World culture of the 19th and 20th centuries. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

19th century became for the culture of Russia a period of its unprecedented rise. The Patriotic War of 1812, having stirred up the whole life of Russian society, accelerated the folding national consciousness. On the one hand, it once again brought Russia closer to the West, and on the other hand, it accelerated the formation of Russian culture as one of the European cultures, closely connected with the Western European currents of social thought and artistic culture, and exerting its own influence on it.

Western philosophical and political teachings were assimilated Russian society in relation to Russian reality. The memory of the French Revolution was still fresh. Revolutionary romanticism, brought to Russian soil, caused close attention to the problems of the state and social structure, the issue of serfdom, and so on. A key role in the ideological disputes of the XIX century. played the question of the historical path of Russia and its relationship with Europe and Western European culture. This question was first asked by P.A. Chaadaev, later he led to the ideological delimitation of Westerners and Slavophiles among the Russian intelligentsia. Westerners (T.M. Granovsky, S.M. Solovyov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin) perceived Russia as part of European society and advocated the development of the country along the European path, for liberal reforms in the social and political structure . Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, P.V. and I.V. Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin) were in more difficult attitude to European culture. They were brought up on German classical philosophy, in particular on the philosophy of Hegel with his idea of ​​a national spirit. Based on this premise, the Slavophils emphasized the original path of development of Russia, different from the Western one, pointed to the national character of culture, and fought against an uncritical attitude towards foreign influences (A.S. Khomyakov).

Since the 40s. under the influence of Western utopian socialism, revolutionary democracy begins to develop in Russia.

All these phenomena in the social thought of the country largely determined the development of the artistic culture of Russia in the 19th century, and above all, its close attention to social problems, publicism.

19th century rightly called the "golden age" of Russian literature, the era when Russian literature not only acquires its own identity, but, in turn, has a serious impact on world culture.

In the first decades of the XIX century. in literature, there is a noticeable departure from the educational ideology, a predominant attention to the person and his inner world, feelings. These changes were associated with the spread of the aesthetics of romanticism, which involved the creation of a generalized ideal image, opposed to reality, the assertion of a strong, free personality, neglecting the conventions of society. Often the ideal was seen in the past, which caused an increased interest in national history. The emergence of romanticism in Russian literature is associated with the ballads and elegies of V.A. Zhukovsky; the works of the Decembrist poets, as well as the early works of A.S. Pushkin brought to him the ideals of the struggle for the "oppressed freedom of man", the spiritual liberation of the individual. The Romantic movement laid the foundations of the Russian historical novel (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), as well as the tradition of literary translation. Romantic poets first introduced the Russian reader to the works of Western European and ancient authors. V.A. Zhukovsky was a translator of the works of Homer, Byron, Schiller. We still read the Iliad translated by N.I. Gnedich.

In 1830-50s. The development of literature was associated with a gradual movement from romanticism to realism, the correlation depicted in a literary work with "life truth". This transitional period was one of the periods of the rise of Russian literature, marked by the work of A.S. Pushkin - the creator of the norms of modern Russian literary language classic examples of all literary genres: lyrical and epic poetry, novel, story and short story, as well as M.Yu. Lermontov and N.V. Gogol.

The critical realism that formed in Russian literature was distinguished by an increased interest in social issues related to sharp conflicts in Russian society. This was especially characteristic of the authors of the "natural school" - I.A. Goncharova, N.A. Nekrasov, early works of I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Ostrovsky. One of the features of the natural school was attention to the fate of the "Little Man" (Gogol, Dostoevsky, Nekrasov), the life of a serf (essays by V.I. Dahl, "Notes of a Hunter" by I.S. Turgenev), the world of Russian merchants (A.N. Ostrovsky).

In the post-reform era of the 1860-70s. these tendencies persisted, and the ideological conflicts of the time were reflected in the literary works of that era. At this time, the heyday of the Russian classical novel falls. At this time they create their the best works I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy. In their writings, the attention to social conflicts characteristic of critical realism was enriched, and sometimes relegated to the background, by deep psychologism and philosophical generalizations concerning the fate of Russia and Western culture, their relationship, the search for spiritual support in Christianity (Orthodoxy or its own interpretation, like Tolstoy ). Being the pinnacle of the achievements of Russian literature of the 19th century, these works also influenced the development of world culture, becoming an integral part of it.

End of the 19th century witnessed the "theatrical revolution" of K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, who created the Moscow Art Theater in 1898. The essence of the "revolution" was the rejection of the system of the manner of the game, false pathos, recitation, conventions of staging. The Moscow Art Theater organically combined the best traditions of the Russian theater of the 19th century. and new ideas that implied the creation of an acting ensemble, increased requirements for penetration into the psychology of the characters.

In the first half of the XIX century. the birth of a national music school. In the first decades of the XIX century. dominated by romantic tendencies, manifested in the work of A.N. Verstovsky, who used historical subjects in his work. The founder of the Russian musical school was M.I. Glinka, the creator of the main musical genres: operas ("Ivan Susanin", "Ruslan and Lyudmila"), symphonies, romance, who actively used folklore motifs in his work. An innovator in the field of music was A.S. Dargomyzhsky, author of the opera-ballet "The Triumph of Bacchus" and the creator of recitative in the opera. His music was closely connected with the work of the composers of the "Mighty Handful" - M.P. Mussorgsky, M.A. Balakireva, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, who aspired to embody in their works "life, no matter where it affects", actively turning to historical plots and folklore motifs. Their work established the genre of musical drama. "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Snow Maiden" and "The Tsar's Bride" by Rimsky-Korsakov are the pride of Russian and world art.

A special place in Russian music is occupied by P.I. Tchaikovsky, who embodied in his works the inner drama and attention to the inner world of a person, characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century, to which the composer often turned (the operas Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Mazepa).

In the first half of the XIX century. classical ballet and French choreographers (A. Blache, A. Tityus) dominated. The second half of the century is the birth of classical Russian ballet. Its pinnacle was the production of ballets by P.I. Tchaikovsky ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty") by the St. Petersburg choreographer M.I. Petipa.

The influence of romanticism in painting manifested itself primarily in the portrait. The works of O.A. Kiprensky and V.A. Tropinin, far from civic pathos, asserted the naturalness and freedom of human feelings. The idea of ​​the romantics about man as a hero historical drama embodied in the canvases of K.P. Bryullov ("The Last Day of Pompeii"), A.A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People"). The attention to national, folk motives characteristic of romanticism was manifested in the images of peasant life created by A.G. Venetsianov and painters of his school. The art of landscape is also experiencing a rise (S.F. Shchedrin, M.I. Lebedev, Ivanov). By the middle of the XIX century. genre painting comes to the fore. Canvases by P.A. Fedotov, addressed to events in the life of peasants, soldiers, petty officials, demonstrate attention to social problems, a close connection between painting and literature.

The turn of the XIX - XX centuries - the period of a new take-off of Russian culture, This is the time of rethinking the traditions and values ​​​​of Russian and world culture XIX V. It is filled with religious and philosophical quests, rethinking the role creative activity artist, its genres and forms. During this period, the thinking of artists is freed from politicization, the unconscious, irrational in man, boundless subjectivism comes to the fore. The "Silver Age" was a time of artistic discoveries and new directions.

Since the 90s. in the literature, a direction called symbolism begins to take shape (K.D. Balmont, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.Ya. Bryusov, F.K. Sollogub, A. Bely, A.A. Blok). Rebelling against critical realism, the symbolists put forward the principle of intuitive comprehension of the spiritual basis of being, attention to symbols (through which it is revealed). The new principles of the work of the Symbolists were the versatility, and consequently, the ambiguity and understatement of the images, the vagueness and indefinite main idea of ​​the work. On the other hand, symbolism enriched the expressive means of poetic language and formed an idea of ​​the intuitive nature of art. The work of the Symbolists was greatly influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. Already by 1909, symbolism as a trend was practically disintegrating.

The trend of acmeism that arose in 1912 (N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Kuzmin), in contrast to irrational symbolism, demanded clarity and harmony from art , asserted the inherent value of the phenomena of life and the ideal of a "strong personality" in its Nietzsche interpretation.

Another influential trend in literature and aesthetics was futurism (D.D. Burliuk, V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh). The Futurists proclaimed the rejection of traditions, they perceived the word not as a means, but as an independent organism, developing thanks to the activity of the poet and having no connection with reality.

Along with new trends, traditional realism continued to develop (A.P. Chekhov, A.I. Kuprin, I.A. Bunin).

At the beginning of the 20th century Russian avant-garde (V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Filonov, M. Chagall) becomes a noticeable phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world culture. One of the goals of the avant-garde was to create a new art that would reveal the realm of the impulsive and the subconscious. K. Malevich was one of the theorists of Suprematism, who argued (under the influence of the ideas of Schopenhauer and A. Bergson) that the world is based on some kind of excitement, "anxiety" that controls the states of nature and the artist himself. It was this "excitation" that the artist had to comprehend in his own inner world and convey with the help of painting (without giving it any objective expression).

In Russian painting at the beginning of the 20th century. the influence of impressionism is also noticeable (V. Serov, K. Korovin, I. Grabar).

The theater did not remain aloof from the influence of symbolism. The search for a new stage art gave Russian and world culture the conventional theater of V.E. Meyerhold (Komissarzhevskaya Theatre, Alexandrinsky Theatre), Chamber Theater A.Ya. Tairov, E. Vakhtangov Studio.

In the music of the modern era, which was influenced by late romanticism, attention was paid to the inner experiences of a person, his emotions, lyricism and refinement, characteristic of the works of S.I. Taneeva, A.N. Scriabin, A.K. Glazunova, S.V. Rachmaninov.

In the era of modernity, cinema takes its place in Russian culture. The first screenings took place in 1896, and by 1914 there were already about 30 firms operating in Russia that released more than 300 films. In the cinema of the early 20th century. psychological realism was affirmed, close to the traditions of Russian literature (The Queen of Spades, Father Sergius by Ya.P. Protazanov).The stars of silent films were VV Kholodnaya, II Mozzhukhin.

Russian artistic culture of the early XX century. was more than ever open to the West, sensitively reacting to new trends in philosophy and aesthetics and at the same time opening up to European society. The "Russian Seasons" in Paris, organized by Diaghilev, played a huge role here. Since 1906 S. Diaghilev introduced the Parisian society to the achievements of Russian artistic culture by organizing an exhibition dedicated to the history of Russian art, Russian music (from Glinka to Rachmaninov) - by organizing concerts and staging opera performances with the best Russian conductors and singers (Chaliapin, Sobinov, etc.) . The seasons of Russian ballet began in 1909, which opened for both Russia and Europe the productions of M. Fokine ("The Firebird" and "Petrushka" by I.F. Stravinsky), in which A. Pavlova, T. Karsavina, V Nijinsky, M. Mordkin, S. Fedorova. Russian seasons of Diaghilev actually revived the ballet theater Western Europe.

Because the 20th century - an age of rapidly changing social systems, dynamic cultural processes, it is very risky to give unambiguous assessments of the development of the culture of this period, and only some characteristic features can be distinguished.

In the history of culture of the XX century. three periods can be distinguished:

• 1) the beginning of the 20th century - 1917 (acute dynamics of socio-political processes, a variety of artistic forms, styles, philosophical concepts);
• 2) 20-30 years. (radical restructuring, some stabilization of cultural dynamics, the formation of a new form of culture - socialist),
• 3) post-war 40s. throughout the second half of the 20th century. (the time of the formation of regional cultures, the rise of national consciousness, the emergence of international movements, the rapid development of technology, the emergence of new advanced technologies, active development of territories, the merger of science with production, the change of scientific paradigms, the formation of a new worldview). Culture is a system, everything in it is interconnected and mutually determined.

In the 1920s, the systematic implementation of the cultural policy of the party began, in which any philosophical or other system of ideas that went beyond the limits of Marxism in its Leninist version was qualified as "bourgeois", "landlord", "clerical" and recognized as counter-revolutionary and anti-Soviet, that is, dangerous for the very existence of the new political system. Ideological intolerance became the basis of the official policy of the Soviet government in the sphere of ideology and culture.

In the minds of the bulk of the population, the establishment of a narrow class approach to culture began. Class suspicion of the old spiritual culture and anti-intellectual sentiments spread widely in society. Slogans were constantly spread about distrust of education, about the need for a "vigilant" attitude towards old specialists, who were regarded as an anti-people force. This principle extended to an even greater degree and in a rigid form to the work of representatives of the intelligentsia. A political monopolism is being established in science, art, philosophy, in all spheres of the spiritual life of society, the persecution of representatives of the so-called noble and bourgeois intelligentsia. The expulsion of hundreds of thousands of educated people from the country caused irreparable damage to the elite culture, led to an inevitable decline in its general level. But the proletarian state was extremely suspicious of the intelligentsia that remained in the country. Step by step, the institutions of professional autonomy of the intelligentsia were liquidated - independent publications, creative unions, trade unions. The study of "unconscious" intellectuals, and then the arrests of many of them, became the practice of the 1920s. Ultimately, this ended with the complete defeat of the main body of the old intelligentsia in Russia.

The reforms that began after Stalin's death created more favorable conditions for the development of culture. The exposure of the personality cult at the 20th Party Congress in 1956, the return of hundreds of thousands of repressed people from prisons and exile, including representatives of the creative intelligentsia, the weakening of the censorship press, the development of ties with foreign countries - all this expanded the spectrum of freedom, caused the population, especially young people, utopian dreams of a better life. The time from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s (from the appearance in 1954 of I. Ehrenburg's story called "The Thaw" to the opening of the trial of A. Sinyavsky and Yu. Daniel in February 1966) entered the history of the USSR under the name "thaw".

The beginning of the 1990s was marked by the accelerated disintegration of the unified culture of the USSR into separate national cultures, which not only rejected the values ​​of the common culture of the USSR, but also the cultural traditions of each other. Such a sharp opposition of different national cultures led to an increase in socio-cultural tension, to the emergence of military conflicts and subsequently caused the collapse of a single socio-cultural space. But the processes of cultural development are not interrupted with the collapse of state structures and the fall of political regimes.

The culture of the new Russia is connected with all previous periods of the country's history. At the same time, the new political and economic situation could not but affect the culture. Her relationship with the authorities has changed radically. The state has ceased to dictate its requirements to culture, and culture has lost a guaranteed customer.

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Russian philosophy 19-20th century. Brief annotation module

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Russian musical culture of the 19th century and its global significance

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Hats of the 20s of the XX century

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Fine arts of the 19th century

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Everyday culture of 19th century Europe

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The main directions of philosophy of the 20th century

Ministry of Railways of the Russian Federation SAMARA STATE ACADEMY OF TRANSPORTATIONS Department of "Philosophy and History of Sciences" Control work No. 1 on the course "Philosophy" Topic: "The main directions of philosophy 20 century » Completed by: Smirnov S.V. Code: 2005-ET 6285 ...

The culture of the 19th century can be defined as classical. This is the heyday of capitalism, the era of industrial revolutions in most European countries and the United States. During this period, a series of social revolutions take place that shocked most European states especially France. The 19th century is characterized by the development of science, achievements in philosophy and art. The initial ideological principles of the culture of the 19th century, as well as of the entire New Age, were scientism, rationalism, anthropocentrism, Eurocentrism, optimism, faith in social and scientific and technological progress and the good nature of man. Although by the end of the 19th century these principles begin to loosen and they are replaced by anti-scientism, irrationalism, pessimism, etc. In terms of time, the boundaries of the culture of the 19th century would be more correct to define starting from 1789. (the beginning of the Great French bourgeois revolution), and complete in 1914 (the beginning of World War I).

The culture of the 19th century developed under the banner of the spread of democracy (the war of independence and the formation of the United States, the French Revolution), the development of experimental sciences and the success of the industrial revolution. As a result of the implementation of the industrial revolution and the industrialization that accompanied it, the development of the natural and exact sciences acquired special significance in the 19th century. This is the era of classical natural science, when a classical scientific picture of the world was formed. Scientific discoveries begin to actively take root in the industry, the first research laboratories appear, there is a theoretical understanding of production processes. Most of the technical inventions that defined the content modern civilization it was made precisely in the 19th century (steamboat, steam engine, electricity, telephone, telegraph, radio, cinema and many others); they were committed several times more than in all previous eras. A special place in the development of philosophy is occupied by the works of I. Kant, G. F. L. Hegel, L. Feuerbach. The 19th century is the time of the appearance of Marxism and positivism with their rationalistic picture of the world. Last quarter of the 19th and milestone XIX and the 20th century is marked by the collapse of hopes and faith in the omnipotence of reason and progress. The crisis of the worldview paradigm of anthropocentrism begins, irrationalistic and anti-scientistic concepts appear, among which the philosophy of life of F. Nietzsche was especially striking.

In the culture of the 19th century, the ideology of liberalism was finally formed and approved. It is characterized by the recognition of a number of postulates: in the social sphere - the principle of equality of opportunity, the primacy of the values ​​of the individual over society and his personal and responsibility for decisions taken, V political sphere- the principle of separation of powers, equality of rights and freedoms of all members of society; in the economic sphere - private property, freedom of enterprise, competition and a number of others. As an alternative, in the middle of the 19th century, the ideology of communism, clearly expressed in the socio-political doctrine of Marxism, took shape.

The artistic originality of the culture of the 19th century is represented by three main styles: classicism, romanticism and realism, which manifested themselves in literature, fine arts, music, architecture, theater. At the end of the 19th century, new trends appeared, such as impressionism and symbolism. During this period, tendencies of decadence appear, as an expression of the crisis of European culture of the 19th century.

At the end of the 18th century, mainly in French culture, a direction took shape, which was called classicism. It was based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, primarily on rationalism, sought to create clear, organic images and express heroic, lofty ideals. Abstraction, academicism, and idealization were also inherent in classicism. The most prominent representatives of classicism in German literature were J.W. Goethe and J.F. Schiller. Of the representatives of Russian classicism in architecture, it should be noted N.F. Kazakov, A.V. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharova, K.I. Rossi.

The next trend in the culture of the 19th century was romanticism, which originated at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. in Germany as a kind of reaction to classicism. The basis of the romantic worldview was the discrepancy between the ideal and social reality. Romanticism proclaimed the priority of individual tastes creative personality, striving for boundless freedom, a thirst for renewal and perfection. The philosophical and aesthetic basis of romanticism was the work of the German philosophers F.W.J. Schelling, F. Schlegel. Outstanding figures of German romanticism in literature were E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. von Kleist, J. Paul, G. Heine. The romantic trend in German music is represented by R. Schumann, R. Wagner. Romanticism in music is also expressed by the French G. Berlioz, the Hungarian F. Liszt, the Pole F. Chopin. The largest representatives of English romanticism in literature are D.N.G. Byron, W. Scott, J. Keats and B. Shelley. Russian romantics - V.A. Zhukovsky, V.F. Ryleev, M.N. Zagoskin, A.S. Dargomyzhsky. Of the romantic painters, the French T. Gericault and E. Delacroix, the Russian O. Kiprensky should be noted. Romanticism was not just a style in art, like classicism, but a form of ideology, a general cultural movement that embraced a variety of phenomena from fashion for clothes to philosophical and aesthetic views, political economy, and history. He contributed to the multilateral artistic generalization of reality and its in-depth philosophical knowledge, becoming the basis for the emergence of a new artistic direction in the culture of the 19th century - realism.

Realism in artistic culture is a truthful and objective reflection of reality by specific means of art. It originated in the 30s of the XIX century in France and England, very quickly spread to other European countries, especially Russia. Figures of the realistic trend critically assessed the shortcomings of capitalist society in the middle of the 19th century, when all social antagonisms became especially acute, they scourged social inequality, the hypocrisy of bourgeois society, and therefore this kind of realism was called critical realism. Unlike romanticism, with its interest in the lone hero acting in emergency situations, realism depicts typical characters in typical circumstances. The works of most realists are imbued with the ideas of humanism, historicism, social justice, and nationality. The most prominent representatives of French realism in literature are O. de Balzac, V. Hugo, G. Flaubert, P. Merimee, English literary realism - C. Dickens, W. Thackeray. Particularly interesting is the Russian critical realism of the brilliant constellation of writers of the “golden age” of Russian literature from A.S. Pushkin to A.P. Chekhov. The Russian realistic musical school is widely known - the so-called “mighty bunch”, which included composers M.A. Balakirev, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorsky, A.N. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, as well as P.I. Tchaikovsky. Realism in music in Italy is represented by the work of G. Verdi, as well as Italian realists: R. Leoncavallo, G. Puccini.

The realistic trend in Russian painting is especially pronounced by the Wanderers, in French painting by the work of J.F. Millet, G. Courbet, T. Rousseau, O. Daumier.

Another variety of realism in the second half of the 19th century was naturalism, which is based on the idea that the essence of fate and man depends on the social environment, life, biological factors - heredity, physiology. The most influential representative of naturalism in French literature is E. Zola. Among the naturalists are the French brothers Goncourt, A. Dode, the German G. Hauptmann. The theoretical origins of naturalistic aesthetics were the works of positivist philosophers, as well as the ideas of Ch. Darwin's evolutionary theory.

In late naturalism, the features of decadence more and more clearly appear, which are marked by moods of decline, hopelessness of pessimism, and the glorification of immorality. For the first time, these features manifested themselves in a new direction in the art of the last decade of the 19th and early 20th centuries - symbolism.

Its founders were the French poets Ch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarme. In Russia, symbolism is expressed in the works of most representatives of the "Silver Age" of Russian literature - D. Merezhnovsky, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, D. Sologub, V. Bryusov, A. Bely, A. Blok.

The philosophical and aesthetic basis of symbolism was the work of F. Nietzsche, E. Hartmann. The disappearance of faith in progress, the strength and power of the mind, the destruction and rethinking of traditional values, nihilism - these are some of Nietzsche's ideas that determined the mindset of European society in the last quarter of the 19th century. Using symbols, representatives of this trend sought to break through to hidden realities, the ideal essence of the world. In their work, a premonition of world socio-historical catastrophes, which will be rich in the next 20th century, is vividly presented. You can highlight the symbolism in the theater - Maeterlinck, painting - Vrubel.

Finally, another major trend in the culture of the last quarter of the 19th century was impressionism and post-impressionism. This direction was characteristic of the fine arts and almost exclusively French. Impressionist paintings are characterized by the depiction of fleeting impressions that he sees in this moment in front of. C. Monet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, K. Pizarro, E. Manet can be attributed to the number of impressionists, in music - C. Dubessy, Ravel, in sculpture - O. Rodin, A. Mayol. In contrast to them, the post-impressionists - P. Cezanne, V. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin - tried to capture in their paintings not the fleeting and accidental, but the permanent beginnings of being. Post-impressionism influenced the emergence of modernism at the beginning of the 20th century.

Summing up a brief review of the world culture of the 19th century, it should be concluded that, on the one hand, this is the time of the culture of the New Age, the heyday of classical culture, and on the other hand, it clearly shows the features of a deep crisis, which was based on the crisis of the worldview. paradigms of anthropocentrism and eurocentrism.

You can better understand the historical processes of the first half of the 20th century by looking at the paintings of artists of that time and reading the most interesting literary works their contemporaries. Let's go on a little excursion.

Culture and art of the first half of the 20th century: a summary

At the turn of the century, decadence reigned in European culture - there was a huge number of different conflicting trends that did not have common features with each other. The culture and art of the first half of the 20th century has two main directions:

• Modern (French - Art Nouveau, German - Jugendstil).
• Modernism.

The first originated in the last decade of the 19th century and gradually ended its existence with the outbreak of the First World War (in 1914).

Modernism is an interesting direction of the late 19th - first half of the 20th century. It is so rich in masterpieces of painting and graphics that it is divided into separate movements according to characteristic features.

Art Nouveau: nature is a source of inexhaustible inspiration

The name of the direction comes from the French word "moderne", which means "modern". This is a trend in American, European and Russian art at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Modernism is often confused with modernism, although these are fundamentally different things that have little in common with each other. Let's list distinctive features this direction in art:

• search for inspiration in nature and in the surrounding world;
• rejection of sharp lines;
• faded, muted tones;
• decorative, airy;
• the presence in the paintings of elements of nature: trees, grasses, shrubs.

The easiest way to understand what modern is is by contemplating the architecture of European cities in this style. Namely - the buildings and cathedrals of Gaudí in Barcelona. The capital of Catalonia attracts so many tourists precisely due to its unique architecture. The decor of the buildings is distinguished by elevation, asymmetry and airiness. Sagrada Familia) is the most striking project of the great Antonio Gaudi.

Modernism

Why was this direction able to originate, win the love of the audience and give a start to the development of such interesting trends as surrealism and futurism?

Because modernism was a revolution in art. It arose as a protest against the outdated traditions of realism.

Creative people were looking for new ways of self-expression and reflection of reality. Modernism has its own characteristic features that are unique to it:

• the high role of the inner world of man;
• search for new original ideas;
• great importance is given to creative intuition;
• literature contributes to the spiritualization of man;
• the emergence of mythology.

Culture and art of the first half of the 20th century: we will study pictures by various artists in the next two sections.

What are they? Amazing: you can reflect on them and constantly discover something new for yourself. The culture and art of the first half of the 20th century will be briefly described below.

We will not languish and present information in the most concise form - in the form of a table. On the left will be the name of the artistic movement, on the right - its characteristics.

Culture and art of the first half of the 20th century: table

Original currents of modernism

Current name	Characteristic
Surrealism	Apotheosis of human fantasy. Differs in a paradoxical combination of forms.
Impressionism	It originated in France and then spread throughout the world. the impressionists passed the world in its variability.
Expressionism	Artists sought to express their emotional state in their paintings, from fear to euphoria.
Futurism	The first ideas arose in Russia and Italy. Futurists in their paintings masterfully conveyed movement, energy and speed.
Cubism	The paintings consist of bizarre geometric shapes in a certain composition.

Culture and art of the first half of the 20th century (table, grade 9) reflects basic knowledge on the topic.

Let's take a closer look at impressionism and surrealism as trends that brought fundamentally new ideas to art.

Surrealism: creativity of the mentally ill or geniuses?

It was one of the currents of modernism, which arose in 1920 in France.

Studying the work of the surrealists, the average person often wonders about their mental health. For the most part, the artists of this trend were quite

Then how did they manage to draw such unusual pictures? It's all about youth and the desire to change standard thinking. Art for the surrealists was a way of liberation from generally accepted rules. Surrealistic paintings combined dream with reality. The artists were guided by three rules:

1. relaxation of consciousness;
2. accepting images from the subconscious;
3. if the first two points were successful, they took up the brush.

It is quite difficult to understand how they painted such meaningful pictures. One suggestion is that the Surrealists were fascinated by Freud's ideas about dreams. The second is about the use of certain mind-altering substances. Where the truth is is not clear. Let's just enjoy art, no matter the circumstances. Below is a picture of the "Clock" by the legendary Salvador Dali.

Impressionism in painting

Impressionism is another direction of modernism, the birthplace is France...

Paintings of this style are distinguished by glare, play of light and bright colors. Artists sought to capture on canvas the real world in its variability and mobility. From the paintings of the Impressionists, the mood of an ordinary person improves, they are so vital and bright.

The artists of this trend did not raise any philosophical problems - they simply painted what they saw. At the same time, they did it masterfully, using various techniques and a bright palette of colors.

Literature: from classicism to existentialism

The culture and art of the first half of the 20th century are new trends in literature that have changed the minds of people. The situation is similar to painting: classicism is becoming a thing of the past, giving way to the new trends of modernism.

He contributed to such interesting "discoveries" in literature as:

• internal monologue;
• mindflow;
• distant associations;
• the author's ability to look at himself from the outside (the ability to talk about himself in the third person);
• irrealism.

Irish writer James Joyce was the first to use such literary devices as internal monologue and parody.

Franz Kafka is an outstanding Austrian writer, the founder of the current of existentialism in literature. Despite the fact that during his lifetime his works did not arouse the enthusiasm of readers, he is recognized as one of the best prose writers of the 20th century.

His work was influenced by the tragic events of the First World War. He wrote very deep and difficult works, showing the impotence of a person when confronted with the absurdity of the surrounding reality. At the same time, the author is not deprived of a sense of humor, however, he has a very specific and black one.

We warn that meaningful reading of Kafka can contribute to lowering your mood. It is best to read the author in a good mood and a little abstracting from his gloomy thoughts. In the end, he describes only his vision of reality. Kafka's most famous work is The Trial.

Cinema

Funny silent films are also the culture and art of the first half of the 20th century, read the message about them below.

There is no other art form that develops as rapidly as cinema. Filmmaking technology appeared at the end of the 19th century: in just 50 years, it was able to change dramatically and win the hearts of millions of people.

The first films were created in advanced countries, including Russia.

Movies were originally in black and white and without sound. The meaning of silent cinema was to convey information through the movement and facial expressions of the actors.

For the first time cinema speaking actors appears in 1927. The American company Warner Bros. decides to release the film The Jazz Singer, and this is already a full-fledged film with sound.

He didn't stand still either. The first successful project was the film "Don Cossacks". True, censorship in Russian films also took place: filming of church rites and members of the royal family was banned.

A special stage in the development of Russian cinema began after the Bolsheviks came to power. These comrades quickly realized that cinema can be not only entertainment, but also a serious weapon of propaganda.

The most famous Soviet director of the 1930s was such works as "Battleship Potemkin" and "Alexander Nevsky" have long become classics. Kiev director Alexander Dovzhenko also reached the heights in cinema. The brightest work is the film "Earth".

The most interesting topic for conversation among adults is the culture and art of the first half of the 20th century. Grade 9 gives truncated information that quickly disappears from the head. This gap can be filled by constant self-education.

The period of the second half of the XIX - early XX centuries. is rightfully considered the silver age of Russian culture (a detailed table is presented below). The spiritual life of society is rich and diverse.

The political changes that occurred after the reforms of Alexander II were not as significant as the social and psychological changes. Having received greater freedom and food for thought, scientists, writers, philosophers, musicians and artists, it would seem, are striving to make up for lost time. According to N. A. Berdyaev, having entered the XX century. Russia has gone through an era comparable in importance to the Renaissance, in fact, this is the time of the Renaissance of Russian culture.

The main reasons for the rapid cultural growth

A significant leap in all spheres of the cultural life of the country was facilitated by:

• new schools opening in large numbers;
• an increase in the percentage of literate, and, accordingly, reading people to 54% by 1913 among men and 26% among women;
• an increase in the number of applicants to enter the university.

Government spending on education is gradually increasing. In the second half of the XIX century. the state treasury allocates 40 million rubles a year for education, and in 1914 at least 300 million. The number of voluntary educational societies, which could be attended by the most diverse segments of the population, and the number of public universities are increasing. All this contributes to the popularization of culture in such areas as literature, painting, sculpture, architecture, science is developing.

Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

	Russian culture in the second half of the XIX century.	Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
Literature	Realism remains the dominant trend in literature. Writers try as truthfully as possible to tell about the changes taking place in society, denounce lies, and fight injustice. The abolition of serfdom has a significant influence on the literature of this period, therefore, in most works, the national color, patriotism, and the desire to protect the rights of the oppressed population predominate. During this period, such literary luminaries as N. Nekrasov, I. Turgenev, F. Dostoevsky, I. Goncharov, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. Chekhov worked. In the 90s. A. Blok and M. Gorky begin their career.	At the turn of the century, the literary predilections of society and the writers themselves changed, new trends in literature appeared, such as symbolism, acmeism and futurism. 20th century - this is the time of Tsvetaeva, Gumilyov, Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam (acmeism), V. Bryusov (symbolism), Mayakovsky (futurism), Yesenin. Boulevard literature is gaining popularity. Interest in it, in fact, as well as interest in creativity, is growing.
Theater and cinema	The theater also acquires folk features, the writers who create theatrical masterpieces try to reflect in them the humanistic moods inherent in this period, the richness of the spirit and emotions. the best	20th century - the time of acquaintance of the Russian layman with the cinema. The theater did not lose its popularity among the upper strata of society, but the interest in cinema was much greater. Initially, all films were silent, black and white and exclusively documentary. But already in 1908 the first art picture"Stenka Razin and the Princess", and in 1911 the film "Defense of Sevastopol". The most famous director of this period is Protazanov. Ilms are based on the works of Pushkin and Dostoyevsky. Melodramas and comedies are especially popular with viewers.
Music, ballet	Until the middle of the century, musical education and music were the property of an extremely limited circle of people - salon guests, household members, theatergoers. But towards the end of the century, a Russian musical school took shape. Conservatories are opening in major cities. The first such institution appeared in 1862.	There is a further development of this trend in culture. The famous singer Diaghileva, who toured not only in Russia but also abroad, contributed to the popularization of music. Russian musical art was glorified by Chaliapin and Nezhdanova. creative way continues N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Symphonic and chamber music developed. Ballet performances are still of particular interest to the viewer.
Painting and sculpture	Painting and sculpture, as well as literature, did not remain alien to the trends of the century. Realistic orientation prevails in this area. Famous artists such as V. M. Vasnetsov, P. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. D. Polenov, Levitan, Roerich, Vereshchagin created beautiful canvases.	On the threshold of the XX century. many artists write in the spirit of modernism. A whole society of painters "The World of Art" is being created, within the framework of which M. A. Vrubel works. Around the same time, the first paintings of an abstractionist orientation appeared. In the spirit of abstract art, V. V. Kandinsky and K. S. Malevich create their masterpieces. P. P. Trubetskoy becomes a famous sculptor.
	At the end of the century, there is a significant increase in domestic scientific achievements. P. N. Lebedev studied the motion of light, N. E. Zhukovsky and S. A. Chaplygin laid the foundations of aerodynamics. The studies of Tsiolkovsky, Vernadsky, Timiryazev determine the future of modern science for a long time.	At the beginning of the XX century. the public becomes aware of the names of such prominent scientists as the physiologist Pavlov (studied reflexes), the microbiologist Mechnikov, the designer Popov (invented the radio). In 1910, for the first time in Russia, they designed their own domestic airplane. Aircraft designer I.I. Sikorsky developed aircraft with the most powerful Ilya Muromets and Russian Knight engines for that period. In 1911, Kotelnikov G.E. developed a backpack parachute. New lands and their inhabitants are being discovered and explored. In remote areas of Siberia, Far East, Central Asia sent entire expeditions of scientists, one of them - V.A. Obruchev, author of Sannikov Land. The social sciences are developing. If earlier they were not yet separated from philosophy, now they are acquiring independence. P. A. Sorokin became the most famous sociologist of his time. Historical science is further developed. P. G. Vinogradov, E. V. Tarle, and D. M. Petrushevsky are working in this area. Not only Russian, but also foreign history is subjected to research.
Philosophy	After the abolition of serfdom, Russian ideological thought reached a new level. The second half of the century is the dawn of Russian philosophy, especially religious philosophy. Such well-known philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, V. V. Rozanov, E. N. Trubetskoy, P. A. Florensky, S. L. Frank work in this field.	The development of the religious trend in philosophical science continues. In 1909, a whole philosophical collection of articles, Milestones, was published. Berdyaev, Struve, Bulgakov, Frank are published in it. Philosophers are trying to understand the significance of the intelligentsia in the life of society, and above all that part of it that has a radical attitude, to show that the revolution is dangerous for the country and cannot solve all the accumulated problems. They called for social compromise and the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
Architecture	In the post-reform period, the construction of banks, shops, railway stations began in cities, the appearance of cities was changing. Building materials are also changing. Glass, concrete, cement and metal are used in buildings.	modern; neo-Russian style; neoclassicism. In the Art Nouveau style, the Yaroslavsky railway station is being built, in the neo-Russian style - the Kazansky railway station, and neoclassicism is present in the forms of the Kievsky railway station.

Russian scientists, artists, artists and writers are gaining fame abroad. Achievements of Russian culture of the period under review receive worldwide recognition. The names of Russian travelers and discoverers adorn the maps of the world. The art forms that originated in Russia have a significant impact on foreign culture, many of whose representatives now prefer to be equal to Russian writers, sculptors, poets, scientists and artists.