The study of natural and anthropogenic complexes of the city in the geography courses of the basic school (On the example of the city of Blagoveshchensk) Ulyanova Valentina Vladimirovna
Lesson 28 (excursion) "Compiling a description of the natural complex of your area." Purpose: the formation of skills to show the relationship between the natural components of a particular natural complex and the influence of relief on the components, to compose a description of the natural complex under study.
Tasks:
- educational: contribute to the formation of the concepts of "natural complex, components of the natural complex"
- developing: continue the formation of skills of analysis, comparison, generalization; contribute to the development of the ability to draw conclusions.
- educational: the development of a dialectical-materialistic worldview; ability to work in a group; show the beauty of the nature of their area and continue the education of love for their Small Motherland.
Location: work is carried out on the ground - at the edge of an oak forest with an adjacent meadow and swamp.
Equipment: tablets, compass, shovel, tape measure, eclimeter, paper and pencil (pen) for writing and drawing, plastic bags for taking soil and rock samples.
Progress:
I organizational moment.
II Test of knowledge
List the natural ingredients.
What is a natural complex?
Give examples of natural complexes in our area.
III Learning new material
Knowledge update.
Can natural components exist in isolation from others natural ingredients natural complex?
Today we will have to learn how to find the connection between the components of the natural complex and make a description of the complex.
To do this, we must compare three natural complexes: an oak forest area, a meadow area and a swamp.
2.Make a description of the natural complexes of your area.
Tasks: using a typical plan, give a description of the natural complex.
Familiarization with various natural complexes (meadow, forest area, swamp) and identification of components of natural complexes.
Plan for describing the natural complex.
1. Geographic location. direction from the school.
2. The nature of the surface and the type of soil.
3. Waters, their location.
4. Vegetation and animal world.
5. Changes in the components of the natural complex under the influence of man.
6. Protection of the natural components of the complex.
During the tour, the children get acquainted with various natural complexes of their area (forests, meadows and swamps).
The first part of the tour. Students are divided into three groups, each group chooses a natural complex to describe: a forest area; meadow area or swamp area.
Groups receive instructions and work according to it. Students explore the natural complex they have chosen according to the proposed plan.
In each group, responsibilities are distributed according to interests: there is a botanist, zoologist, soil scientist, geologist, hydrologist.
Students make digs to study soils and take soil samples. It should be noted that acquaintance with soils is carried out at the level of observation: on the weathering products of what rock the soil was formed, what layers are manifested (forest litter, dark horizon, clarified horizon), soil structure (loose, compacted); living organisms (worms) and remains of organisms; soil moisture.
In order to assess the impact of human impact on the soil, we make a dig in a clearing at the edge of the forest, where a hiking trail passes and local residents often rest. Students visually compare the soil in its natural state and significantly trampled and see their differences.
Students - botanists explore vegetation and determine: to which natural area it refers to, name the main plant communities, make up the geobotanical description. At the same time, the main tiers are determined visually: woody, shrubby and grassy; species composition of trees and herbs. Zoologist students identify animals, determine their habitat and the influence of the anthropogenic factor on them.
The teacher draws attention to identifying links between the components of the natural complex. At first, the children learn to distinguish (identify) the components of the natural complex. Then they need to be brought to the concept of "natural complex" and the relationship of its components.
Second part of the tour- description of the natural complex according to the plan. After the components of the natural complex have been studied, in each group there is a brief discussion of the information received, and the students begin to describe the natural complex under study according to the plan.
The purpose of the work is to consolidate the knowledge gained during the excursion into nature.
The description of the complex should be short, but it is desirable that students show the relationships in the natural complex.
3. Draw conclusions.
- What is the impact of relief, climate and the nature of soil moisture on the natural complex?
All components of the natural complex are very closely interconnected, when one of the components changes, all the others inevitably change. The climate and the nature of moisture depend on the relief; the type of soil depends on the climate as a whole; it can be moist, arid, etc.
-What influence do soils have on the flora and fauna of the complex?
On unfavorable soils (with high acidity, waterlogged, etc.), picky plants grow that do not need an abundance of mineral and organic matter. Therefore, soils influence the species composition of plants. Plants are food for herbivores.
How do flora and fauna interact with each other?
Representatives of the fauna practically do not gravitate towards poor vegetation growing on poor soils. . This is due to bad rocks (boggy, loose, etc.) and lack of nutrients for herbivores.
Guys, listen to the wonderful words of the poet. Rylenkov, which will be the result of our lesson.
All in a melting haze;
Hills, copses.
Here the colors are dim and the sounds are not sharp,
Here the rivers are slow
Foggy lakes and everything eludes a cursory glance.
Not much to see here
Here you need to look
So that with clear love
The heart is filled
To suddenly reflect clear waters
All the charm of pensive Russian nature
(N. Rylenkov)
IV. Homework.
Each student should write a description of one of the studied natural complexes.
Churlyaev Yu. A
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Ulyanova Valentina Vladimirovna The study of natural-anthropogenic complexes of the city in the courses of geography of the basic school (On the example of the city of Blagoveshchensk): Dis. ... cand. ped. Sciences: 13.00.02: Moscow, 2002 222 p. RSL OD, 61:02-13/980-4
Introduction
Chapter 1. The system of knowledge about the natural complexes of the city in science and in school geography
1 The system of knowledge about the PTC of the city in science 13
2. Transformation of natural components in the conditions of existence big city and reflection of knowledge about them in school geography 36
3 Structure and characteristics of natural and modified complexes of the city of Blagoveshchensk
Chapter 2. Methods of studying urban landscapes in school geography courses 87
1. Educational role of knowledge about urban PTC 88
2. Improving the structure and content of knowledge about urban landscapes in the geography courses of the basic school 96
3. The experience of studying the PTK of the city in the practice of the main school ... 108
4. Methodological conditions for studying the urban landscape in the school course of geography 117
4.1. Formation of the concept of the urban landscape 118
4.2. Methods geographical research anthropogenic landscapes in relation to school geography 129
4.3. Preparing a geography teacher to study the PTC of the city at school 140
Chapter 3
1. Conditions for organizing an experiment 156
2. Results of the ascertaining experiment 159
3. Results of the training experiment 166
Conclusion 167
References 170
Annex 1
Introduction to work
Modern tasks in the field of education and upbringing of schoolchildren are aimed at its modernization: at a significant increase in attention to the development of the individual in the learning process, at the activation of the creative forces and abilities of students. The success of solving the tasks set is determined by many factors, the most important among them is the content of education, which is characterized by increased demands on the improvement of the material, taking into account modern scientific and technological achievements, system-structural, regional and environmental approaches.
Significant prospects in solving the above problems open up opportunities for improving the system of knowledge about natural territorial complexes (NTC), which are generally recognized as the fundamental theoretical core of geographical science and are widely represented in school geography. Possessing a high scientific potential, this knowledge plays an important role in solving many problems of our time and, first of all, problems arising in the "Society - Nature" system.
IN modern conditions, in connection with the growing anthropogenic impact on natural complexes, it must be stated that there are practically no landscapes left on Earth that would not experience direct or indirect technogenic impact. The problem of the intensity of anthropogenic impact on the state of the NTC is recognized as one of the main ones in scientific research and is considered from various aspects. The solution of this problem in the geographical aspect is a social order for geographical science: “... issues of rational environmental management, optimal location of industrial production, Agriculture, population, in connection with this, the analysis and forecasting of the development of natural and technical geosystems comes to the fore. It is this circle of problems that belongs to modern geographical science. In this case, human activity is considered as the impact of a territorially organized factor, therefore, taking into account the state of the territory, predicting its development trends is based on the study of natural complexes.
The largest of them is the geographic shell of the Earth. The geographical envelope is divided into natural-territorial complexes of different ranks. The main step of this division is the landscape. In turn, the interaction of society and nature in geography is usually considered at the global, regional and local (topological) levels. Despite the importance of major regional and global problems humanity, we believe that the key to understanding them lies at the topological level. The impact of the natural environment on society is transformed by local conditions, so that a person interacts not with nature in general, but with the natural conditions of specific landscapes.
However, today the system of knowledge about the NTC studied at school is not fully consistent with the ideas of modern geography about natural zoning, which takes into account the specifics of urban areas.
The analysis of normative documents testifies to the increased attention to the regional component of basic geographical education. The allocation of the federal, national-regional and school components in the basic curriculum is not only an incentive to study one's locality, but also gives it national significance. Therefore, with the further improvement of local history knowledge in school geography, it is necessary to pay attention to its local level, that is, to the city, village in which schoolchildren live, which, due to the current environmental situation, the need to take into account and control the anthropogenic differentiation of the territory.
The continuous growth of cities and urban agglomerations, which currently covers the entire planet, contributes to an increase in the number of urban schoolchildren. However, in the conditions of a large city, the organization of students to study natural territorial complexes encounters great difficulties, since a direct relationship with the natural environment is difficult. As a result of the construction development of the area on which the city is located, as well as a very highly concentrated economic activity, the natural and geographical conditions are
significant changes. Thus, urban schoolchildren are placed in special conditions studying the PTK of their area, which is provided for by the requirements of the traditional geography program for educational institutions.
For the vast majority of urban schoolchildren, "nature" begins outside the city. As a result, a false idea is formed in the minds of students that the relationship between the components of nature, ecological problems exist somewhere far away from them, outside the city. Consequently, most of the complex geoecological concepts are speculative, abstract.
But cities are growing, occupying an ever larger area, mastering different altitude levels, latitudinal zones, relief types, transforming natural components. And, nevertheless, in cities there are rocks and relief, climate, rivers flow, flora and fauna are preserved, that is, all components of nature are present. Therefore, as the study showed, it is so important for urban schoolchildren to study the city's PTK, their anthropogenic changes in the process of studying their area. After all, a city, as a rule, is located within several natural complexes, each of which is characterized not only by its natural properties, but also by its different ability to self-purify and resistance to anthropogenic loads. The current situation allows us to conclude that there is a contradiction between the importance of studying urban PTK and their absence in the PTK system in the basic school geography course.
In this regard, the issues of developing a methodology for studying the natural complexes of the city by students in the course of the geography of the main school are relevant, which has not yet been reflected in a special study.
Purpose of the study: Development of a methodology for studying urban landscapes in the geography courses of the basic school (grades 6-8).
Analysis scientific publications about the landscapes of the city, school programs, textbooks, methodological manuals and familiarity with the educational process made it possible to put forward the following working hypothesis: knowledge level
students of cities about natural complexes, their anthropogenic transformation, as well as their educational role will be higher if; to introduce the concept of "urban landscape" into the system of knowledge about PTK; knowledge about urban landscapes will be presented in the system and the methodological conditions for their formation will be determined. Achieving the set goals and testing the hypothesis puts forward the need to solve a number of problems:
1. Determine the content of knowledge about urban landscapes in modern science and their reflection in school geography.
To reveal the amount of knowledge necessary for schoolchildren about urban landscapes on the example of the city of Blagoveshchensk.
Develop a system for increasing the complexity of knowledge about urban landscapes in relation to geography in basic school.
4. Establish the most effective methodological conditions of the form
schoolchildren's knowledge of urban landscapes and experimentally
check them out.
Object of research the process of forming knowledge about natural complexes, and their anthropogenic change (on the example of the city of Blagoveshchensk).
Subject of study: system of knowledge about urban landscapes.
The methodological basis of the study is: dialectical theory of knowledge; didactics general education; pedagogical and developmental psychology; geographical education concept.
The theoretical basis of the study was the work: on the study of the essence pedagogical process: V. V. Davydova, L. V. Zankova, I. Ya. Lerner, D. B. Elkonin, I. S. Yakimanskaya and others; studies on geographical local history: A. V. Darinsky, K. F. Stroev, M. A. Nikonova, K. V. Pashkanga, A. 3, Safiullina, and others, works that reveal the theory and methods of teaching geography: T P. Gerasimova, I.S. Matrusova, N. G. Pavlyuk, L. M. Panchesnikova.
To solve the problems posed in the study, methods of theoretical and empirical levels were used at various stages of work, Theoretical Methods included an analysis of the geographical (works on
physical geography, urban landscape studies), psychological, pedagogical and methodological literature on research problems: the content of education, local history and teaching methods, analysis of regulatory documents on the research problem in order to substantiate its relevance, determine the initial foundations and highlight the main areas of experimental work. empirical methods included targeted observation of the learning process, a survey, questioning, interviewing, analysis of written work. Conducting a stating, search and training experiment. At the empirical level, field observations were carried out in the city of Blagoveshchensk and its environs.
Research stages: The study was conducted from 1998 to 2001 and included three stages. The starting, and later corrective, position for the study was the results of the analysis of the author's own pedagogical experience (work: since 1995 - in general education school- teacher of geography, since 1997 - at the Lyceum - teacher of local history, head of the local history circle, at the same time working at the department of geography at the Blagoveshchensk State Pedagogical University.)
At the first stage (1998 -1999) - ascertaining, the goals and objectives of the study were determined, and experimental materials were developed. The state of the problem in the practice of teaching teachers was studied: by attending classes, analyzing articles in the journal Geography at School. For this purpose, a survey was conducted among teachers and students of schools in the years. Blagoveshchensk, Belagorsk, Zeya, Skovorodino, Svobodny, Tynda, Shimanovsk. The relevance, problem, research hypothesis and its direction were confirmed, and the main provisions of the research hypothesis presented above were formulated. The collection of information data on the geography of the city of Blagoveshchensk was carried out.
Second stage (1999 - 2000) hadsearch character. IN During the experiment, the most effective methodological conditions for studying the natural and anthropogenic complexes of the city and urban landscapes were tested.
school geography course. The research hypothesis was refined and the main theoretical provisions presented in the dissertation were formulated.
Third stage (2000 - 200 1yy). Conducting a learning experiment, during which the effectiveness of the methodology for studying the natural and anthropogenic complexes of the city was revealed on the basis of wide approbation in the practice of a mass school. The research results were summarized in publications and the text of the dissertation. The experiment involved the author of the study, students and teachers of the following schools (see Table 1).
Table 1
At this stage, the analysis of the results of the experiment and the correction of the theoretical provisions of the study were carried out. Conclusions are drawn about the need to study urban landscapes in the system of knowledge about PTK in the course of the geography of the main school and the conditions for the methodology for studying them.
In total, eleven teachers and 2051 students from schools in the cities of Blagoveshchensk, Belagorsk, Zeya, Svo-
Bodny, Skovorodino, Tynda, Shimanovsk. This made it possible to judge the reliability of the findings in terms of the representativeness of the sample of experimental classes.
Information base The study of the landscape characteristics of the city of Blagoveshchensk was based on the data of the AMURKNII, the State Geological Enterprise "Amurgeologia", the hydrometeorological observatory, the Committee for Land Resources of Blagoveshchensk, the Committee for Nature Protection of the Amur Region, the work of G.V. Korotaev, as well as personal observations of the author with schoolchildren and students during field practices
Scientific novelty and theoretical significance of the work lies in the fact that for the first time in the methodology of geography, a substantiation was given and the structure and content of the system of knowledge about the PTC were improved by including a new concept of "urban landscape" in this system. The optimal combination of methods, techniques and teaching aids used in the formation of knowledge about urban landscapes in each course is revealed. At the same time, a special role in the educational process belongs to: specifically - figurative thinking, comparison, generalization, work with integrated plans and natural-technological and profiles, reliance on local history knowledge and related subjects, various types of visual aids that provide systematization of knowledge and a more complete disclosure of the essence of "the complexity of nature", "the relationship between nature and society".
Practical significance and implementation of the study. A new concept has been introduced into the knowledge system about PTK, which must be included in programs and textbooks; the application of the developed methodology for studying urban landscapes in the practice of teaching will most successfully form ecological thinking among schoolchildren, understand the essence of the relationship "Nature - Society"; developed a system of practical tasks for the study of natural and anthropogenic complexes of the city; based on the results of the study, a program was developed for studying the urban landscape in the 8th grade. The materials of the study can be used in the process of improving the qualifications of teachers of
native schools, as well as in the training of students-geographers of pedagogical universities.
Approbation of work and publication. The main provisions and results of the dissertation research were reported and discussed at scientific and practical and scientific and methodological conferences Blagoveshchensk State Pedagogical University (1998-2001). Interuniversity scientific and practical conference "Professional orientation in teaching and educating students" (Blagoveshchensk, February, 1999), interuniversity scientific and practical conference "Youth of the XXI century: a step into the future" (Blagoveshchensk, April, 2001), and also at the methodological section of the XIV Youth All-Russian scientific conference"Geographical ideas and concepts as a tool for understanding the world around" (Irkutsk, April 17-19, 2001), an international conference on local history, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Museum of Local Lore. G.S. Novikov-Daursky in the city of Blagoveshchensk, at the advanced training courses for school teachers in the Amur Region. Based on the materials of the study, practical classes were held for students of the Belarusian State Pedagogical University in the course of local history for four years. Various aspects of the research problem are reflected in 9 publications.
Taken out for defense a methodology for studying urban landscapes, which consists in improving the system of knowledge about the NTC through the formation of the concept of "urban landscapes" in the course of observations and practical work on the ground.
Thesis structure reflects the logic of the study and includes: an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references, including 246 sources and 2 appendices. The presentation of the material is illustrated with tables, charts, figures and diagrams. The volume of the text without the bibliography and appendices is 169 pages. Annex 2 is 125 pages long.
The system of knowledge about the PTC of the city in science
Half a century ago, geographers called for "to rise from the analysis of individual components to the patterns of development of the urban natural landscape as a whole." As stated by V.V. Pokshishevsky: - "landscapes of cities do not disappear, they are greatly transformed, but still they do not stop developing according to the laws of nature, therefore, a physical and geographical study of cities is necessary" [p. 177-191]. In his writings, he proposed a study plan natural conditions cities that have not lost their significance even today. The natural complex of the city was assessed by him not only as a "mother" natural landscape, but as a complex of natural components that have been greatly altered as a result of human activity. However, at the beginning they did not receive development, since in the 30s and 40s there was an opinion of some economic geographers about the city as a point on the map. The impetus for work on the physical geography of the city was given by the works of N.N. Baransky about geographical location, in which the idea is stated that it is not enough to say where the city is located, it is also necessary to show how it is located relative to natural objects. An article by N.I. Lyalikov, in which he raises the question of the mutual influence of urban and natural factors and encourages scientists to study this special type of interaction between nature and society. He considered "urban landscapes" - ((external material forms of city life.
These ideas found their followers, thanks to which urban landscape science by the mid-60s. took shape as one of the branches of landscape science, which studies cities as special natural-territorial complexes that are products of the socio-historical situation, arise and develop in specific physical and geographical conditions. A theory of urban landscape science is being developed, as well as a physical-geographical classification of cities, as evidenced by the works of scientists. The study of cities among physico-geographers was carried out by: A.I. Klimov, A.I. Kryukov, F.I. Milkov, FV. Tarasov, and others.
D. L. Armand also pointed out the need to study the nature of cities: “we are surrounded not only by natural objects, but also by the works of human hands: technical structures and chemical materials ... it cannot be denied that technical structures in many respects affect the surrounding nature and people ... if we do not recognize technical structures as part of nature, then we will come to the absurd conclusion that the entire urban population lives outside nature and it does not affect it in any way” [p.6].
Separate articles of the first researchers of urban landscapes A.S. Kryukova, Ya.R. Dorfman, F.N. Milkova, A.G. Isachenko, F.V. Tarasov, suggested that urban landscapes be considered cultural and generated by technical civilization. The first attempt at a complex characterization of the city was made in the dissertation of A.S. Kryukov and his article, they traced the changes in the natural complex under the influence of man. A number of applied works appear in the characterization of individual components: in the field of engineering geology - F. V. Kotlova, V. R. Krogius, R. Legget of urban climatology - B. P. Alisov, I. I. Kovalenko, L. N. Orlova , I.A. Shevchuk , L.A. Ramensky, G.E. Landsberg. The study of urban soils and their erosion, depending on the type of land and economic development of the territory, are devoted to the works of A.D. Gerrald, E.T. Mamaeva, M.N. Strictly new and others.
In the seventies, more and more works appeared considering the city as a type of landscape in which the interaction of nature and man is most pronounced. For example, in the work of F.N. Milkov "Man and Landscape", B.C. Preobrazhensky "Modern landscapes as natural-anthropogenic systems" . During these years, the general geographical concept of studying the city was determined (A.V. Lepin, 1970; R. Leggett, 1976; F.V. Kotlov, 1977), later - ecological and geographical (I.P. Gerasimov, 1976; V.B. Sochava, 1978; I. P. Gerasimov, A. G. Doskach, 1987), The latter concept provides not only an analytical study of urban landscapes, but also their mapping using satellite imagery. These directions were theoretical basis the doctrine of urban landscapes, defining the urban landscape as the "extreme expression" of the cultural landscape, which means any natural landscape where the mutual relations between its components are changed by human activity.
In other words, this is a landscape that has lost its original appearance of the natural complex. The nature of cities is changing so much that some geographers talk about the disappearance, destruction of landscapes in cities. But this is an erroneous point of view. This is not difficult to verify when considering the landscape map of the city of Chernivtsi compiled by Ya.R. Dorfman, for architectural and planning work. The map clearly shows four different landscapes within the city, which did not "disappear" at all as a result of the construction of the city. They are even emphasized by the placement of certain functional parts of the city, by building types that are different in different landscapes. Therefore, V.V. is right. Pokshishevsky, who claims that the landscapes of cities do not disappear, they are greatly transformed, but still do not stop developing according to the laws of nature, and therefore a physical and geographical study of cities is necessary.
Historically, several concepts have developed in the study of the urban landscape, the description of which is determined by the development of scientific geographical knowledge in general and the views of scientists themselves on the object of study. Among these concepts, E.G. Kolomyts proposes to single out four main, natural; natural and social; ecological and landscape-geochemical. The issue of disclosing the content of the concept of "urban landscape" is considered in them from different angles.
Educational and upbringing role of knowledge about urban PTK
Education in the modern era is designed to shape the personality, it must not only teach, but also educate and develop, that is, it must be the unity of the interdependent functions of education, development and upbringing. Therefore, one of the objectives of our study was to determine the educational role of the study of urban landscapes.
Updating the content of education on present stage is associated in many respects with such changes, which make it possible to turn it from a mechanism for the transmission of knowledge and the formation of skills and abilities into a means of developing a person with heuristic, geographical (complex), environmental thinking, efficiency, purposefulness, initiative and creativity in solving problems and non-standard tasks both in academic and later professional activity accompanied by the mastery of new mental techniques, the development of one's own worldview.
Personal development is inextricably linked with its interaction with the outside world. It is no coincidence that, therefore, recently theorists and practitioners of education have increased their attention to the specifics of local territories, and one of the leading goals of education at the present stage, according to many researchers, is the inclusion and practical training the younger generation to life in a certain area of their locality.
As the researchers note, regionality in the educational process acts as a result and as a means of achieving the goals of geographical education. As a learning tool, the urban landscape has a number of didactic (educational, developmental and educational) functions in the educational process of the school. Under the functions ("function" from Latin - execution, implementation) in didactics they understand the purpose, the possibilities of this or that means, component educational process in achieving learning objectives. The identification of the didactic functions of urban landscapes thus determines the subsequent content of this section.
It should be noted that in pedagogical studies the didactic value of studying the PTC of one's area as a whole has been proved, but it has not been refracted on the subject of urban landscapes. In this regard, it is necessary to determine: 1) what role urban landscapes play in the educational process of the school in general and the study of PTK, in particular; 2) what special, unique role is played by the national-regional component (NRC) in the study of urban landscapes.
An analysis of the activities of teachers, the results of a survey, and their own pedagogical experience show that many geography teachers have a rather one-sided idea of the functions of studying cities. Modern researchers of the problem of methodology for studying the nature of cities (N.I. Rodzevich, I.B. Shilina and others) point to the geoecological function of cities as one of the most important ways of educating schoolchildren. However, the developing, teaching and educational opportunities of urban landscapes are much wider.
From an educational point of view, the study of the PTC of the city helps to concretize the knowledge of students about natural-territorial complexes, about their changes, enables students to better understand the interdependence of relations between the components of the natural complex, as well as nature and society. Formation of ideas about territorial diversity, about the complexity of the problems of interaction between society and nature, on the basis of specific geographical material form a system of principles and views, students in relation to the Earth as a natural habitat. On the example of the urban landscape, schoolchildren clearly define the role of man in the formation of modern landscapes.
The traditional educational system is based on the division of the educational process into separate subjects, as a result of which the world in the imagination of the student is torn into facts, hypotheses, theories, laws, concepts, "often poorly interconnected and of no importance to the child." Under these conditions, the study of PTK in the conditions of the city is able to integrate subject fields and form a new thinking of the student based on a holistic view of the world, nature and man. "Polysubjectivity" in the study of urban landscapes allows for interdisciplinary coordination in the process of teaching the composition of the landscape characteristics of urban PTK. Schoolchildren learn to systematically use the knowledge of various subjects when performing tasks of a complex, anthropogenic nature. Undoubtedly, a good knowledge of one's locality is an integral element of a holistic geographical picture of the world, the formation of which is one of the main educational tasks of the modern school. In the process of studying urban PTK, at the junction of subjects of natural science and the humanities, ideas are formed about the scientific picture of the world (nature and society), about the laws of their development.
The formation of a scientific worldview should be considered as an integral part of the intellectual and moral development of students.
In this regard, it should be noted that the specificity of the city as an object of study determines the peculiarities of its cognition and evaluation by schoolchildren. A person understands the world around him from the very beginning. early childhood. This knowledge is carried out spontaneously, not in the logic of science, but in the logic of human life through personal daily observation and communicative activity, supplemented by school education. Therefore, acquaintance with the nature of the city is often limited by the level of emotional perception, fragmentary, unsystematic knowledge. A comprehensive, integrated approach is needed, aimed at bringing into the system of personal orientations the sum of those disparate information about the whole variety of possible forms and ways of human interaction with the natural environment that the student already has. It is urban landscapes, due to their specificity, that have a special ability to integrate a wide variety of regional information obtained at various lessons during previous years of study, as well as new ones, which allows it to become an organizing subject of study of the PTC, in which several disciplines can be merged into one on a regional basis: "The city is a kind of integrator, which captures all the results of changing natural landscapes."
Conditions for organizing the experiment
In order to test the effectiveness of the developed methodology, a pedagogical experiment was organized, which was carried out in 1998-2002. in several stages and covering about 2051 students. This is the most effective method introduction of innovations in pedagogy, which is "the observation of a pedagogical phenomenon in created and controlled conditions" .
The purpose of the pedagogical experiment of the dissertation work is to test the hypothesis that the study of "urban landscapes" in the system of knowledge about PTK increases the level of knowledge of urban students about natural complexes, their anthropogenic transformation, as well as their educational role. When developing general and particular issues of organizing a pedagogical experiment, we used the requirements for it, justified in the works of SI .. Arkhangelsky, Yu.G. Babansky and others. In order to obtain reliable data in the organization of the experiment, a number of requirements were taken into account:
1. Preliminary setting of observation goals to determine the initial data in order to clarify the research hypothesis;
2. Creation of optimal conditions and organization for experimental work;
3. Development of the experimental procedure itself;
4. Accounting and accurate recording of facts in the course of observing the experiment;
5. Organization of systematic registration of the data obtained by methods known to science: tables, questionnaires, etc.
7. Processing of the obtained material through theoretical analysis and methods of mathematical statistics, in order to obtain objective results;
8. Students of the experimental classes had approximately the same level of learning and learning ability, at least 2000 schoolchildren participated in the experiment, geography teachers had a long work experience.
Teachers from schools in the cities of Blagoveshchensk, Belagorsk, Svobodny, Tynda, Zeya, and Shimanovsk took part in the experiment. At the same time, the experiment was conducted by a dissertation student in schools No. 5, 15 and pedagogical lyceums at the Belarusian State Pedagogical University (see Table 1). This made it possible to judge the reliability of the findings in terms of the representativeness of the sample of experimental classes.
To conduct a pedagogical experiment in experimental classes, a methodology was specially developed for typical lessons, practical work on the ground, winter (1 day) and summer (7 days) local history workshops in accordance with the goals and objectives of the study. In the control classes, the lessons were conducted according to the usual methodology.
The pedagogical experiment was carried out in two stages: ascertaining and teaching experiments.
Ascertaining experiment.
Purpose: selection of the content and formation of a system for studying urban landscapes in the course of geography of the main school.
The originality of the ascertaining experiment lies in the analysis of shortcomings in the process of transferring to students theoretical knowledge, the implementation of which is intended to contribute to the improvement of the structure and content of the knowledge system about the PTK.
During the experiment, the following tasks were solved:
Determine the content of the material for the study of "urban landscapes", as well as the methodological conditions for their study. To identify the level of knowledge of students about the PTC of their area in a big city, studying according to the traditional program and according to the proposed experimental program.
To solve the tasks at this stage of the experiment, the following diagnostic methods were used: pedagogical observation of the author of the study; conversation, interviewing and questioning of teachers and students; analysis of diagnosing control works to identify theoretical knowledge and practical skills of students who studied with different teachers, generalization of pedagogical experience; statistical methods of data processing.
Participants in the experiment were given a variety of teaching materials: questionnaires, tasks for conducting diagnostic tests, methodological developments, recommendations for conducting practical work on the ground in a city. Important for ensuring the work of the participants in the experiment were the ones proposed by the dissertation student: the program for the study of urban landscapes and the system of practical work on the ground in the geography course of the main school.
The first ones are anthropogenic
anthropogenic-caused
Since the beginning of human agricultural activity, natural vegetation has been destroyed over vast areas. In most cases, it was replaced by cultivated plants belonging to completely different communities (forests were replaced by cereal vegetation), often not characteristic of the data. geographical areas. In addition, natural landscapes have never been characterized by monocultures, when only one plant species grows on vast areas; on the contrary, even landscapes homogeneous in other components (steppes, prairies) were distinguished by species diversity.
Monoculture led, in turn, to changes in the geochemical regime of soils, a change in zoocenoses and a decrease in the number of species in them. In other cases, for example, during logging, the tree cover after its removal is not replaced by anything; felling sites are occupied by the so-called secondary forests, consisting of other species than the cut primary ones. Abandoned fields in the forest zone are also overgrown with secondary forests.
Washed away soils began to be deposited on floodplains and in riverbeds, especially small rivers in the upper reaches. river systems, which, in turn, led to the siltation of their channels, a change in their hydrological regime and, ultimately, the complete death of many watercourses. And since, in the words of V. S. Lapshenkov, “there are no large rivers without small rivers,” the reduction in the number of small rivers and their runoff disrupted the runoff and channel processes in medium and even major rivers. As a result, the hydrogeological conditions in the river basins changed, many springs dried up or were buried under silt, biocenoses changed, etc.
- unchanged
- slightly modified
- changed
- heavily modified.
cultural landscape
acultural
self-regulating
5. By genesis they distinguish
sahel,
However, the opinions of scientists regarding the degree of this impact are different.
There are many experts who argue that the influence of man on nature has reached extreme values, which will soon lead to the death of civilization. Others believe that it is not. At the same time, it is argued that significant cataclysms have always taken place on the planet, that they are the inevitable result of its development, including the cyclic one. It is very difficult to resolve this dispute, since with the absolute incompatibility of the duration of the development of the geographic shell (even at its quasi-stationary stage of development, starting from the Devonian) and human impact on it, it is not easy to answer the question of the causes of changes occurring in nature: are they the result of its natural development or associated with anthropogenic activity?
Speaking about the impact of man on natural complexes, it should be borne in mind that in a number of developed countries certain works are being carried out to restore natural complexes disturbed by man. This activity is called ecological restoration.
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Until now, speaking of natural complexes of one level or another, it was meant that they all have a natural origin and function in natural conditions. However, during the period that has passed since the Neolithic Revolution, when about 10 thousand years ago man learned to farm and cattle breed, a huge number of natural complexes of the local level turned out to be changed to one degree or another by human activity. Therefore, at present, any natural complex, in addition to the natural hierarchy, is divided into two subsystems - natural and anthropogenic.
Two types of natural complexes can be distinguished, the origin of which is somehow connected with man.
The first ones are anthropogenic complexes completely created by man, although many of them look like natural objects. These include some oases in deserts, reservoirs, quarries, waste heaps; this also includes cities and industrial facilities that have no analogues in nature.
A significant area on earth is occupied by anthropogenic-caused natural complexes (or anthropogenic modifications of the PC, or unintentionally changed landscapes), when a person changes the conditions for the development of a particular landscape, the mode of its functioning, etc. The following landscape components are most often subjected to anthropogenic change: vegetation composition, soil moisture regime, their structure and geo chemical composition, river flow and the general state of the hydro network, relief, microclimate.
Since the beginning of human agricultural activity, natural vegetation has been destroyed over vast areas.
In most cases, it was replaced by cultivated plants belonging to completely different communities (forests were replaced by cereal vegetation), often not characteristic of these geographical zones. In addition, natural landscapes have never been characterized by monocultures, when only one plant species grows on vast areas; on the contrary, even landscapes homogeneous in other components (steppes, prairies) were distinguished by species diversity. Monoculture led, in turn, to changes in the geochemical regime of soils, a change in zoocenoses and a decrease in the number of species in them. In other cases, for example, during logging, the tree cover after its removal is not replaced by anything; felling sites are occupied by the so-called secondary forests, consisting of other species than the cut primary ones. Abandoned fields in the forest zone are also overgrown with secondary forests.
Soil moisture regime can completely change after drainage or irrigation reclamation. As a result, after the drainage of wetlands, due to the violation of the natural hydrogeological regime, dry territories often appear, the soils on which begin to undergo deflation. Waterlogging of sown areas can lead to loss of soil fertility, development of irrigation erosion and even landslides.
Changes in the geochemical composition of soils occurred relatively recently, after the active application of mineral fertilizers to them.
As a result of the massive plowing of watersheds and gentle slopes, planar soil erosion sharply increased, as a result of which the most fertile humus horizon was washed away to one degree or another, and the soils themselves lost their fertility.
Washed-off soils began to be deposited on floodplains and in river beds, especially small rivers in the upper reaches of river systems, which, in turn, led to siltation of their channels, a change in their hydrological regime and, ultimately, the complete death of many watercourses.
And since, in the words of V. S. Lapshenkov, “without small rivers there are no large rivers,” the reduction in the number of small rivers and their flow disrupted the flow and channel processes in medium and even large rivers. As a result, the hydrogeological conditions in the river basins changed, many springs dried up or were buried under silt, biocenoses changed, etc.
Agricultural soil erosion leads to leveling of the relief, but on a much larger scale this process occurs during housing, industrial, and road construction; mountain slopes are artificially terraced to create fields suitable for crops. Artificial terracing reduces soil erosion.
The microclimate changes significantly near reservoirs and in cities in the direction of decreasing continentality.
This list can be continued.
There are a number of classifications of anthropogenic and anthropogenic-caused natural complexes at the local level:
1. According to the performance of socio-economic functions, the following are distinguished: agricultural, forestry, industrial, urban, recreational, environmental protection, linear-road, water (reservoirs), belligerative (military) landscapes. According to the degree of change compared to the initial state, landscapes can be:
- unchanged(glaciers, extraarid, nature reserves);
- slightly modified(natural meadows, national parks);
- changed(secondary forests, part of steppes and forest-steppes, semi-deserts);
- heavily modified.
3. According to the consequences of changes, cultural and acultural landscapes are distinguished. Under cultural landscape is understood as a natural complex, rationally changed to
scientific basis in the interests of man and constantly regulated by him, in which the maximum economic effect is achieved and the living conditions of people are improved.
It is believed that such a landscape should be internally diverse, externally landscaped, as saturated as possible with natural and cultural vegetation, not have
inconvenient lands (dumps, quarries, wastelands), all lands must have a high
productivity, part of the land should be used for environmental purposes. In particular, landscape gardens, water parks, and other recreational landscapes, as well as landscapes reclaimed after being used for other purposes (ponds at the site of quarries, etc.) are considered cultural.
There is a point of view according to which the concept of a cultural natural complex should include not only nature transformed by man, but also objects of material and spiritual culture located on its territory. acultural- these are non-reclaimed anthropogenic and anthropogenic landscapes: abandoned quarries, many of which occupy an area of hundreds of square kilometers, ravine landscapes and, as their extreme case, an anthropogenic badland. Obviously, the anthropogenic landscape is not identical to the cultural landscape. More often than not, the opposite happens.
4. According to the state of the processes of self-organization and management, self-regulating landscapes and landscapes where the role of man's control.
5. By genesis they distinguish technogenic, slashing, arable, pyrogenic, digressive (oppressed natural, for example pasture) and recreational.
In recent decades, the sharply increased influence of man begins to spread to natural complexes of the regional and even global planetary level. The problems of climate warming on the planet associated with an increase in the content of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, an increase in the level of the World Ocean, and the deterioration of the ecological situation as a result of the destruction of the ozone layer of the atmosphere are well known. Desertification of large regions of our planet is actively taking place: every year the borders of the Sahara move many kilometers to the south, capturing and destroying savannahs; even a special term was born - sahel, denoting anthropogenic semi-deserts and deserted savannas south of the Sahara. There is also pollution of the air basin with anions of various acids that get there with the smoke of industrial production, the waters of the World Ocean with oil, industrial and domestic waste, which negatively affects the state of biocenoses: both in the ocean and on land, the species diversity of biota is rapidly declining. Increasing human impact on nature and its mostly negative consequences for humans and a significant part of the biota is now an indisputable fact.
However, the opinions of scientists regarding the degree of this impact are different. There are many experts who argue that the influence of man on nature has reached extreme values, which will soon lead to the death of civilization. Others believe that it is not. At the same time, it is argued that significant cataclysms have always taken place on the planet, that they are the inevitable result of its development, including the cyclic one. It is very difficult to resolve this dispute, since with the absolute incompatibility of the duration of the development of the geographic shell (even at its quasi-stationary stage of development, starting from the Devonian) and human impact on it, it is not easy to answer the question of the causes of changes occurring in nature: are they the result of its natural development or associated with anthropogenic activity?
For example, some time ago it was argued that the lowering of the level of the Caspian Sea was largely caused by human activity - the huge consumption of water from the Volga basin and other rivers flowing into it. In this regard, it was planned to transfer part of the flow of the northern rivers to the Volga basin. But since 1977, the water level in the Caspian began to rise, which continued until 1996 and reached two meters by that time. This led to the flooding of large coastal land areas. Since 1996, the level of the Caspian Sea has stabilized. As you can see, the question is really complicated when it comes to the causes of changes in nature. Sufficiently convincing facts are given by both supporters and opponents of the decisive role of the anthropogenic factor in this process. Only the assertion remains indisputable that the natural complexes of the local level, which from this point of view are the most vulnerable, are still exposed to anthropogenic impact.
It should also be noted that some results of anthropogenic impacts on nature are considered by some researchers as positive, others as negative. Thus, for example, climate warming, to which many people attribute anthropogenic origin, is assessed by some as a negative, by others as a positive phenomenon. The latter believe, based on paleogeographic and historical data, that the periods of warming that were previously observed on Earth were the most favorable for nature and human economic activity in the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
There are types of anthropogenic activities that in themselves contribute to the improvement of the functioning of natural complexes from the human point of view, in other words, improve the ecological state of the PC. This is the already mentioned regulation of the flow of rivers, as well as the deepening of their bottom for the needs of navigation: the shallowest dams in the channel are deepened - rifts, after which the water exchange in the channel improves and the ability of river water to self-purify increases. Termination in the 90s In the 20th century, dredging on a number of Russian rivers led to an increase in the frequency and height of ice jams on them, as ice floes became more likely to get stuck in shallow water. A vivid example of this is the catastrophic floods in the cities of Veliky Ustyug in 1998 and Lenek in 2001, when due to ice jams formed on narrow and shallow rifts below these cities, the water levels in the rivers rose so much that the first floodplains were flooded. terraces with cities located on them.
Speaking about the impact of man on natural complexes, it should be borne in mind that in a number of developed countries certain works are being carried out to restore natural complexes disturbed by man.
This activity is called ecological restoration. Its results include, in particular, cultural landscapes.
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3. Short-term regulated landscape complexes.
The existence of these complexes is constantly supported by special agrotechnical measures. These include cultivated fields - crops of grain and industrial crops, as well as orchards.
VI. Classification of anthropogenic complexes according to their economic value
According to the degree of economic value, bonitet, all anthropogenic landscapes are divided into two categories:
1. Cultural landscapes are anthropogenic complexes regulated by man, constantly maintained in a state optimal for performing the economic, aesthetic and other functions assigned to them. Cultural landscapes are the result of rational housekeeping; quality, their value, as a rule, is higher than those natural landscapes on the site of which they arose. Most of our cultivated fields, shelterbelts, ponds, orchards belong to the type of cultural anthropogenic landscapes.
2. Acultural landscapes - anthropogenic complexes of low quality, the so-called waste lands, "anthropogenic badland" that arose as a result of irrational, inept management.
The principle of natural-anthropogenic compatibility.
Anthropogenic complexes are created in specific physical and geographical conditions, taking into account and in close connection with existing natural landscapes. When creating direct anthropogenic complexes, one must strive to ensure that they most rationally fit into the natural environment. From the moment of their origin, their development proceeds under the powerful influence of processes characteristic of those natural landscapes that serve as a background for anthropogenic complexes.
Anthropogenic complexes are a structural part of natural landscapes of a higher taxonomic rank. There will always be divisions and classes of natural landscapes, physical-geographical countries and continents - natural regional units of high taxonomic rank. Therefore, when studying anthropogenic complexes, there can be no sharp opposition to their natural landscapes. The study of anthropogenic complexes is impossible without simultaneous analysis of natural landscapes. This is where the principle of natural-anthropogenic compatibility comes from, which should be considered one of the main ones in anthropogenic landscape science.
Natural-anthropogenic compatibility finds its expression not only in the structural affiliation of anthropogenic complexes in relation to natural ones. At the level of stows within one family, both natural and anthropogenic types of stows can occur simultaneously. For example, the family of tracts of the steppe level. According to soil characteristics, it is divided into several genera and subgenera. In turn, according to the nature of the herbage, each genus is divided into types of tracts of natural (forb-meadow steppe chernozem sable, grass steppe chernozem sable, etc.) and anthropogenic (plowed chernozem sable) origin.
This applies equally to families of terrain types. In particular, the upland type of terrain can be represented by steppe, field, pasture and other types.
The principle of natural-anthropogenic compatibility is especially evident in the study of ponds. In essence, ponds as anthropogenic autonomous complexes are unthinkable. They are always only an integral part of a larger natural complex, with which the ponds are in complex relationships. Thus, the ponds of the upland type of terrain, created in the hollows of the runoff, have an insignificant depth and a small capacity. On the contrary, slope-type ponds, arranged in beams, have considerable depth, large capacity, pronounced coastline with traces of abrasion. The rate of silting and overgrowing with vegetation, and hence the duration of the existence of a reservoir, are in the most direct connection with the physical and geographical situation surrounding the pond.
Define Anthropogenic natural complex
Answers:
Anthropogenic is a special type of geographical complex that began to form on Earth in historical time. There is still a debate about this concept in science. Most scientists (F. N. Milkov, A. M. Ryabchikov) believe that anthropogenic complexes are independent natural systems with a structure different from that of natural landscapes. Other researchers (V. B. Sochava, A. G. Isachenko) consider altered complexes as modifications genetically associated with an unchanged structure. With this approach, the possibility of fundamental transformations in landscapes is denied, and the temporality of anthropogenic impacts is emphasized. Supporters of both concepts have strong arguments in defense of their scientific positions. The former believe that an anthropogenic change in any component (over the entire or larger area) leads to irreversible changes in the complex as a whole.
The latter doubt the stability of anthropogenic transformations of natural complexes, arguing, not without reason, that energy recovery processes quite strong in nature. The question of the stability of the landscape to anthropogenic impacts, reversible and irreversible changes in the structure of the landscape is complex and ambiguous. The depth of anthropogenic change (or transformation) of the landscape depends both on the stability of the natural complex and on the nature and intensity of the technogenic impact.
Classifications of anthropogenic landscapes
A large amount of literature is devoted to the classification of anthropogenic landscapes, but there is still no generally accepted point of view. F.N. Milkov (1973) proposed a classification that consisted in the division of anthropogenic landscapes into groups according to some feature - either the most significant in the very structure of the complex, or important for the purposes of practice.
Classification of anthropogenic landscapes according to their content
It takes into account differences in the most important structural parts of anthropogenic complexes.
1. Agricultural complexes (cultivated fields, cultivated meadows, etc.).
Forest complexes (secondary forest, artificial forest plantations).
3. Water complexes (ponds, reservoirs).
4. Industrial complexes (including road).
5. Residential complexes - landscapes of settlements, from small villages to large cities.
Classification of anthropogenic complexes according to the depth of human impact on nature.
1. Anthropogenic neolandscapes - newly created by man, complexes that did not previously exist in nature. These include a mound in the steppe, a pond in a beam, etc.
2. Modified anthropogenic landscapes, characterized by the fact that individual components, most often vegetation, have experienced a direct transformative impact on the part of man. Examples of such landscapes are a birch grove in the place of an oak forest or a sagebrush-typchak pasture in the place of a feather grass steppe.
Classification of anthropogenic complexes according to their genesis
1. Technogenic landscapes - complexes, the occurrence of which is associated with various types construction - industrial, urban, road, water management, etc.
2. Slashed landscapes - complexes, in their origin associated with deforestation (meadow, wasteland, etc.).
3. Plowed landscapes are anthropogenic complexes formed as a result of plowing a territory (virgin steppe, meadows). These include field landscapes and various kinds of deposits.
4. Pyrogenic landscapes - complexes caused by the burning of forests, steppes and other indigenous types of vegetation in order to use land for arable land or improve grass stand.
5. Pasture-digressive landscapes - complexes that have arisen in places of immoderate grazing.
Classification of anthropogenic complexes according to the purposefulness of their occurrence
1. Direct anthropogenic landscapes are programmed complexes that arise as a result of purposeful human economic activity (a pond in a gully, a large reservoir in a river valley, shelterbelts, etc.).
2. Associated anthropogenic complexes not directly created by man. They arose as a result of indirect human impact: a ravine in place of a furrow, a salt marsh on the outskirts of an irrigated field, a swamp in the zone of flooding of a reservoir, etc.
Classification of anthropogenic complexes according to the duration of their existence and the degree of self-regulation
1. Durable self-regulating landscapes. These include landscapes long time- several centuries - without any additional measures on the part of man to maintain them (mounds, earthen ramparts, etc.).
2. Perennial, partially regulated landscapes. They can exist for decades or more, but for their normal development from time to time they need human care (forest landscapes, upland meadows, storage water, etc.).
3. Short-term regulated landscape complexes, the existence of which is constantly supported by special agrotechnical measures. These include cultivated fields - crops of various agricultural crops, as well as orchards.
Classification of anthropogenic complexes according to their economic value
1. Cultural landscapes - anthropogenic complexes constantly maintained in an optimal condition for the performance of the economic, aesthetic and other functions assigned to them. Their quality, value, as a rule, is higher than that of those natural landscapes on the site of which they arose (cultivated fields, orchards, shelterbelts, etc.).
2. Acultural landscapes - anthropogenic complexes of low quality, which have arisen as a result of inept management of the economy (ravines, secondary solonchaks on irrigated fields, a pond that has turned into a lowland swamp, etc.).
Literature.
- Zhitin Yu.E. landscape science: Tutorial/ Yu.E. Zhitin, T.M. Parahnevich. - Voronezh: VGAU, 2003. - 218 p.
More articles on landscape science, about anthropogenic landscapes, O Earth landscapes.
Geoecological research is based on the conceptual base of complex and sectoral physical and geographical disciplines with the active use of the ecological approach. The object of physical and geoecological research is natural and natural-anthropogenic geosystems, the properties of which are studied from the standpoint of assessing the quality of the environment as a habitat and human activity,
In complex physical and geographical studies, the terms "geosystem", "natural-territorial complex" (NTC), "landscape" are used. All of them are interpreted as natural combinations of geographical components or complexes of the lowest rank that form a system various levels from geographical envelope to facies.
The term "PTC" is a general, out-of-rank concept, it focuses on the regularities of the combination of all geographical components: the masses of the solid earth's crust, the hydrosphere (surface and groundwater), air masses of the atmosphere, biota (communities of plants, animals and microorganisms), soils. Relief and climate are distinguished as special geographical components.
NTC is a spatio-temporal system of geographic components, interdependent in their location and developing as a whole.
The term "geosystem" reflects the system properties (integrity, interconnection) of elements and components. This concept is wider than the concept of "PTC", since every complex is a system, but not every system is a natural-territorial complex.
In landscape science, the term "landscape" is the basic one. In its general interpretation, the term refers to a system of general concepts and denotes geographical systems consisting of interacting natural or natural and anthropogenic complexes of a lower taxonomic rank. In the regional interpretation, the landscape is considered as a NTC of a certain spatial dimension (rank), characterized by genetic unity and close interconnection of its constituent components. The specificity of the regional approach is clearly visible when comparing the concepts of facies - natural boundary - landscape.
A facies is a PTC, throughout which the lithology of surface deposits, the nature of the relief, moisture, one microclimate, one soil difference, one biocenosis are the same.
The tract is a NTC, consisting of genetically related facies and usually occupying the entire form of the mesorelief.
The landscape is a genetically homogeneous NTC, having the same geological foundation, one type of relief, climate, consisting of a set of dynamically coupled and regularly repeating tracts, characteristic only of this landscape.
The typological interpretation focuses on the uniformity of PTK, dispersed in space, and can be considered as their classification.
When studying NTC transformed by economic activity, the concepts of an anthropogenic complex (AC) are introduced, as purposefully created by man and having no analogues in nature, and a natural-anthropogenic complex (NAC), the structure and functioning of which are largely predetermined by natural prerequisites. Transferring the regional interpretation of the landscape to the anthropogenic landscape (AL), according to A. G. Isachenko, it should be understood as anthropogenic complexes of regional dimensions. The general interpretation of the landscape makes it possible to consider anthropogenic landscapes as an out-of-rank concept. The anthropogenic landscape is, according to F. N. Milkov, a single complex of equivalent components, feature which is the presence of signs of self-development in accordance with natural laws.
The human-transformed NTCs, together with their anthropogenic objects, are called geotechnical systems. Geotechnical systems (landscape-technical, according to F. N. Milkov) are considered as block systems. They are formed by natural and technical blocks (subsystems), the development of which is subject to both natural and socio-economic laws with the leading role of the technical block.
Natural and economic geosystems are considered from the position of the triad: "nature - economy - society" (Fig. 2). Depending on the type and intensity of anthropogenic impact, natural and economic geosystems of various ranks are formed secondary to landscapes.
Lecture number 3.
Topic: Classification of methods of physical and geographical research.
1. Classification according to the criterion of universality.
2. Classification of methods according to the method of study.
3. Classification by position in the system of stages of cognition.
4. Classification by classes of problems to be solved.
5. Classification according to the criterion of scientific novelty
Siberian Medical Journal, 2007, No. 5
LIFESTYLE. ECOLOGY
© VOROBYEVA I.B. - 2007
ECOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE STATE OF THE NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC COMPLEX (BY THE EXAMPLE OF THE IRKUTSK ACADEMGORODOK)
I.B. Vorobiev
(Institute of Geography named after V.B. Sochava SB RAS, Director - Doctor of Geography A.N. Antipov, Laboratory of Geochemistry of Landscapes and
soil geography, head. - d.g.s. E.G. Nechaev)
Summary. The results of studying the ecological and geochemical state of the natural and anthropogenic complex of Akademgorodok are presented. According to the results of snow cover studies, zones of maximum pollution were identified, confined to transport highways and the near-top part of the mountain. It has been established that the territory of Akademgorodok
The level of pollution can be classified as relatively satisfactory.
Keywords: natural-anthropogenic complex, snow cover, soil, microelements, technogenesis, Irkutsk.
The intensive growth of cities, the exploitation of urban infrastructure, and, as a result, the emergence of the anthropogenic environment are closely related to the intensive use of the natural environment of the city and its environs. The natural and anthropogenic environment of urbanized territories turned out to be closely interconnected by a complex system of direct and feedback links. The natural-anthropogenic complex of the city is exposed to a wide range of factors that are comparable in the consequences of their impact on nature with earthly cataclysms.
Technological progress has given rise to the idea that a person, "conquering nature", is freed from its influence. The links between society and nature are becoming more complex and diverse. It should be noted that no matter how much the landscape is changed by man, no matter how saturated with the results of human labor, it remains a part of nature, and natural laws continue to operate in it. Human impact on nature should be considered as natural process in which the person acts as an external factor. Technogenic landforms perform the same functions in the landscape as natural ones.
From an ecological point of view, the territory of the city can be considered as a natural-anthropogenic complex that exists due to the constant external “disturbing” human impact. The intensity and diversity of this complex impact many times exceeds the rate of adaptation and sustainability of the natural system.
The industrial development of territories with extreme climatic and geophysical conditions is characterized by accelerated rhythms of life, the movement of significant human contingents to the developed territories. The emergence of industrial centers leads to powerful industrial emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere, pollution of water bodies, and disruption of ecological chains in the previously established equilibrium system of man - nature. For the newcomer population, the problems of the urbanized environment are: the inability to create a balance with the environment through the use of local food chains; under the influence of extreme climatic and geophysical factors (cold, magnetic storms etc.); the human body is also affected by high concentrations of toxic substances emitted into the atmosphere by industry and transport.
For an ecological and geochemical assessment of the state of the urban environment, it is necessary to identify the features of pollution of the urban area, which depend on the source and type of human intervention, on load factors, and on the quality of the environment. The ecological and geochemical aspect of the assessment includes the study of the distribution of
polluting substances in the atmospheric air, snow, soils, plants, waters, i.e. in the components of the urban landscape, tracking the links between them, assessing the geochemical transformation of the environment under the influence of industry and transport, ecological and geochemical mapping. The ecological blocks of the city, between which flows of pollutants are formed, are conditionally divided into three groups: 1) sources of emissions; 2) transit environments; 3) depositing media.
The purpose of this work is to assess the ecological-geo-chemical state of the natural-anthropogenic complex on the example of the Irkutsk Akademgorodok. The following were studied: snow cover, considered both as a transit and as a depositing environment, soil cover, which is a depositing environment where technogenesis products accumulate and transform. The distribution of solid aerosols and chemical elements contained in them in the snow cover makes it possible to assess the degree of pollution of the air basin, and, in comparison with conventional measurements of atmospheric air, it gives a greater representativeness. If the concentration of metals in the surface layer of the soil is the result of long-term exposure to polluted atmospheric air, then the concentration of metals in the snow cover reflects the accumulation over a certain (relatively short) period of time. These data make it possible to more clearly identify the zones of influence of the this moment sources of emissions, while the soil sums up all previously accumulated emissions.
The data obtained by the snow survey method are the most revealing, since the snow cover integrally reflects the surface concentrations of atmospheric impurities over a period equal to the time of its existence. Thus, the deviations of the studied value are “averaged”, associated both with fluctuations in the chemical composition of the enterprise’s emissions and with the migration of pollutants in dynamic air flows. Technogenic anomalies in the snow are more contrasting and more clearly characterize the spatial picture of the impact than anomalies in other natural environments.
On the one hand, the territory of Akademgorodok is under the direct influence of urbanization, and, on the other hand, it retains some key properties of the natural environment, i.e. combines the properties of both urbanized and non-urbanized landscapes.
The specifics of Academgorodok development are the absence of industrial zones, the presence of large areas of green spaces, the placement of various research institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as an extensive residential area with a complex of social infrastructure.
tours (schools, kindergartens, shops).
The original layout of Academgorodok was an environmentally sound project, which was characterized by an effective combination of residential and research complexes optimally integrated into the landscape environment. Akademgorodok is located on a surface gently sloping to the east with a height difference of 80-100 m. Lermontov (one of the busiest thoroughfares of the city).
In Akademgorodok, the northwestern wind direction prevails and all atmospheric pollution, formed by the institute complexes, as well as the north-western districts of the city, are aimed at residential areas. The Novo-Irkutsk CHPP has an intense impact on the near-top parts of the slope, however, the residential development of Akademgorodok is located on the slope facing not the CHPP, but the slope opposite from it, which reduces the strength of this impact. Since the residential area is located in the lower part of the eastern slope, all pollution is usually carried away by surface waters (melt and rain) towards residential areas.
Materials and methods
On the territory of Akademgorodok, 34 snow samples were taken in various functional areas (industrial, residential, green, transport). The selected snow samples were melted at room temperature, filtered to determine the content of elements in the liquid part and to isolate the solid fraction of precipitation according to methodological recommendations. The determination of chemical elements was carried out on an Optima 2000DV instrument - an optical emission spectrometer with induction plasma and computer software (Perkin Elmer CLC, USA). The determination of trace elements was carried out on a DFS-80 and ISP-30 spectrograph. The reaction of the snow cover environment and the acid-base conditions of the soil were determined on an Expert-001 pH meter.
Results and discussion
The pH values of melt water obtained after the melting of snow samples serve as a good indicator of the technogenic impact on the snow cover. Since there are no industrial enterprises on the territory of Akademgorodok, motor vehicles are the main source of pollution. Small fluctuations in the pH values of snow water (from 6.4 to 7.4) should be noted. When snow melts, the solid matter accumulated in its thickness first enters the soil and surface water, affecting their chemical composition. The most toxic is considered to be a soluble and therefore easily mobile substance emitted by industrial enterprises. According to A.I. Perelman calcium, magnesium, sodium, strontium belong to a number of elements with a strong migration intensity (group 1); manganese, barium, potassium, copper, silicon, arsenic, thallium - medium (group 2), and aluminum, iron, zinc, titanium, lead, vanadium, etc. - weak and very weak (group 3). It was found that elements of the first and second groups are present in all samples (except for arsenic and thallium from the second group), which were detected only in two samples. From the third group, lead and vanadium were determined in three samples, and the remaining elements - in all samples. Moreover, such elements as arsenic, thallium, lead and vanadium were determined only in samples located on the near-top parts of the eastern slope, which, apparently, is associated with emissions from the Novo-Irkutsk CHPP.
Data on the content of chemical elements in the snow cover must be supplemented with data
about their content in the soil, since it is located at the intersection of all transport routes for the migration of chemical elements. The soil captures the static contours of pollution and reflects the cumulative effect of long-term anthropogenic impact. Contamination of urban soils with heavy metals (trace elements) is considered to be of particular ecological, biological and health significance.
To assess the level of soil pollution, maximum allowable concentrations (MPC), background values and average contents of chemical elements in the earth's crust (clarks according to A.P. Vinogradov) are used. It has been established that the average concentrations of strontium, chromium, and manganese do not exceed the background values, while copper, lead, cobalt, barium, and nickel significantly exceed Clarke (see table). The maximum concentrations of pollutants were found near highways - st. Starokuzmikhinskaya and Lermontov: lead - 3 MPC, copper - 13, cobalt - 5, chromium - 2.5, nickel - 2 MPC.
The centers of technogenic pollution, as a rule, represent an excessive concentration of not one, but a whole complex of chemical elements. The total concentration index (CIC) of chemical elements characterizes the degree chemical pollution soils by harmful substances of various hazard classes and is defined as the sum of the concentration coefficients of individual components. The ecological state of soils should be considered satisfactory
Table 1
provided that the SPK of chemical elements is less than 16. It was revealed that the entire territory of Akademgorodok belongs to the weak zone in terms of pollution, the category of pollution is acceptable and, according to the assessment of the environmental situation, is relatively satisfactory. Increased SEC rates (by 1.5-2 times) are recorded in roadside ecosystems (near traffic lights), but even there they remain significantly less than the permissible level.
Soil pollution is carried out through atmospheric emission, which is the most significant and environmentally hazardous. Atmospheric aerosols containing toxic elements can arise not only as a result of the direct emission of pollutants, but also due to soil erosion, which is
Elements Values
experimental background Clark MPC
Cu 26.55-92.08* 42.60 31.9 20 3
Pb 16.71-101.32 31.75 27.06 10 30
Sr 24.35-39.67 31.74 297.78 300 -
Co 12.85-24.56 18.5 12.17 10 5
V 62.90-95.98 83.63 81.23 100 150
Cr 62.76-151.53 90.63 91.02 200 60
Ba 550.01-1109.74 791.66 534.39 500 -
Mn 434.5-1111.02 737.39 878.68 850 1500
Ni 44.55-77.47 66.03 46.29 40 40
Ti 28.36-6176.90 4488.12 52.89 4600 -
both a collector and a secondary source of pollution. As a result of the interaction of associations of elements with the soil cover, the latter develop toxic properties that can have various manifestations. The negative role of technogenic pollution in the development of many diseases in modern industrial centers is obvious. According to V.A. Zueva et al. noted an increase in the number of patients hospitalized in the therapeutic department of the Institute of Scientific Centers of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences with acute and chronic diseases of the respiratory system. The structure of morbidity is dominated by acute pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma. Prolonged low-temperature exposure, resident carriage of microflora in the respiratory organs and disruption of their purification mechanisms, episodes of acute viral infection are easily
against this background, provoke serious pulmonary diseases or exacerbations of chronic ones.
For the territory of Akademgorodok, in comparison with other areas of the city, pollution of snow cover and soils associated with industrial zones and old residential buildings has not been established, although spatially localized anomalies associated with highways have been identified.
Thus, despite the active impact of road transport, this territory retains a relatively satisfactory ecological situation. At the same time, a person, being the main ecological link of the system, should be in the center of attention, since the analysis of the dynamics of morbidity can be an objective marker of the pollution of the territory.
THE ECOLOGICAL-GEOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE STATE OF A NATURAL-ANTHROPOGENIC COMPLEX (A CASE STUDY OF IRKUTSK AKADEMGORODOK)
I.B. Vorobyeva (V.B. Sochava Institute of Geography SB RAS, Irkutsk)
Presented are the results from studying the ecological-geochemical state of the natural-anthropogenic complex of Akademgorodok (academic township). Snow cover research results revealed the zones of maximum pollution lying along highways, and near the mountain top. It is established that, according to the pollution level, the territory of Akademgorodok can be categorized as relatively satisfactory.
LITERATURE
Vorobieva I.B., Konovalova T.I., Aleshin A.G. etc. Natural risks of the industrial agglomeration of the south Eastern Siberia. Assessment and management of natural risks // Proceedings of the all-Russian conference "Risk-2000". - M., 2000. - S.317-322. Zueva V.A., Matyashenko N.A., Sobotovich T.K.. The environment as a risk factor in the occurrence of diseases of the bronchopulmonary system // Ecological risk: analysis, assessment, forecast. - Irkutsk, 1988. - S.106-107. Guidelines according to the assessment of the degree of atmospheric air pollution in settlements
metals according to their content in snow cover and soil. - M.: Ministry of Health, 1990. - 24 p.
4. Perelman A.I., Kasimov N.S. Geochemistry of the landscape. - M.: Astreya-2000, 1999. - 768 p.
5. Khasnulin V.I. Formation of the health of the urban population and its social and labor potential in extreme climatic and geographical conditions // Urbo-ecology. - M.: Nauka, 1990. - S.174-181.
6. Vorobieva I.B. Soil monitoring of urban areas (on the example of Irkutsk) //Materialy Intern. scientific conf. " Contemporary Issues soil pollution". - M.; Moscow publishing house. un-ta, 2004. - S.193-195.
© Beletskaya T.A. - 2007
RESULTS OF HIRUDOTERAPY IN PATIENTS WITH PRIMARY OPEN-ANGLE GLAUCOMA
T.A. Beletskaya
(Krasnoyarsk Regional Ophthalmological Clinical Hospital, Chief Physician - Candidate of Medical Sciences S.S. Ilyenkov)
Summary. The effectiveness of hirudotherapy in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma was studied. The results were evaluated by changes in the hydrodynamics of the eyes, hemodynamics of the eyes and brain, functional activity of the retina and optic nerve in 68 patients with glaucoma (132 eyes). Received positive results, which allows us to recommend hirudotherapy for the treatment of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma. Key words: glaucoma, glaucomatous optic neuropathy, hirudotherapy.
In the light of ideas about the pathogenesis of glaucoma, according to which glaucoma is considered as a progressive optic neuropathy and can occupy an intermediate position between neuro- and ophthalmic pathology, attitudes towards approaches to the treatment of this disease have changed. The need for neuroprotection, correction of hemodynamic, rheological, metabolic disorders comes to the fore.
Hirudotherapy, having anti-ischemic, anticoagulant, thrombolytic and neurotrophic effects, is promising in this direction. However, its use in ophthalmology is clearly limited, there is no scientific approach and analysis of treatment results. Ophthalmological studies of the effectiveness of hirudotherapy in patients with glaucoma have not been conducted.
The purpose of the study was to study the effect of hirudotherapy on visual functions, indicators of hydro- and hemodynamics of the eyes in patients with primary open-angle
glaucoma (POAG).
Materials and methods
68 patients (132 eyes) with POAG at the age of 42-74 were examined. average age 64±2.2 years. 51 (77%) patients (101 eyes) had the initial stage of the disease, 17 (23%) (31 eyes) had the advanced stage. Intraocular pressure was normalized by surgery or the use of antihypertensive drugs. Women predominated - 63 (92.5%), men - 5 (7.5%). Concomitant pathology - hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, encephalopathy, coronary artery disease. Patients complained of headaches, eye pain, noise in the head, dizziness, poor sleep and mood.
The course of treatment was 16-28 leeches, which were placed in 2-6 pieces for 2 weeks after 1-3 days. The choice and sequence of the effect of leeches on reflex zones and acupuncture points was carried out taking into account the concomitant somatic diseases of the patient. We used a medical leech (registration No. 74/270/29 in the Register medicines, FS
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