led to the collapse of the USSR.

CMEA and ATS.

With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic relations between the USSR and the countries of people's democracy were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR tightly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.

Since 1947, this control was exercised by the heir to the Comintern Cominform. Great importance in expanding and strengthening economic ties began to play Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), established in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, later Albania joined. The creation of the CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The objectives of the CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in the development of the economy of the member countries of the Commonwealth.

In the political field great importance had the creation in 1955 of the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD). Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants undertook, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were held, armaments and organization of troops were unified.

Yugoslavia's special path.

In Yugoslavia, the Communists, who led the anti-fascist struggle in 1945, took power. Their Croatian leader became the President of the country And Broz Tito. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a break in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin launched anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not go for military intervention.

Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued on its own path. At the enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected councils of workers. Planning from the Center was transferred to the field. Orientation to market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. In agriculture, almost half of the households were individual peasants.

The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of it. The overall leadership was carried out by the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (SKYU). Since 1952 Tito has been the chairman of the SKJ. He also served as president (for life) and chairman of the Federation Council.

Modern China.

During the 80-90s. 20th century In China, under the leadership of the Communist Party, serious reforms were carried out. They dramatically changed the face of the country. The reforms began with agriculture. Cooperatives were dissolved, each household received a plot of land on a long-term lease. In industry, enterprises were granted independence, market relations developed. Private and foreign enterprises appeared. Gradually, foreign capital began to penetrate more and more widely into China. By the end of the twentieth century. the volume of industry increased by 5 times, Chinese goods began a victorious expansion abroad, including in the United States. The population of China was provided with food, the standard of living of a significant part of it increased. Evidence of the achievements of the Chinese economy was the launch in 2003 of the first spaceship with an astronaut on board and the development of plans for a flight to the moon.

Political power in the country remained unchanged. Attempts by some students and intellectuals to launch a campaign for the liberalization of power were brutally suppressed during a speech on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989.

In foreign policy, the PRC has achieved tremendous success: Hong Kong (Xianggang) and Mokao (Aomen) were annexed. Relations with the USSR improved, then with Russia.

War in Vietnam.

After the war (1946-1954) France was forced to recognize the independence of Vietnam and withdraw its troops

Military-political blocs.

The desire of Western countries and the USSR to strengthen their positions on the world stage led to the creation of a network of military-political blocs in different regions. The largest number of them were created on the initiative and under the leadership of the United States. In 1949, the NATO bloc emerged. In 1951, the ANZUS bloc was formed (Australia, New Zealand, USA). In 1954, the NATO bloc was formed (USA, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines). In 1955, the Baghdad Pact was concluded (Great Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan, Iran), after the withdrawal of Iraq, it was called CENTO.

In 1955, the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) was formed. It included the USSR, Albania (withdrew in 1968), Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.

The main obligations of the participants in the blocs consisted in mutual assistance to each other in the event of an attack on one of the allied states. The main military confrontation unfolded between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs. Practical activities inside the blocs, it was expressed primarily in military-technical cooperation, as well as in the creation of military bases by the USA and the USSR and the deployment of their troops on the territory of the allied states on the line of confrontation between the blocs. Particularly significant forces of the parties were concentrated in the FRG and the GDR. It was also placed here a large number of American and Soviet atomic weapons.

The Cold War triggered an accelerated arms race, which was the most important area of confrontation and potential conflict between the two great powers and their allies.

War in Afghanistan.

In April 1978, a revolution took place in Afghanistan. The new leadership of the country concluded an agreement with the Soviet Union and repeatedly asked him for military aid. The USSR supplied Afghanistan with weapons and military equipment. The civil war between supporters and opponents of the new regime in Afghanistan flared up more and more. In December 1979, the USSR decided to send a limited contingent of troops to Afghanistan. The presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan was regarded by the Western powers as aggression, although the USSR acted within the framework of an agreement with the leadership of Afghanistan and sent troops at its request. Later, Soviet troops became embroiled in a civil war in Afghanistan. This negatively affected the prestige of the USSR on the world stage.

Middle East conflict.

Special place in international relations occupies the conflict in the Middle East between the State of Israel and its Arab neighbors.

International Jewish (Zionist) organizations have chosen the territory of Palestine as a center for the Jews of the whole world. In November 1947, the UN decided to create two states on the territory of Palestine: Arab and Jewish. Jerusalem stood out as an independent unit. On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed, and on May 15, the Arab Legion, which was in Jordan, opposed the Israelis. The first Arab-Israeli war began. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, troops entered Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq. The war ended in 1949. Israel occupied more than half of the territory intended for the Arab state and western part Jerusalem. Jordan received its eastern part and the western bank of the Jordan River, Egypt got the Gaza Strip. The total number of Arab refugees exceeded 900 thousand people.

Since then, the confrontation between the Jewish and Arab peoples in Palestine has remained one of the most acute problems. Armed conflicts arose repeatedly. Zionists invited Jews from all over the world to Israel for historical homeland. To accommodate them, the attack on Arab territories continued. The most extremist groups dreamed of creating a "Greater Israel" from the Nile to the Euphrates. The United States and other Western countries became Israel's ally, the USSR supported the Arabs.

In 1956 announced by the President of Egypt G. Nasser the nationalization of the Suez Canal hit the interests of England and France, who decided to restore their rights. This action was called the triple Anglo-French-Israeli aggression against Egypt. On October 30, 1956, the Israeli army suddenly crossed the Egyptian border. English and French troops landed in the canal zone. The forces were unequal. The invaders were preparing for an attack on Cairo. Only after the threat of the USSR to use atomic weapons in November 1956, hostilities were stopped, and the troops of the interventionists left Egypt.

On June 5, 1967, Israel launched military operations against the Arab states in response to the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Ya. Arafat, created in 1964 with the aim of fighting for the formation of an Arab state in Palestine and the liquidation of Israel. Israeli troops quickly advanced deep into Egypt, Syria, Jordan. All over the world there were protests and demands for an immediate end to the aggression. Hostilities stopped by the evening of 10 June. In 6 days, Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River and eastern part Jerusalem, Golan Heights in Syrian territory.

In 1973 a new war began. Arab troops acted more successfully, Egypt managed to liberate part of the Sinai Peninsula. In 1970 and 1982 Israeli troops invaded Lebanese territory.

All attempts by the UN and the great powers to achieve an end to the conflict were unsuccessful for a long time. Only in 1979, with the mediation of the United States, was it possible to sign a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Israel withdrew troops from the Sinai Peninsula, but the Palestinian problem was not solved. Since 1987, in the occupied territories of Palestine began "intifada" Arab uprising. In 1988, the creation of the State was announced

Palestine. An attempt to resolve the conflict was an agreement between the leaders of Israel and the PLO in the mid-1990s. about the creation Palestinian Authority in parts of the occupied territories.

Discharge.

Since the mid 50s. xx c. The USSR came up with initiatives for general and complete disarmament. A major step was the treaty banning nuclear tests in three environments. However, the most important steps to mitigate the international situation were made in the 70s. 20th century Both in the USA and in the USSR, there was a growing understanding that a further arms race was becoming pointless, that military spending could undermine the economy. The improvement in relations between the USSR and the West was called "detente" or "détente".

An essential milestone on the path of détente was the normalization of relations between the USSR and France and the FRG. An important point of the agreement between the USSR and the FRG was the recognition of the western borders of Poland and the border between the GDR and the FRG. During a visit to the USSR in May 1972 by US President R. Nixon, agreements were signed on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems (ABM) and the Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Arms (SALT-l). In November 1974, the USSR and the USA agreed to prepare a new agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT-2), which was signed in 1979. The agreements provided for the mutual reduction of ballistic missiles.

In August 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation of the Heads of 33 European countries, the USA and Canada was held in Helsinki. Its outcome was the Final Act of the Conference, which fixed the principles of the inviolability of borders in Europe, respect for the independence and sovereignty, territorial integrity of states, the renunciation of the use of force and the threat of its use.

At the end of the 70s. xx c. reduced tension in Asia. The SEATO and CENTO blocs ceased to exist. However, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, conflicts in other parts of the world in the early 80s of the twentieth century. again led to an intensification of the arms race and increased tension.

Modern Russia

therapy." E. T. Gaidar, who received the post of Deputy Prime Minister in the new government, became the ideologist and main conductor of this policy.

The ideologues of the reforms believed that the market itself, without the help of the state, would create an optimal structure economic development. IN public consciousness there was a false idea about the inadmissibility of state intervention in economic life. However, it was obvious to serious experts in the field of economics that in the conditions of systemic transformations, the role of the state as the organizer of transformations, on the contrary, should have been steadily increasing. The factors complicating the reforms were the disintegration of the national economic complex of the former USSR.

The position of the West also gave confidence to the team of reformers. The government was counting on receiving large loans from international financial institutions - International Monetary Fund(IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).

The program to stabilize the economy consisted in the introduction of free trade, price release, privatization state property. Since the beginning of January 1992, prices for most goods have been released. In order to balance the budget, the government has gone to a sharp reduction in the most important government programs. State funding for the army dropped sharply, the state defense order dropped to a dangerous level, which brought the most high-tech industries to the brink of collapse. Social spending has fallen to extremely low levels.

The unbridled rise in prices and the ensuing impoverishment of a significant part of the population forced in the spring of 1992 to increase wages in public sector. Inflation began to rise uncontrollably.

The results of privatization.

The decline in production and technological backwardness assumed dangerous proportions. Domestic producers lost control over 50% of the national market, which was occupied by cheap imported goods.

Instead of the planned social modernization of society, as a result of which the alienation of the individual from property would have been removed, privatization led to a deep division in society. Only 5% of the country's population received economic power. The leading place among them was occupied by representatives of the bureaucratic apparatus, who controlled privatization. At bargain prices, the country's wealth was also bought by representatives of the "shadow" economy and crime.

The decline in the social protection of Russian citizens has led to serious demographic consequences in society. The population decline in Russia now reaches about 1 million people every year.

By 1996, the volume of industry had halved compared to 1991. Only the sale of raw materials abroad made it possible to maintain the economy and social stability in the country. However, the government managed to somewhat stabilize the financial situation and stop the fall of the ruble. In 1997 - 1998 the decline in production has slowed down, in some industries there has been a revival.

However, on August 17, 1998, a financial crisis occurred, which caused a multiple fall in the ruble exchange rate. The result of the crisis was a further deterioration of life. However, the crisis had positive consequences. The import of industrial and food products from abroad decreased, which contributed to the growth of domestic production. An additional favorable factor was the high oil prices established in the world market during this period. Therefore, in 1999 - 2004. there was a rise in industry and agriculture. However, economic growth remains unstable and highly controversial.

At the turn of the XXI century.

The results of the 1999-2000 elections changed the situation in Russia in many respects. A pro-presidential majority formed in the Duma, which made it possible to adopt a number of important laws.

The government continued to carry out reforms. It was recognized that the key to their success is the presence of a strong state power. President Vladimir Putin has taken a number of steps in this direction. Seven federal districts to which presidential plenipotentiaries are appointed. The legislation of the republics, territories, regions is being brought into line with federal laws. A new procedure for the formation of the first chamber has been established Federal Assembly- Federation Council. It no longer consists of chapters, but of representatives of the regions. A law on parties has been adopted, designed to enhance their role and responsibility in the life of society. The approval by the Duma in December 2000 of the emblem, anthem and flag of Russia was intended to consolidate society. They combine Symbols of pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern Russia. The population supported Putin's policy. In the 2003 parliamentary elections, the pro-presidential party " United Russia". In March 2004, Putin was elected President of the Russian Federation for the second time.

Tax, judicial, pension, military and other reforms are being carried out. The issue of the turnover of agricultural and other lands has been resolved. At the beginning of the XXI century. continued growth of the Russian economy. However, this growth remains highly dependent on the remaining high world oil prices.

Terrorism remains a real threat to Russia, as to many other countries. For Russia, this threat is largely connected with the tense situation in Chechnya. The seriousness of the problem is evidenced by the hostage-taking in October 2002, the explosions in the summer of 2003 and in the winter of 2004 in Moscow. Along with military measures in Chechnya, measures are being taken to establish a peaceful life there, to create governing bodies. In a referendum in 2003, the population of Chechnya adopted a constitution that establishes the foundations of the republic's statehood and secures its being part of Russia. The presidential elections in Chechnya are over.

Joint confrontation international terrorism contributed to the development of Russia's relations with the United States, NATO. However, the actions of the United States, aimed at strengthening its hegemony in the world, undermining the role of the UN and international law, raised objections Russian leadership. On this basis, Russia's ties with France were strengthened.

The post-war world did not become more durable. In a short time, relations between the USSR and its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition deteriorated significantly. More and more metaphor has been used to characterize them. "coldwar", which appeared for the first time on the pages of the English magazine "Tribune" in the autumn of 1945 in the international commentary of the famous writer J. Orwell. Later, this term was used in the spring of 1946 in one of his public speeches by the prominent American banker and politician B. Baruch. At the end of 1946, the influential American publicist W. Lippman published a book, the title of which was these two words.

However, the "declaration", or proclamation, of the "cold war" is traditionally historical fact: W. Churchill's speech (March 1946) in Fulton (Missouri) in the presence of US President G. Truman about the "Iron Curtain" and the Soviet threat, as well as the promulgation of the "Truman Doctrine" (March 1947) - the American foreign policy concept , which proclaimed the main task facing the United States to counter communism and its "containment". The post-war world split into two antagonistic blocs, and the Cold War entered its active phase in the summer of 1947, eventually leading to the formation of opposing military-political blocs.

Each side made its own specific contribution to the post-war confrontation. The West was frightened by the increased military power of the Soviet Union, the unpredictability of Stalin's actions, and the increasingly insistent promotion of communist influence in the countries of Eastern Europe and Asia. During 1945-1948. a number of Eastern European countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, the eastern part of the dismembered Germany) were drawn into the orbit of Soviet influence, in which, under pressure from the USSR, coalitions were first formed, with the decisive influence of the communist parties, and then purely communist in government.

At the end of September 1947, under pressure from the Stalinist leadership, the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties (Cominformburo) was created from representatives of six communist parties in Eastern Europe and the two largest Western European communist parties (France and Italy), with headquarters in Belgrade. This body contributed to the increased pressure of the USSR on the countries of the so-called "people's democracy" along with the presence of Soviet troops on the territory of some of these countries and the treaties of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance concluded with them. Established in 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), headquartered in Moscow, tied the economically countries of "people's democracy" to the USSR even more, because. the latter were forced, according to the Soviet scenario, to carry out all the necessary transformations in culture, agriculture and industry, relying solely on Soviet, not entirely positive experience.

In Asia, North Vietnam, North Korea and China were drawn into the orbit of Soviet influence during the period under review after the peoples of these countries were able to win the national liberation wars led by the communists.

The influence of the USSR on the domestic and foreign policy of the Eastern European countries, despite all the efforts made by Stalin, was not unconditional. Not all leaders of communist parties here have become obedient puppets. The independence and certain ambition of the leader of the Yugoslav communists, I. Tito, his desire to create a Balkan federation with Yugoslavia in the lead, caused discontent and suspicion of I. V. Stalin. In 1948, the Soviet-Yugoslav crisis arose and soon escalated sharply, which led to the condemnation of the actions of the Yugoslav leaders by the Cominformburo. Despite this, the Yugoslav communists retained the unity of their ranks and followed I. Tito. Economic relations with the USSR and Eastern European countries were severed. Yugoslavia found itself in an economic blockade and was forced to turn to the capitalist countries for help. The peak of the Soviet-Yugoslav confrontation was the rupture of diplomatic relations between the two countries on October 25, 1949. The consequence of this rupture and the desire to achieve unity in the communist movement were two waves of purges of communists accused of "Titoism". During the period 1948-1949. were repressed in Poland - V. Gomulka, M. Spychalsky, 3. Klishko; in Hungary L. Raik and J. Kadar (the first was executed, the second was sentenced to life imprisonment), in Bulgaria T. Kostov was executed, in Albania - K. Dzodze and many others. In 1950-1951. Practically in all Eastern European countries trials against "Yugoslav spies" took place. One of the latest in time was the trial in Prague in November 1952 against the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia R. Slansky and thirteen prominent Czechoslovak communists, the vast majority of whom were executed after the end of the trial. Demonstrative political trials, as in their time of the same kind of "events" that took place in the late 1930s. in the USSR, were supposed to frighten all those dissatisfied with the policy pursued by the Soviet Union in relation to the countries of "people's democracy" and consolidate the only path already paved by the USSR to the so-called. "socialism".

Despite the rather serious influence of the Communists in a number of Western European countries (in the first post-war years, their representatives were part of the governments of France, Italy, etc.), the authority of the Western European Communist Parties declined in Europe after the adoption of the Marshall Plan, named after the US Secretary of State J. Marshall - one of the "fathers" of the idea of American economic assistance to the post-war reconstruction of Europe. The Soviet government not only itself refused to participate in this plan, but also influenced the corresponding decisions of the Eastern European countries, including Czechoslovakia and Poland, which initially managed to express their readiness to participate in it.

After that, 16 Western European countries became participants in the Marshall Plan. The division of Europe into two hostile camps completed the creation in April 1949 of the North Atlantic Pact (NATO), which by 1953 united 14 European states under the auspices of the United States. The creation of this military-political bloc was largely facilitated by the events associated with the blockade of West Berlin by the Soviet side in the summer of 1948. The OPTA were forced to organize an "air bridge" that supplied the city for about a year. Only in May 1949 was the Soviet blockade lifted. However, the actions of the West and the intransigence of the USSR ultimately led to the creation in 1949 of two countries on German soil: on May 23 the Federal Republic of Germany and on October 7 the German Democratic Republic.

Late 1940s - early 1950s were the culmination of the Cold War. In September 1949, the USSR tested the first Soviet atomic bomb, the creation of which is associated with the name of the outstanding Soviet scientist I. V. Kurchatov. The most serious international problem for the USSR was the war of North Korea against the pro-American regime of South Korea (1950-1953) unleashed with the direct consent of Stalin. It cost the lives of several million Koreans, Chinese and other peoples who took part in this largest conflict since the Second World War. The question of Germany's integration into the Western political system and its cooperation with NATO was of great difficulty.

The death of I. V. Stalin, which happened at the height of the Cold War, contributed to a decrease in tension in international relations, although it did not remove the question of the further continuation of the struggle between the United States and its allies, on the one hand, and the USSR, the vanguard of the so-called commonwealth. "socialist" states of Europe and Asia, on the other hand, for world domination.

Test yourself

The division of Germany into two states took place: 1) in 1945; 2) in 1948; 3) in 1949; 4) in 1953?

Which of these writers was subjected to particularly sharp criticism from the authorities in 1946-1953: 1) A. Akhmatova; 2) M. Sholokhov; 3) M. Zoshchenko; 4) K. Simonov?

Which of the named events, phenomena relate to the concept of "cold war": 1) the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact; 2) political confrontation between the USSR and the USA; 3) the Soviet-Yugoslav conflict of 1948-1953; 4) the war in Korea in 1950-1953?

Name the main political repressive campaigns of the post-war period: 1) "the case of the Industrial Party"; 2) "Leningrad case"; 3) "Tukhachevsky trial"; 4) "the case of doctors."

A country's economy

Politic system

Spiritual education

Post-war world order

part of East Prussia Klaipeda region Transcarpathian Ukraine

Has changed. were defeated and lost the role of the great powers - aggressor countries - Germany and Japan, much . In the same time US influence has risen

Led by the USSR.

The war put gained independence

Sharp the rise of the communists

During the World War 1945 took place in San Francisco

cold war Dulles

Basis of confrontation USSR and USA Churchill 1946

USA and USSR.

In Western Europe in 1949

Soviet Union also conducts confrontational policy

Asian Civil War in China

The final collapse of the "world

European countries were invited

A country's economy

damage

In March 1946 The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted fourth five year plan

The reform made it possible abolish the card system government loans countries.

well

Under construction industrial giants

Quickly created Atomic industry. IN 1948 commissioned in the Urals plant "Mayak" nuclear center .

unfolded arms race

complex position was in agriculture

By the end of the fourth five-year period

purchase prices increased reduced tax on collective farmers

February-March

Politic system

These ideas were incorporated into

In countries capitalist bloc company unfolded anti-Sovietism

50s McCarthy period

The apogee of McCarthyism was

With the start of the Cold War sharply tightened the domestic policy of the USSR. The situation of a "military camp", a "besieged fortress" demanded, along with the struggle against an external enemy, the presence of an "internal enemy", an "agent of world imperialism".

In the second half of the 40s. resumed repression against enemies Soviet power. The largest was Leningrad case "(1948 d.), when such prominent figures as the chairman of the State Planning Commission N. Voznesensky, the secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU A. Kuznetsov, the Presovmina RSFSR M. Rodionov, the head of the Leningrad party organization P. Popkov and others were arrested and secretly shot.

When after the war State of Israel established, there began a mass migration of Jews from all over the world. In 1948, the arrests of representatives of the Jewish intelligentsia began in the USSR, struggle against "rootless cosmopolitanism". In January 1953 a group of doctors of the Kremlin hospital, Jews by nationality, were accused of having killed, through improper treatment, the secretaries of the Central Committee Zhdanov and Shcherbakov and were preparing the assassination of Stalin. These doctors allegedly acted on instructions from international Zionist organizations.

Post-war repressions did not reach the scale of the 1930s, there were no high-profile show trials, but they were quite wide. It should be borne in mind that only in national formations from among the peoples of the USSR during the war years, from 1.2 to 1.6 million people fought on the side of Nazi Germany. So a large number of those repressed for collaborating with the enemy is understandable. Were ex-prisoners of war repressed(by order of the Commander-in-Chief Stalin, all those captured fell into the category of traitors to the Motherland). The war and the difficult post-war situation in the country also led to a colossal increase in crime. In general, by January 1953, the Gulag contained 2,468,543 prisoners.

After the death of I. Stalin, a collective leadership was created country and party. G. Malenkov became Chairman of the Council of Ministers, his deputies L. Beria, V. Molotov, N. Bulganin, L. Kaganovich. K. Voroshilo became Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in a post Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU was occupied by N.S. Khrushchev. Domestic policy softening began. Immediately, on April 4, 1953, rehabilitation in the case of doctors". People from camps and exiles began to return.

In July In 1953, the plenum of the Central Committee discussed the “Beria case”. L. Beria led the security and internal affairs agencies, was the direct leader of the repressions. On charges of "collaboration with imperialist intelligence" and "conspiracy to restore the rule of the bourgeoisie." L. Beria and six of his closest associates were sentenced to death.

After the execution of L. Beria began mass rehabilitation of convicts for political crimes. The press begins the first timid criticism of the "cult of personality", but the name of I. Stalin is not mentioned yet. A period begins, which went down in history under the name " thaw».

Revision of the "Leningrad case""undermined the positions of G. Malenkov. In February 1955 he was dismissed from the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, this post was appointed N. Bulganin. This led to a change in the balance of power at the top - to the first positions advanced N.S. Khrushchev.

A country's economy

Politic system

Spiritual education

Post-war world order

As a result of World War II changed the balance of power in the world. Winning countries in the first place Soviet Union, increased their territories at the expense of the defeated states. The Soviet Union went to a large part of East Prussia with the city of Koenigsberg (now Kaliningrad region Russian Federation), the Lithuanian SSR received the territory Klaipeda region, territories were ceded to the Ukrainian SSR Transcarpathian Ukraine. On Far East, in accordance with the agreements reached at the Crimean Conference, the Soviet Union was South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands returned(including the four southern islands that were not previously part of Russia). Czechoslovakia and Poland increased their territory at the expense of the German lands.

Has changed the situation inside Western world . were defeated and lost the role of the great powers - aggressor countries - Germany and Japan, much weakened the position of England and France. In the same time US influence has risen which controlled about 80% of the gold reserves of the capitalist world, they accounted for 46% of world industrial production.

A feature of the post-war period was people's democratic (socialist) revolutions in the countries of Eastern Europe and a number of Asian countries who, with the support of the USSR, began to build socialism. Formed world system socialism led by the USSR.

The war put the beginning of the collapse and the colonial system imperialism. As a result of the national liberation movement gained independence such major countries, How India, Indonesia, Burma, Pakistan, Ceylon, Egypt. A number of them took the path of a socialist orientation. In total for the post-war decade 25 states gained independence, 1200 million people were freed from colonial dependence.

There was a shift to the left in the political spectrum of the capitalist countries of Europe. Fascist and right-wing parties left the stage. Sharp the rise of the communists. In 1945–1947 communists were part of the governments of France, Italy, Belgium, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Finland.

During the World War formed a united anti-fascist coalition- an alliance of great powers - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. The presence of a common enemy helped to overcome differences between the capitalist countries and socialist Russia, to find compromises. April-June 1945 took place in San Francisco founding conferences of the United Nations, which included representatives of 50 countries. The UN Charter reflected the principles of peaceful coexistence of states of different socio-economic systems, the principles of sovereignty and equality of all countries of the world.

However, World War II was replaced by " cold war' is a war without fighting. The term "cold war" was coined by US Secretary of State D.F. Dulles. Its essence is a political, economic, ideological confrontation between the two socio-economic systems of socialism and capitalism, balancing on the brink of war.

Basis of confrontation relations between the two superpowers USSR and USA. The beginning of the Cold War is usually dated by the speech of W. Churchill in the US city of Fulton in March 1946., in which he called on the people of the United States to unite in the fight against Soviet Russia and its agents, the communist parties.

The ideological justification for the Cold War was US President Truman Doctrine, put forward by him in 1947. According to the doctrine, the conflict between capitalism and communism is insoluble. The mission of the United States is the fight against communism all over the world, "containment of communism", "rejection of communism into the borders of the USSR". proclaimed American responsibility for events taking place around the world e, which were viewed through the prism opposition of capitalism to communism, USA and USSR.

The Soviet Union began to encircle network of American military bases. In 1948, the first bombers with atomic weapons aimed at the USSR were deployed in Great Britain and West Germany. The capitalist countries are beginning to create military-political blocs directed against the USSR.

In Western Europe in 1949 NATO's North Atlantic bloc is created. It included: USA, England, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Holland, Greece and Turkey. In Southeast Asia in 1954 the SEATO bloc is created, in 1955 the Baghdad Pact. The military potential of Germany is being restored. IN 1949 in violation of the Yalta and Potsdam agreements, from the three zones of occupation - British, American and French - was Federal Republic of Germany established, which in the same year joined NATO.

Soviet Union also conducts confrontational policy. In 1945, Stalin demanded the creation of a system of joint defense of the Black Sea straits of the USSR and Turkey, the establishment of joint guardianship by the allies of the colonial possessions of Italy in Africa (at the same time, the USSR planned to provide a naval base in Libya).

The confrontation between the capitalist and socialist camps is escalating and Asian continent. Since 1946 began civil war in china. The troops of the Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai-shek tried to occupy the territories controlled by the communists. The capitalist countries supported Chiang Kai-shek, and the Soviet Union supported the communists, giving them a significant amount of captured Japanese weapons.

The final collapse of the "world» into two warring socio-economic systems is associated with promotion to 1947 United States "Marshall Plan"”(named after the US Secretary of State) and the sharply negative attitude of the USSR towards him.

European countries were invited help to restore the destroyed economy. Loans were given to buy American goods. The Marshall Plan was accepted by 16 states of Western Europe. The political condition for the aid was removal of communists from governments. In 1947, the Communists were withdrawn from the governments of Western European countries. Assistance was also offered to Eastern European countries. Poland and Czechoslovakia began negotiations, but under the influence of the USSR they refused to help.

As opposed to the bloc of capitalist countries an economic and military-political union of socialist countries began to form. IN 1949 The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established- body of economic cooperation of the socialist states; in May 1955 - Warsaw military-political bloc.

After the adoption of the Marshall Plan in Western Europe and the formation of the CMEA in Eastern Europe two parallel world markets have developed.

A country's economy

The Soviet Union ended the war with huge losses. On the fronts, in the occupied territory, in captivity more than 27 million Soviet citizens died. 1710 cities, over 70 thousand villages and villages, 32 thousand industrial enterprises were destroyed. Straight damage, inflicted by the war, exceeded 30% of national wealth.

In March 1946 The Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted fourth five year plan economic development. It was planned not only to restore the national economy, but also to surpass the pre-war level of industrial production by 48%. It was planned to invest 250 billion rubles in the national economy. (the same as for the three pre-war five-year plans).

During the war years, the entire economy was rebuilt on a war footing, the production of consumer goods was actually stopped. A huge mass of money, not backed by goods, has accumulated in the hands of the population. To relieve the pressure of this mass on the market, in 1947, the currency reform was carried out. The money that was in the hands of the population was exchanged at a ratio of 10:1.

The reform made it possible abolish the card system introduced during the war years. As in the 1930s, government loans at the population. These were harsh measures, but they allowed improve financial position countries.

The restoration of the destroyed industry proceeded at a rapid pace.

In 1946, there is a certain decline associated with conversion, and with 1947 a steady rise begins.

IN 1948 pre-war industrial production was surpassed, and by the end of the five-year plan it exceeded the level of 1940. The growth was 70%, instead of the planned 48%.

This was achieved by resuming production in the territories liberated from fascist occupation. The restored factories were equipped with equipment manufactured in German factories and supplied as reparations. In total, 3,200 enterprises were restored and re-launched in the western regions. They produced peaceful products, while defense enterprises remained where they were evacuated - in the Urals and Siberia.

After the war, the Soviet government continued well, begun in the years of the first five-year plans to increase the industrial power of the country, which is the main factor in the existence of the state in the face of a fierce confrontation between socialism and capitalism.

Under construction industrial giants: Kaluga Turbine, Minsk Tractor, Ust-Kamenogorsk Lead-Zinc Plant, etc. State reserves at the beginning of 1953 increased compared to the pre-war level: non-ferrous metals - 10 times; oil products - 3.3 times; coal - 5.1 times.

The Baltic Republics, Moldova, the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus, which became part of the USSR on the eve of the war, transformed from agricultural to industrial.

Quickly created Atomic industry. IN 1948 commissioned in the Urals plant "Mayak"(Chelyabinsk-40), it was built first domestic nuclear reactors- converters for plutonium production. Plant "Mayak" became the first nuclear center countries. It was here that the first kilograms of plutonium -239 were obtained, from which the charges of the first atomic bombs were made. Parallel to the development of the production of atomic weapons, formation of the rocket industry.

unfolded arms race, a tough confrontation between capitalism and socialism, the restoration of the destroyed national economy of the USSR required, first of all, colossal funds for the development of the industry hence, in the post-war years, much less funds were directed to the development of light and food industries - production consumer goods grew slowly, there was a shortage of essentials.

complex position was in agriculture. Of the total amount of appropriations in the fourth five-year plan, only 7% was directed to its development. As in the years of the first five-year plans, the main burden of the restoration and further industrialization of the country fell on the countryside. The state was forced to develop the industry withdraw in the form of taxes and mandatory deliveries over 50% of the products of collective farms and state farms. Purchasing prices for agricultural products have not changed since 1928, while for industrial products they have grown 20 times during this time. In terms of workdays, the collective farmer received less per year than the worker earned per month.

At the end of the 40s. household plots were heavily taxed. The peasants began to get rid of livestock, cut down fruit trees, as they could not afford to pay taxes. The peasants could not leave the village because they did not have passports. However, the rural population accelerated development industry was declining - peasants were recruited for construction, factories, logging. In 1950, the rural population was halved compared to 1940.

By the end of the fourth five-year period In the cities there has been a rise in the standard of living of the population. Prices have been lowered every year. By 1950 the real wage reached the level of 1940.

The restored industry made it possible to obtain funds for the development of agriculture. IN 1953 tax reform was carried out and halved taxes from personal plots. The tax was levied only on land, not on livestock and trees. In September 1953 Plenum of the Central Committee dedicated to the development of agriculture, after which there were significantly (by 3–6 times) purchase prices increased for agricultural products and 2.5 times reduced tax on collective farmers. State reserves of grain increased four times compared to the pre-war level.

February-March In 1954, a program for the development of virgin and fallow lands was adopted. More than 500,000 volunteers (mainly young people) went to Siberia and Kazakhstan to introduce additional land into circulation. In the eastern regions it was over 400 new state farms created. The share of grain harvest on newly developed lands amounted to 27% of the all-Union harvest.

Politic system

Second World War ended with the victory of the United States, Britain, France, who acted in alliance with the USSR against the fascist governments of Germany, Italy and Japan. The defeat of fascism created prerequisites for a sustainable world order. These ideas were incorporated into UN Charter, adopted June 26, 1946 year at a conference in San Francisco.

However, these ideas have not been fully implemented. The reasons are in the Cold War, the split of the world into two opposing socio-political camps.

In countries capitalist bloc company unfolded anti-Sovietism, held under the flag of the fight against the "Soviet military threat", with the desire of the USSR to "export the revolution" to other countries of the world. Under the pretext of combating "subversive communist activities", a campaign against communist parties, who were portrayed as "agents of Moscow", "an alien body in the system of Western democracy." IN 1947 communists were removed from governments France, Italy and several other countries. In England and the United States, a ban was introduced for communists to hold positions in the army in the state apparatus, mass layoffs were carried out. In Germany, the Communist Party was banned.

The "witch hunt" took on a special scope in the United States in the first half of
50s, entered the history of this country as McCarthy period, named after Republican Senator D. McCarthy from Wisconsin. He ran for the presidency of Democrat Truman. H. Truman himself pursued a fairly anti-democratic policy, but the McCarthyists carried it to ugly extremes. G. Truman launched a "loyalty test" of government employees, and the McCarthyists passed the Internal Security Act, which created a special department for the control of subversive activities, whose task was to identify and register organizations of "communist action" in order to deprive them of civil rights. G. Truman gave order to try the leaders of the Communist Party as foreign agents, and the McCarthyists passed the Immigration Restriction Act in 1952, blocking entry to the country for people who collaborated with leftist organizations. After the victory of the Republicans in the elections in 1952 saw the rise of McCarthyism. Under Congress, commissions were created to investigate un-American activities, to which any citizen could be called. On the recommendation of the commission, any worker or employee instantly lost his job.

The apogee of McCarthyism was 1954 law on the control of communists. The Communist Party was deprived of all rights and guarantees, membership in it was declared a crime and punishable by a fine of up to 10 thousand dollars and imprisonment for up to 5 years. A number of provisions of the law had an anti-trade union orientation, classifying trade unions as subversive organizations "into which the communists penetrated."

The post-war structure of the world - the creation of a socialist system. Start of the Cold War

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Political principles for dealing with Germany

Signing of an agreement on reparations

What are the causes of the Cold War?

How was the geopolitical situation at that moment?

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Nationalization of enterprises and democratization of industrial relations

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The post-war structure of the world - the creation of a socialist system. Start of the Cold War

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Political principles for dealing with Germany

Signing of an agreement on reparations

What are the causes of the Cold War?

How was the geopolitical situation at that moment?

The consequences of the defeat of the fascist states

Nationalization of enterprises and democratization of industrial relations

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