Comments. Foreign policy of the USSR History of foreign policy of the USSR
The foreign policy activity of the Soviet state in the second half of the 1940s took place in an atmosphere of profound changes in the international arena. The victory in the Patriotic War increased the prestige of the USSR. In 1945, he had diplomatic relations with 52 states (against 26 in prewar years). Soviet Union took an active part in solving the most important international issues, and above all in the settlement of the post-war situation in Europe.
In seven countries of Central and of Eastern Europe left-wing, democratic forces came to power. The new governments created in them were headed by representatives of the communist and workers' parties. The leaders of Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania. Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia carried out agrarian reforms in their countries, the nationalization of large-scale industry, banks and transport. The current political organization society was called people's democracy. It was seen as a form of proletarian dictatorship.
In 1947, at a meeting of representatives of nine communist parties in Eastern Europe, the Communist Information Bureau (Cominformburo) was created. It was entrusted with coordinating the actions of the communist parties of the states of people's democracy, which began to call themselves socialist. The conference documents formulated the thesis of dividing the world into two camps - imperialist and democratic, anti-imperialist. The position of two camps, of confrontation on the world stage between two social systems, underlay the foreign policy views of the party and state leadership of the USSR. These views were reflected, in particular, in JV Stalin's work "Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR". The work also contained a conclusion about the inevitability of wars in the world as long as imperialism exists.
Treaties of friendship and mutual assistance were concluded between the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. Identical treaties linked the Soviet Union with the East German GDR, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), and the People's Republic of China (PRC). The agreement with China provided for a $300 million loan. The right of the USSR and China to use the former CER was confirmed. The countries reached an agreement on joint actions in case of aggression from any of the states. Diplomatic relations were established with the states that gained independence as a result of the national liberation struggle unfolding in them (the so-called developing countries).
Start of the Cold War
With the end of the Patriotic War, there were changes in the relations between the USSR and the former allies in the anti-Hitler coalition. "Cold War" - this is the name given to the foreign policy pursued by both sides in relation to each other in the second half of the 40s - early 90s. It was characterized primarily by the hostile political actions of the parties. Forceful methods were used to solve international problems. Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR of the initial period cold war were V. M. Molotov, and since 1949 - A. I. Vyshinsky.
The confrontation of the parties was clearly manifested in 1947 in connection with the Marshall Plan put forward by the USA. The program developed by US Secretary of State J. Marshall provided for the provision of economic assistance to European countries that suffered during the Second World War. The USSR and the people's democracies were invited to participate in the conference on this occasion. The Soviet government regarded the Marshall Plan as a weapon of anti-Soviet policy and refused to participate in the conference. At his insistence, the Eastern European countries invited to the conference also announced their refusal to participate in the Marshall Plan.
One of the manifestations of the Cold War was the formation of political and military-political blocs. In 1949, the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) was created. It included the USA, Canada and several states of Western Europe. Two years later, the signing of the military-political alliance between the United States, Australia and New Zealand (ANZUS) took place. The formation of these blocs contributed to the strengthening of the US position in various regions of the world.
In the conditions of tougher confrontation in the relations between the former allies, the Soviet Union carried out work against the propaganda of a new war. The main arena of his activity was the United Nations (UN). This international organization was established in 1945. It united 51 states. Its goal was to strengthen peace and security and develop cooperation between states. At UN sessions, Soviet representatives came up with proposals for the reduction of conventional weapons and the prohibition of atomic weapons, and for the withdrawal of foreign troops from the territories of foreign states. All these proposals, as a rule, were blocked by representatives of the United States and its allies. The USSR unilaterally withdrew troops from the territories of several states, where they had been introduced during the war years.
Representatives of the Soviet public organizations actively participated in the peace movement, which took organizational shape in the late 1940s. Over 115 million citizens of the country put their signatures under the Stockholm Appeal (1950) adopted by the Standing Committee of the World Peace Congress. It contained demands for the prohibition of atomic weapons and the establishment of international control for the implementation of this decision.
The confrontation between the former allies reached its peak at the turn of the 1940s and 1950s in connection with the Korean War. In 1950, the leadership of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea made an attempt to unite the two Korean states under its control. According to Soviet leaders, this association could strengthen the position of the anti-imperialist camp in this region of Asia. During the period of preparation for the war and during the hostilities, the government of the USSR provided financial, military and technical assistance to North Korea. The leadership of the PRC, at the insistence of I.V. Stalin, sent several military divisions to participate in combat operations. The war was stopped only in 1953 after lengthy diplomatic negotiations.
USSR and countries of Eastern Europe
One of the leading directions of foreign policy in post-war years was the establishment of friendly relations with the states of Eastern Europe. Soviet diplomacy assisted Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania in the preparation of peace treaties with them (signed in Paris in 1947). In accordance with trade agreements, the Soviet Union supplied the East European states on preferential terms with grain, raw materials for industry, and fertilizers for agriculture. In 1949, in order to expand economic cooperation and trade between countries, an intergovernmental economic organization was created - the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). It included Albania (until 1961), Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and since 1949 - the GDR. Moscow was the seat of the CMEA Secretariat. One of the reasons for the creation of the CMEA was the Western countries' boycott of trade relations with the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe.
The main directions of relations between the USSR and the Eastern European countries were determined by bilateral agreements between them. Military and other types of assistance were envisaged in case one of the parties was involved in hostilities. The development of economic and cultural ties, holding conferences on international issues affecting the interests of the contracting parties.
Already at the initial stage of cooperation between the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe, contradictions and conflicts were manifested in their relations. They were connected mainly with the search for and choice of the path of building socialism in these states. According to the leaders of some countries, in particular W. Gomulka (Poland) and K. Gottwald (Czechoslovakia), the Soviet path of development was not the only one for building socialism. The desire of the leadership of the USSR to approve the Soviet model of building socialism, to unify ideological and political concepts led to the Soviet-Yugoslav conflict. The reason for it was Yugoslavia's refusal to participate in the federation with Bollaria recommended by the Soviet leaders. In addition, the Yugoslav side refused to comply with the terms of the agreement on mandatory consultations with the USSR on issues of national foreign policy. The Yugoslav leaders were accused of retreating from joint actions with the socialist countries. In August 1949, the USSR severed diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia.
The results of the foreign policy activities of the USSR in the second half of the 1940s and early 1950s were contradictory. Strengthened its position in the international arena. At the same time, the policy of confrontation between East and West has greatly contributed to the growth of tension in the world.
Difficulties in the economic sphere, ideologization of social political life, increased international tension - these were the results of the development of society in the first post-war years. During this period, the regime of personal power of I. V. Stalin became even stronger, the command and administrative system became tougher. In the same years, the idea of the need for changes in society was increasingly clearly formed in the public mind. The death of I. V. Stalin (March 1953) facilitated the search for a way out of the contradictions that entangled all spheres of public life.
This is a great and powerful country that existed in the twentieth century. It left its mark in world history as a leading country. But there was a time when the USSR also sought the recognition of European states, starting to develop from the very bottom.
background
The beginning of the 20th century was marked for the Russian Empire by a number of historically important events: the First World War, the February October Revolution, the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty and the formation of a new state. From this moment begins a new page in the history of the Russian state - the history of the USSR. The government headed by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin put the idea of achieving socialism as the basis for the development of the newly formed state.
World recognition of the USSR in the 20-30s of the XX century
Despite the fact that the overthrow of the monarchy and the transformation of the state took place in 1917, the country received international recognition after the 1920s. The foreign policy of the USSR in the 20-30s was primarily aimed at the recognition of the newly formed state throughout the world.
After the premature withdrawal from the First World War and the refusal to pay the tsarist debts, the USSR fell out of favor with the world's leading states. However, in 1922, after the official unification of Ukraine, Belarus, Transcaucasia and Russia into a single Union, the beginning of a period of diplomatic recognition of the USSR was laid. It was possible to achieve a European predisposition and lift the economic blockade thanks to the first People's Commissars for Foreign Affairs. This position at that time was occupied by G. V. Chicherin and M. M. Litvinov.
The introduction of the NEP played an important role. The famine of 1921 caused discontent among the peasants and workers, which escalated into the Kronstadt rebellion. Politic system The USSR in the 1920s and 1930s needed a change of direction and was transformed from War Communism to the New Economic Policy. Such changes in the internal government of the country softened the attitude Western states to Russia and contributed to their rapprochement in the future.
The first international treaty with the Soviet Union Estonia, after that, within three years, agreements were concluded with another 13 European countries. In 1922, during the Genoa Conference, where the USSR was invited to resolve the conflict between Western countries and Russia, the Rapallo Treaty was signed with Germany. Later, agreements were signed that resolved issues of borders and economic relations with neighboring countries: Afghanistan, Turkey, Iran. During 1921-22, the Soviet Union signed trade agreements with Norway, England, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Italy. The foreign policy of the USSR in the 20-30s began its active development.
First exacerbations
However, this upswing in foreign policy did not last long, and new conflicts soon emerged. After the death of V. I. Lenin in 1923, internal political clashes took place between his close associates for the vacant place of the leader. He was occupied by the determined and ambitious Joseph Stalin. To achieve his goals, he used any means. The generalissimo adhered to such a sharp policy in international relations as well.
In 1927, a miners' riot broke out in England. The USSR came out in support of them and planned to provide material assistance. This behavior of the state turned away from the government of England and served as an impetus for breaking off all diplomatic relations. Following England, Canada, the USA, France and Belgium imposed a ban on the supply of goods from the Soviet Union.
After 2 years, a political liberation movement broke out in China, which was also supported by the USSR, but in the end it all ended in defeat and aggravation of relations with China. It was possible to restore them only in 1930 in order to counter the growing aggression from Japan.
The period of the world economic crisis
In 1929, an incredible event took place, which led to the development of the world crisis. It went down in history as Black Tuesday. Suddenly there was a collapse of the stock exchange on Wall Street. The fall in stocks began as early as Thursday, but the complete collapse came on Tuesday, October 29, 1929. Since the majority European countries, which suffered losses during the First World War, survived on cash loans from the United States, the fall of the dollar immediately brought these states into an economic crisis. Mass protests began, the unemployment rate increased, and the living conditions of the population worsened. Such problems have contributed to domestic political changes in many countries.
What was the government of the Soviet Union doing at that time? In the USSR in the 20-30s of the twentieth century, a period of economic recovery began. There were plans for the first "five-year plans", anew agreements were concluded with leading European countries. During the world crisis in the USSR, the export of food products increased many times over: bread, grain, meat and other products. The foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s experienced a new upsurge.
The position of the USSR in the late 30s
It was only by the middle of 1933 that the crisis was suppressed. At the same time, an important change occurred that significantly influenced the course of history - the coming to power in Germany of Adolf Hitler. While the world's leading countries were busy solving domestic political problems, the development of the military industry began in Germany, bypassing the terms of the Versailles Treaty.
The Union again managed to regain favor European states and strengthen their position. The foreign policy of the USSR in the 20-30s moved to a new level of European relations. This is evidenced by the Union's entry into the League of Nations in 1934. In connection with the events taking place in Germany, the USSR made a proposal to create a system general security in Europe.
A year later, agreements on mutual assistance were signed with France and Czechoslovakia in the event of an attack by one of the European states, implicitly implying Germany. One by one, China, Poland, Lithuania, and Estonia began to conclude similar documents with the Union.
In turn, Germany creates an alliance with Japan, and later with Italy. Gradually, aggressive actions began on the part of Germany in relation to the nearest countries.
Active foreign policy activity of the USSR
From 1936 to 1941, the Soviet Union was active in foreign policy, supported the Spanish government in the fight against the rebels sponsored by Germany and Italy. The USSR helped China in the confrontation with Japan. At the same time, in 1933, the Soviet Union attacked Finland. As a result, the northern part of Karelia was annexed to the state. This behavior outraged the Government of European countries. As a result, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations.
The situation in Europe has changed dramatically, as well as the foreign policy of the USSR. M. Litvinov was replaced by V.M. Molotov. In the light recent events The Soviet Union decided to take a serious step - the signing of a secret non-aggression pact with Germany, known in the history of the USSR as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. A week later, German troops entered Poland, starting the Second World War.
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1 USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTE OF HISTORY OF THE USSR HISTORY OF FOREIGN POLICY OF THE USSR IN TWO VOLUMES Fourth edition, revised and supplemented Edited by A.A. GROMYKO, B.N. Authors of the first volume: A. V. BEREZKIN, I. N. ZEMSKOV, I. F. IVASHIN, V. L. ISRAELYAN, M. S. KAPITSA, I. K. KOBLYAKOV, I. I. MINTS, V. I. POPOV, A. A. ROSCHIN, V. M. KHVOSTOV PUBLISHING HOUSE "NAUKA" MOSCOW 1980 SOBAKIN, S. L. TIKHVINSKY This volume dedicated to the Leninist foreign policy of the young Soviet Republic during the years of the civil war and foreign military intervention, the struggle of the USSR for the establishment of the principle of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems and ends with a presentation of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War. I (02)-80 Nauka Publishing House, 1980 interests of the ruling, exploiting classes. The monarchies of the ancient East, the republics of ancient Greece, the Roman and Byzantine empires, the feudal states of the Middle Ages, absolute monarchies and bourgeois democracies of modern times, fascist dictatorships and colonial empires in the period of imperialism were created and collapsed, but with all the variety of changing social and political forms, foreign policy always and everywhere it was a tool of the exploiting minority. Sometimes it happened that the interests of the ruling class coincided with the national interests, especially in wars against foreign invaders. Usually they came into conflict with the interests of the working majority. This has been the case since the beginning of classes and states. The situation changed radically with the victory of the Great October socialist revolution in Russia. For the first time in the history of mankind, a completely new foreign policy was born, which began to serve not the exploiters, but the working class, which seized state power and represented the interests of the entire working people. This could not but change and indeed changed the nature of the external
2 policies, its goals and objectives, sources of its power and influence, means and methods. VI Lenin was the creator of socialist foreign policy, the creator of its principles and methods of carrying it out. He not only worked out the main provisions of this policy, but, being the head of the Soviet government, he was the first to put them into practice. The policy of any state is ultimately determined by the nature of the economic and social system. As V. I. Lenin pointed out, “the deepest roots of both the domestic and foreign policy of our state are determined by the economic interests, the economic position of the ruling classes of our state.” 1. Lenin V. I. Poln. coll. cit., vol. 36, from the economic basis of capitalism to socialism also determine the fundamental differences in their foreign policy. In capitalist society, which is based on private ownership of the means of production, on the exploitation of man by man, the driving force behind foreign policy is the desire of the ruling class to strengthen the exploitative system, to preserve and expand the sphere of exploitation, to retain and seize markets, strategic positions and foreign lands, to enslavement of other peoples. In the foreign policy of capitalist states, by virtue of their very social nature, there are always tendencies towards expansion and aggression, the preparation and unleashing of wars of conquest, the creation of military blocs and an arms race. These aggressive tendencies in the foreign policy of capitalism were particularly intensified at the monopoly stage of its development, when capitalism turned into imperialism. Clear examples of this are the predatory policy of German imperialism, which created the monstrous terrorist dictatorship of Hitlerism, and the attempts of US monopoly capital to achieve world domination and suppress liberation movements in all parts of the world. The foreign policy of socialism is another matter. Social ownership of the means of production dominates in socialist society. A planned economy excludes the anarchy of production, crises and the struggle for markets. There is neither exploitation of man by man, nor oppression of nations. The driving force behind socialist foreign policy is the striving of the working people in power to create the most favorable conditions for building a new, most just and free society. The aim of socialist economy is to satisfy the ever-growing material and cultural needs of the working people. Wars can only interfere with this. The internal laws of socialist society not only do not give rise to aspirations for the enslavement and exploitation of other peoples, for aggression, wars, seizures, but, on the contrary, make the socialist state an irreconcilable opponent of aggression and encroachment on foreign lands, on peace, security and the independence of nations. The foreign policy of socialism is aimed at curbing the aggressors and at ensuring peace and the independence of the peoples. The foreign policy of the USSR reflects the harmonious combination of the national interests of the Soviet people with the internationalist obligations of the working class that has come to power. Soviet foreign policy organically combines patriotism and service to the interests of the Motherland with internationalism. For decades, the Soviet state stood alone with firmness and courage against the insidious intrigues of the imperialist states, which used armed intervention, economic blockade, diplomatic isolation and other means in an attempt to destroy the country.
3 socialism. Foreign policy played an outstanding role in this struggle of the Soviet Union against imperialism. It helped to ensure the security of the first socialist state and thus defend the interests of the Soviet people, build socialism and move on to building communism. By fulfilling this national task, Soviet foreign policy helped preserve and strengthen the main stronghold of socialism on earth. In this way, it contributed to ensuring the highest interests of the world working class, the working people of all countries. That is why, by promoting the strengthening and prosperity of the Soviet Union, and since socialism has gone beyond the bounds of one country and the entire community of socialist countries, Soviet foreign policy has objectively contributed to the cause of the social liberation of all mankind. Having taken power into its own hands, the working class acquired new levers for revolutionary transformative activity within state borders and, at the same time, new means of influencing the course of world development in order to ensure peace, freedom of peoples and social progress. The strengthening of the economic and political might of the Soviet state increases the possibility of such influence. The construction of a new, communist society in the USSR in itself helps pave the way for the future of all mankind. The source of the strength and authority of socialist foreign policy is primarily the might of the Soviet state and the advantages of the socialist system. The foreign policy of the USSR is based on the economic, political and military might of the Land of Soviets, a great world power. It enjoys the unwavering support of the Soviet people and relies on their patriotism and deep devotion to the Motherland. Popular approval gives Soviet policy that unshakable firmness, consistency and confidence in its own strength and its correctness, which it demonstrates every day and which the Soviet government showed in the long struggle against the numerous enemies of our country, especially in two cruel wars and years when the question of life or death of the Soviet state. A striking example of this is the Great Patriotic War, when all Soviet people at the call of the Communist Party, they rose as one to defend the socialist Fatherland. The Soviet people ardently support and approve of the policy of the government of the USSR. The Soviet Union also has loyal friends and allies outside its borders. For his part, he is a reliable support for them, and they can always count on his unfailing friendship and loyalty to the treaty allied obligations. This is well known and remembered by both our friends and our enemies. The peoples of the whole world rightly see in the Soviet country the most reliable bulwark of peace, socialism and national independence, in other words, the most faithful defender of their vital interests. The sympathy of the working masses in all countries, as well as of the peoples fighting against imperialism, is also the source of the authority of the foreign policy of the USSR. So, Soviet socialist foreign policy is based on the might of the Soviet state, on the patriotism of the Soviet people, on the support of their foreign friends, and above all friends in the ranks of the socialist camp, on the sympathy of the international workers and
4 national liberation movement. The goals of Soviet foreign policy, as formulated by the 24th and 25th Congresses of the CPSU, are to ensure, together with other socialist countries, favorable international terms to build socialism and communism, to strengthen the unity and solidarity of the socialist countries, their friendship and brotherhood; support the national liberation movement and carry out all-round cooperation with young developing states; consistently uphold the principle of peaceful coexistence of states with different social system; give a decisive rebuff to the aggressive forces of imperialism; save humanity from a new world war. All practical activities of the CPSU and the Soviet state in the field of international politics are aimed at achieving these goals. The USSR, together with other states of the socialist community, is pursuing a principled class foreign policy. Its integral components: a course towards strengthening peace and international security, solidarity with the liberation struggle of the peoples of all countries and continents, rebuffing encroachments on their freedom and independence, on their right to independently determine their own destiny. The history of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union went through two main stages. The first lasted from the Great October Socialist Revolution until more than a dozen countries of Europe and Asia fell away from capitalism, that is, until approximately the end of the Second World War. During this time, the Soviet country and the Mongolian People's Republic were the only socialist countries in the world. The Soviet Union had the support of the international proletariat, but as a state it was isolated and alone in the capitalist environment. The Soviet Union, guided by the principle of peaceful coexistence of countries with different social systems, has always sought to maintain peaceful relations with the capitalist states, but at the same time met with many aggressive actions and provocations on their part. In the years The Soviet state repulsed the armed intervention of the imperialists and won the world for itself. But it was very difficult to defend peace in subsequent years, especially after the establishment of the fascist dictatorship in Germany. In the summer of 1941 Nazi Germany attacked the USSR. The period of peaceful development of the Soviet country was interrupted. The victory of the USSR over the fascist aggressors, the triumph of popular revolutions in a significant number of countries in Europe and Asia, ushered in the second major stage in the development of Soviet foreign policy. The capitalist encirclement was broken through. The USSR ceased to be alone. He now spoke in the international arena in the ranks of the entire camp of socialist states. The world system of socialism emerged. At the first stage, the interstate ties of the Soviet Union were limited to relations with the bourgeois states, other than the MPR, then did not exist. The foreign relations of the Soviet country were built on the principles of struggle against imperialist aggression, for the peaceful coexistence of states belonging to opposite social systems, and on the principles of the Leninist national policy aimed at supporting the liberation struggle of the peoples. These principles fully retained their significance in the second stage, but they turned out to be insufficient, since the Soviet Union had relations with other socialist states. Relations within the socialist system of the USSR are built on the basis of a socialist
5 internationalism of the application of the Marxist principle of proletarian internationalism to the interstate relations of the socialist countries. In this new application, internationalism means building relations between sovereign and completely equal socialist states on the basis of all-round cooperation and comradely mutual assistance. These relations of fraternal mutual assistance represent something fundamentally new in relations between states. They do not fit into the framework of mutual benefit, providing for assistance and support that goes far beyond this framework. The principles on which it is built new type international relations, which has developed within the socialist system, are recorded in the collective documents of the world communist movement. Thus, the 1969 International Conference of Communist and Workers' Parties emphasized that the development and strengthening of each individual socialist country is important condition advancing the entire world socialist system. “After the victory of the socialist revolution in many countries,” says the document of the Meeting, the construction of socialism, carried out on the basis of general laws, is being developed in various forms, taking into account specific historical conditions and national characteristics. The successful development of this process presupposes strict adherence to the principles of proletarian internationalism, mutual assistance and support, equality, sovereignty, non-interference in each other's internal affairs” 2. 2 International Conference of Communist and Workers' Parties: Documents and Materials. M., 1969, p. The possibility and necessity of close cooperation between the socialist countries is based on the objective prerequisites for the commonality of the economic and social system, on the unity of the goals of the socialist states, which are the construction of socialism and communism. All this, in turn, gives rise to a community of foreign policy interests and tasks among the socialist states. The building of a new society requires, for its success, a lasting peace and a joint struggle against imperialist aggression. The common tasks and interests generated by the laws inherent in the socialist system create the basis for the development of friendly relations within the socialist camp. The maintenance and development of these relations is one of the primary tasks of the foreign policy of the USSR. Soviet policy is aimed at "every possible strengthening of the world socialist system, development of fraternal relations with all socialist countries on the basis of complete equality and voluntary cooperation." The Union spares no effort to strengthen the solidarity of the socialist states. As long as the USSR was the only socialist country, the working people of the Soviet Union built socialism only by their own efforts, at the cost of their greatest exertion. Now there is a great community of socialist states. Of course, and. in our time every socialist country, in building a new society, mobilizes its internal resources as fully as possible. But now all countries of the socialist system have the opportunity to use the support of other members
6 of the socialist community, developing relations of all-round cooperation and mutual assistance with them. The foreign policy of every socialist country is the sovereign policy of a sovereign state. At the same time, due to the peculiarities of the relations between the socialist countries, the policy of any of them relies not only on their national economic and political forces, not only on their own authority and influence, but also on the might and authority of the entire world socialist system. Both the successful building of a new society in every socialist country and the effectiveness of the actions of the socialist states in the international arena depend to a great extent on the development of cooperative relations between the fraternal countries, on the strength of these relations in all spheres of economic and political life. 3 Materials of the XXII Congress of the CPSU. M., 1961, p. The solidarity of the socialist states is especially important in the struggle against the aggressive forces of imperialism, for ensuring the security of each socialist country and maintaining world peace. The socialist states have created such an effective mechanism for interstate political cooperation as the Warsaw Treaty Organization. With the help of this organization, the security of the states of the socialist community was reliably ensured, and all the gains of the socialist revolutions were protected. An enormous role in raising the efficiency of social production, in combining the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution with the advantages of socialism, and in raising the material well-being of the working people of the socialist states is played by the implementation of a comprehensive program of socialist economic integration. Integration represents a new, higher level of economic cooperation between the socialist states, which makes it possible to ensure the broad development of international specialization and co-production, the joint mastery of advanced technology and the creation of joint enterprises, and the joint solution of major economic problems. The socialist states also stand for close coordination in the field of ideological, political and educational work. These forms of cooperation are of particular importance in a situation where the imperialists, in an attempt to adapt to the new situation, are focusing on efforts to cause "erosion" of socialism from within, on the use of ideological subversion. A key role in strengthening the unity of the socialist community is played by the development of all-round cooperation between the USSR and other socialist states and the uncompromising struggle against anti-Sovietism. The Soviet Union is the oldest country of socialism and has the greatest economic and military power among the socialist states. Without the defeat of the fascist aggressors by the Soviet Armed Forces in the Second World War, without the protection of the countries of people's democracy from the encroachments of imperialism in the post-war years, without economic assistance from the USSR, the socialist system in the states of people's democracy could not have won and strengthened. The Soviet Armed Forces are the most powerful and most modern in the socialist camp. They constitute his reliable protection. The nuclear missile power of the Soviet Union is the most important factor in curbing the aggressive forces of imperialism and preventing a new world war.
7 The powerful economic potential of the USSR, its scientific and technological achievements are the most valuable asset of the socialist community in the process of implementing the program of comprehensive economic integration. 11 The concern for the development of all-round cooperation with the fraternal countries has always been and will always be in the first place for the CPSU and the Soviet government. This is the most important direction in the foreign policy activity of the Soviet state. The foreign policy of the socialist states is one of those channels through which the creative, transforming activity of the proletariat, which has seized state power, and later of the socialist state of the whole people, proceeds. It is enough to cast a glance at the international events of the post-war period in order to come to the conclusion: if the socialist countries are in a single system, if their actions are coordinated, then they all achieve important, continuously growing successes in strengthening and developing socialist society and consolidating peace. Of course, the formation of a new type of international relations and the development of a fraternal union of socialist states is a complex historical process. It is often about overcoming the traditions that have developed over the centuries, breaking the remnants of national discord and distrust; we are talking about creating a versatile and well-established system of economic, political and cultural interstate ties that meets the interests of all peoples. Therefore, it is also necessary to overcome the difficulties encountered. Soviet foreign policy soberly takes into account the entire complexity of the formation of a new type of international relations. But it proceeds from the fact that in the nature of socialism there are no such contradictions that are inherent in the nature of capitalism, that one or another difference that arises between socialist countries can and must be overcome on the basis of proletarian internationalism and fraternal cooperation. A guarantee of a successful solution difficult problems creation and development of an unprecedented in history international system of the socialist states are consistent internationalism, a steady striving to strengthen the unity of the commonwealth of socialist countries. After the victory of the socialist revolution in Russia, the Soviet state granted all the peoples inhabiting it the right and opportunity to create their own state. The October Revolution ensured the state independence of Poland, Finland and a number of other countries. The working people of most of the nations that inhabited Russia, having thrown off the power of the exploiters, did not want to separate from Soviet Russia, from the victorious Russian working class, which helped them gain freedom and without whose help they were expected to be enslaved by the imperialists. Having implemented the Leninist principle of self-determination of nations in their own country, the CPSU and the Soviet government are striving to promote its triumph in all other regions as well. the globe. The Program of the CPSU states that the Party and the entire Soviet people "consider it their duty to support the sacred struggle of the 12 oppressed peoples, their just wars of liberation against imperialism."4 the role of the Soviet state, which from the first days of its existence actively helped the peoples in their struggle for freedom. Among the countries that received in their struggle for national liberation and strengthening of the won independence
In addition to the states of the socialist system, one can name many developing countries such as Afghanistan, India, Egypt, Algeria, Syria, Indonesia, Iraq, Lebanon, and others as an active support from the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union helped a number of countries to defend their independence in the face of the armed attacks of the imperialists. The struggle of the peoples against imperialism for national freedom is greatly facilitated by the very fact of the existence of the great socialist power of the Soviet Union, which has enormous political and economic power. Great is the role of the economic and technical assistance that the Soviet Union renders to the developing states of Asia and Africa on the most favorable terms and without any political conditions violating national sovereignty and independence. One of the key points of the international policy of the Soviet Union in recent years has been the struggle to eliminate the hotbed of war in Southeast Asia, created by US aggression, wide and versatile assistance to the heroic Vietnamese people and other peoples of Indochina, who fought against foreign invaders. The victory of the Vietnamese people is the result of their great feat in the struggle for freedom, it is the common success of the forces of peace, democracy and socialism. The Soviet Union came out resolutely in support of the Arab peoples who were subjected to aggression by Israel, encouraged by imperialist and Zionist circles. Thanks to the support of the peoples of the Arab East by the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, all anti-imperialist forces overthrew the neo-colonialist plans to overthrow the progressive regimes created in a number of Arab states. The Soviet Union has consistently advocated a political settlement in the Middle East based on the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from the occupied Arab territories, respect for the independence and legitimate rights of the states and peoples of this region, including the right of the Arab people of Palestine to establish their own state. The peoples fighting against imperialism highly value the support rendered to them by the Soviet Union and the consistent internationalism of the international policy of the CPSU and the Soviet state. "A Vietnamese proverb says: When you drink water, 4 Materials of the 22nd Congress of the CPSU, remember the source," says Le Duan, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Vietnamese Workers' Party. about the important contribution that the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet people have made to the revolutionary cause of the Vietnamese people over the past almost half a century. From the first days, when the Vietnamese revolution was still in its infancy, to the glorious victories, especially in the struggle against the American imperialists, for the salvation of the motherland and in the construction of socialism, the CPSU, the Soviet government and the Soviet people, acting in the spirit of noble internationalism, constantly stood side by side with the Vietnamese people, invariably providing them with heartfelt support, generous assistance, full of fraternal feelings.” 5 The statesmen of the developing countries of Asia and Africa have more than once testified their gratitude to the Soviet Union for its support in the struggle against imperialism. The outstanding leader of the national liberation movement of India, J. Nehru, noted: “In relation to the countries of the East, China, Turkey, Persia and Afghanistan, Soviet Russia
9 pursued an extremely generous policy. She abandoned the old privileges of tsarist Russia and tried to establish friendly relations with them. This was in line with the principles she had proclaimed for the liberation of all oppressed and exploited peoples... Such imperialist powers as England often found themselves in a difficult position thanks to this generosity of Soviet Russia, and the countries of the East made comparisons not in favor of England and other powers "6. UAR President Gamal Abdel Nasser wrote about the role of the USSR in the liberation movement: "The national revolutionary movement of the peoples of Asia and Africa against imperialism and backwardness, which is feature modernity, especially in the significant period after the end of the Second World War, owes its victories to a large extent to the existence and might of the Soviet Union, which has become a real factor in curbing imperialism and creating exceptionally favorable opportunities for the forces of the national revolution to play an effective role on the widest scale in the struggle for independence and progress” 7. A prominent figure in the national liberation movement in Africa, Kwame Nkrumah, assessing the role of the USSR in assisting the liberation movement of the peoples of Africa, emphasized: “If it were not for the Soviet Union, the movement for liberation from the colonial yoke in Africa would experience all the power of cruel and rude suppression” 8. 5 Pravda, 1973, July 11. 6 Nehru J. A look at world history. M., 1975, v. 3, from the USSR and African countries, gg.: Documents and materials. M., 1963. vol. 2, p. Ibid., p. 360. The Soviet Union stands for the complete elimination of all forms of colonialism and neo-colonialism, for the national freedom of all peoples. “The whole world knows that, following the precepts of V. I. Lenin, our party, our people actively support the national liberation struggle of the peoples and the progressive policy of the countries liberated from colonial oppression,” noted L. I. Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, in a report on fiftieth anniversary of the USSR 9. The Soviet Union is the best friend and the most reliable support of the peoples fighting for their independence. Studying capitalist society and the problems of the proletarian revolution, V. I. Lenin discovered the law of the uneven development of capitalism. From this law, Lenin drew a conclusion of exceptional importance. “... Socialism cannot win simultaneously in all countries,” he wrote. It will initially win in one or several countries, while the rest will remain bourgeois or pre-bourgeois for some time.” 10 Thus, the possibility of a revolution initially winning in one country objectively implies the inevitability of a period of coexistence on our planet of two different social systems: new, socialist and old capitalist. This situation has developed in practice, beginning with the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia and up to the present day. The coexistence of countries with different social systems is an objective reality in which all mankind has been living for more than half a century. Since this is the objective situation, since two different social systems coexist and fight each other in the world, then the question inevitably arises about the nature of relations between states belonging to these two opposite systems. This question arose at the time of the creation of the first socialist state on November 7, 1917. V. I. Lenin always pointed out the danger of imperialist intervention
10 and aggression and took all possible measures to create and strengthen the military power of the young Soviet state. These measures were prompted by the need to be ready to repulse the attack of the imperialists, to defend the gains of the socialist revolution. Giving a merciless rebuff to the aggressive encroachments of imperialism, V. I. Lenin sought to ensure the peace necessary for the consolidation of the Soviet state and the building of socialism. Of course, the real possibility of preserving peace and establishing peaceful coexistence of countries with different social systems depends not only on the position of the socialist states. Imperialism remains a source of constant threat to the cause of peace and social progress. Soviet power had 9 Brezhnev L. I. Lenin's course: Speeches and articles. M., 1974, v. 4, with Lenin V.I. Full. coll. cit., vol. 30, to wage a stubborn and hard struggle for peace from the very moment of the victory of the October Revolution. As soon as it triumphed, the imperialist powers resorted to armed intervention against Soviet Russia. And only having received a rebuff, they were forced to come to terms with the existence of a socialist state. At the same time, they did not give up hope to launch again military force in order to crush him. Imperialism at that time still dominated the world arena, and therefore peaceful coexistence could not be sustainable. Pursuing a policy of peace in the circumstances of his time, Lenin predicted the inevitability of "terrible clashes" with the imperialists, called for careful preparation for the second round of wars against the aggressors. How right Lenin was was shown by the Second World War and Hitler's aggression against the USSR. After the Second World War, great changes took place in the international political situation. They were caused by the defeat of the fascist aggressors in the war, in which the USSR and its Armed Forces played a decisive role, the growth of the economic power, scientific and technical potential, political authority of the Soviet Union, the creation of the world socialist community, the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism and the entry of the peoples of Asia and Africa into path of self-development. As a result, there has been a tremendous shift in the balance of political forces on the world stage in favor of the forces of peace, democracy and socialism and to the detriment of the forces of war, reaction and imperialism. The increased influence of progressive forces, primarily the growth of the power of the USSR, led to the fact that there were additional opportunities for preventing a new world war, opportunities that did not exist in the 30s, when fascist aggression caused the Second World War. Based on an analysis of the changes that have taken place on the world stage, the CPSU, the international communist movement came to the conclusion that under the new conditions, by the combined efforts of the mighty socialist camp, peace-loving non-socialist states, the international working class and all the forces defending the cause of peace, a world war can be prevented. . In order to achieve this goal, the most energetic solidarity efforts of the socialist states, the international working class, the national liberation movement and other peace-loving forces are necessary, their closest unity in the struggle against imperialism and its aggressive policy. The struggle for peace, and consequently the struggle against imperialist aggression, for
The peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems has always constituted the most important task of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union, the militant anti-imperialist policy. Striving to prevent a new world war, the Soviet state has constantly opposed and continues to oppose all aggressive and colonial wars, the creation of centers of tension in the world, the establishment of all kinds of economic blockades and the implementation of other imperialist actions aimed at suppressing the national liberation movement in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The constant efforts of the USSR aimed at saving mankind from a world thermonuclear war through the steady implementation of the Leninist principles of peaceful coexistence into the practice of international relations is the strategic line of Soviet foreign policy. The policy of peaceful coexistence is not an opportunistic policy, but a long-term, programmatic one. A detailed definition of peaceful coexistence between states with different social systems is given in the Program of the CPSU: it presupposes “renunciation of war as a means of resolving disputes between states, resolving them through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests; non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of each people to independently resolve all issues of their country; strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries; development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit. Peaceful coexistence serves as the basis for peaceful competition between socialism and capitalism on an international scale and is a specific form of class struggle between them. Consistently pursuing a line of peaceful coexistence, the socialist countries are striving to steadily strengthen the positions of the world socialist system in its competition with capitalism. In the conditions of peaceful coexistence, more favorable opportunities are created for the struggle of the working class of the capitalist countries, the struggle of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries for their liberation is facilitated. . Contrary to the assertions of bourgeois and "left" theorists, the peaceful coexistence of states with different systems by no means means any recognition of the inviolability of capitalism, the social class "status quo" in the world. From the class point of view, the implementation of the principles of peaceful coexistence means ensuring the conditions for the peaceful development of the states of the socialist community, curbing the aggressive forces of imperialism, and curbing the imperialist "export of counter-revolution." As noted by the International Conference of 1969, the policy of peaceful coexistence "corresponds to the common interests of the revolutionary struggle against all forms of oppression and exploitation, promotes the strengthening of friendship among all peoples, the development of fruitful economic, scientific, technical and other co-existence. between countries with different social systems in the interests of social progress” 12. A favorite invention of the enemies of socialism and the Soviet Union
12 slanderous fiction that the USSR hopes to plant socialism in other countries by force of arms. Precisely such intentions are ascribed to the Soviet Union by the propaganda of the most reactionary circles in the imperialist countries, who are spreading legends about the "aggressiveness" of the Soviet country. This slander can only come from people blinded by class hatred or else consciously counting on the complete ignorance of their readers and listeners as regards the real policy of the Soviet government and the foundations of the Marxist-Leninist theory, which guides the activities of the CPSU. From the point of view of Marxism-Leninism, revolutions arise as a result of deep socio-economic processes of the growth of the class struggle, due to the operation of the objective laws of the social development of a given country. V. I. Lenin in his writings gave a detailed analysis of when and under what conditions, on the basis of a sharp aggravation of the contradictions between the productive forces and production relations, the growth of the class struggle creates a revolutionary situation, which, given certain prerequisites, can lead to a revolution. These statements by Lenin clearly refute the allegations that the communists intend to make a revolution from abroad "on order." “The dominance of capitalism is undermined not because someone wants to seize power ... said Lenin. It would be impossible to stop the domination of capitalism if everything did not lead to this. economic development capitalist countries.” 13. The Soviet people feel deep sympathy for the revolutionary forces operating in the capitalist world, show class solidarity with them and give them support. But this support is created not by the "export of the revolution", but by the struggle against the interference of the imperialist powers in the internal affairs of the peoples, i.e., against the "export of counter-revolution". When imperialist reaction raises a fuss about the alleged export of the revolution, it only masks its own plans aimed at exporting counter-revolution, at restoring capitalism in countries that have fallen away from it, at restoring colonial oppression in new forms in countries that have liberated from it. The objective regularities of historical development lead to a deepening of the crisis of the capitalist system, make inevitable the revolutionary transition to socialism, the creation of social coll. cit., vol. 32, from a static society. The policy of the imperialist states, internal and external, is aimed at stopping this inevitable development and preserving the obsolete and doomed system. The imperialist powers are striving to check the forward course of history and turn the wheel of history back. To achieve this, experience has shown that the imperialists do not stop at violence and war. The peace-loving policy of the Soviet Union hinders this course of world reaction, i.e., promotes the progressive development of mankind, the triumph of the new, the revolutionary over the old, the obsolete. Imperialism has already plunged mankind into two world wars, to say nothing of the hundreds of local colonial and other wars that took place almost continuously now in one region of the world, now in another. After the Second World War, the reactionary imperialist circles began to prepare for a world
13 thermonuclear war. The threat of a new crime against all mankind has arisen, so monstrous that even the terrible crimes of the perpetrators of both world wars of the past pale before it. If the policy of imperialist reaction aimed at preparing a world war is criminal, then the policy of the Soviet state, which seeks to curb aggression, is profoundly humane and meets the interests of all peoples. Its triumph is the victory of everything progressive. It brings peace to working humanity, which means nuclear weapons saving the lives of hundreds and hundreds of millions of workers and peasants in various countries . The principle of peaceful coexistence operates in the sphere of relations between states. The Soviet government applies it only to interstate relations. The attempts of some bourgeois experts on international problems to extend this principle to the sphere of relations between classes within capitalist countries and to oppose peaceful coexistence to the revolutionary class struggle or the national liberation movement are untenable. The development of the class struggle, as well as the liberation struggle of the oppressed peoples, is determined by its own laws. The Soviet Union regards peaceful coexistence as a long and active struggle for peace against the aggressive aspirations of imperialism. The policy of peaceful coexistence is aimed at preventing the imperialists from using their weapons against peoples who have embarked on the path of building socialism, against peoples who have thrown off the yoke of colonialism. Soviet policy takes into account the lessons of the recent past and the demands of the times. Not for a moment weakening its vigilance against the intrigues of the warmongers, the Soviet Union, true to the precepts of Lenin, resolutely stands for peace, for the maintenance and development of normal political and economic relations with all capitalist countries. At the same time, the Soviet Union rejects the concepts current in the West that limit the sphere of peaceful coexistence only to relations between the great powers. The world is indivisible. It is impossible, as some politicians in the West practice, to speak in favor of peaceful coexistence and at the same time grossly violate this principle in relation to the small countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Whoever really wants normal relations built on the principle of peaceful coexistence must extend this principle to all states, regardless of their size or geographical location. “The CPSU proceeded and continues to proceed from the fact, Leonid Brezhnev points out, that the class struggle of the two systems, capitalist and socialist, in the sphere of economy, politics and, of course, ideology will continue. It cannot be otherwise, because the worldview and class goals of socialism and capitalism are opposite and irreconcilable. But we will strive to ensure that such a historically inevitable struggle moves into a channel that does not threaten wars, dangerous conflicts, or an uncontrolled arms race. This will be a huge win for the cause of peace throughout the world, for the interests of all peoples, all states.”14 * Socialist foreign policy has introduced new techniques and methods of diplomatic work into international relations. Since the policy of the socialist state is entirely aimed at ensuring the interests of the people, it does not need deceit and lies, which are indispensable
14 belonging to the politics and diplomacy of imperialism. Soviet foreign policy cast aside these trappings of the old diplomacy. Soviet policy is honest and truthful, for it has nothing to hide from the people. For the same reason, the Soviet government fundamentally rejects secret diplomacy. It stands for maximum transparency in international communication. Loyalty to one's word is an invariable property of Soviet policy. The USSR sacredly observes treaties and strictly fulfills all the international obligations it has assumed. In the field of foreign policy, as in other areas, V. I. Lenin demanded a scientific approach. Soviet foreign and domestic policy is based on the theory of scientific socialism. It is being conducted on the basis of a Marxist-Leninist analysis of the objective laws of social development, a close study of the changing international situation, and accurately taking into account the balance of forces that is taking shape in the world arena. Scientific Marxist analysis allows socialist foreign policy to expose the policy of imperialism, to single out the class essence of imperialist policy from the verbal frame of diplomatic notes and speeches, to distinguish words from deeds. bourgeois politicians to be able to recognize and correctly evaluate their real intentions. V. I. Lenin based his policy on a careful study of the enemy. “... We are not indifferent, said Lenin, whether we are dealing with those representatives of the bourgeois camp who gravitate towards a military solution of the problem, or with those ... who gravitate toward pacifism ...” 15 Lenin demanded an accurate account of the various trends within the bourgeoisie and did not allow an indiscriminate approach that would reduce the possibilities for a flexible and effective policy and for the acquisition of allies, even if temporary. In the struggle for peace against imperialism and aggression, Leninist diplomacy has always sought to find and attract allies, and has worked to expose and politically isolate the most aggressive representatives of imperialism. V. I. Lenin taught to combine in politics, including foreign policy, a high adherence to principles with flexibility. He rejected all sectarianism and dogmatism. Lenin did not shy away from compromises in those cases when, without prejudice to the principles of the Communist Party, they benefit the Soviet state and the great cause of building socialism and communism. The struggle between socialist and imperialist foreign policy has been the axis of all international life for more than half a century. In the course of this struggle, socialist foreign policy becomes more and more influential, it determines the development of the international situation to an ever greater extent. The test of the correctness of any policy is the practice of the practical results to which it leads. The Soviet Leninist policy has stood the test of time. Soviet policy was carried out in the conditions of the unceasing and difficult struggle of the people, who defended their state against a host of irreconcilable enemies. For decades, the Soviet state alone had to withstand the onslaught of world imperialism. The Soviet state won all the wars it had to fight. It overcame the intrigues of numerous, powerful and dangerous enemies and won back for itself the prominence it now occupies as a great socialist power exerting an enormous and growing influence on the whole world, capable of influencing the entirety of international relations.
15 relations of the modern era, on the general direction of their development. The foreign policy and diplomacy of the USSR contributed to this result, and a considerable share. Throughout the entire period since the Great October Revolution, which brought with it the most profound upheaval in the social life of all mankind, Soviet foreign policy has helped to ensure the security of our country and its friends, and helped to steadily increase its authority in the international arena. 15 Lenin V.I. Full. coll. cit., vol. 45, p. Today, the principles of the foreign policy of socialism are gaining ever greater recognition throughout the world. On the contrary, the sphere of domination of imperialism and the operation of its norms of international life have narrowed considerably. Particularly significant in this respect is the period after the 24th CPSU Congress, the period of the implementation of the Peace Program adopted by the Congress. The initiative, purposeful policy of the CPSU, a policy based on a profound scientific analysis of the problems of world development and taking into account all the constructive possibilities available in the world, ensured serious positive shifts in international relations. Major positive results of the meetings Secretary General Central Committee of the CPSU L. I. Brezhnev with leading figures of the USA, the FRG, France and other states, treaties and agreements concluded by the Soviet Union with the United States and the FRG, constructive results of meetings at highest level leaders of other socialist states with representatives of capitalist countries and a number of agreements concluded between them, successful completion pan-european meeting on security and cooperation in Helsinki, all this marked an important turn in international relations. A relaxation of international tension was achieved. First of all, it is necessary to note the great importance of ending the war in Vietnam and the victory of the heroic Vietnamese people, which removed one of the main obstacles to improving the international political climate on our planet. There was a serious turn towards détente and peace in Europe. The long-term struggle for international legal recognition of the territorial changes that took place in Europe as a result of the Second World War and the inviolability of the state borders established as a result of these changes was crowned with success. The supporters of peace have repeatedly proclaimed their primary task to deliver mankind from a nuclear catastrophe. The 1973 Soviet-American Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War was called upon to play an extremely important role in achieving this goal. The most powerful of the nuclear powers assumed obligations to act in such a way as to exclude the outbreak of a nuclear war between them, as well as between each of them and other countries. This very fact is of great political and moral significance, and contributes to the struggle of peace-loving forces for the complete elimination of the threat of nuclear war. It is also very important that as a result of the conclusion of a number of treaties and agreements on trade, economic and scientific and technical cooperation with the United States. France, the Federal Republic of Germany and other countries opened the way to broad mutually beneficial cooperation between the socialist states and the capitalist countries. 22
16 Foreign policy measures aimed at consolidating detente and expanding its scope have acquired fundamental importance; to supplement political detente with military detente and practical steps in the field of disarmament; bring under detente a solid economic base; create a broad and versatile mechanism for international cooperation. The peace program pursued by the Soviet Union and the countries of the socialist community, the policy of detente and development of cooperation, is warmly supported by the peoples, the peace-loving democratic forces of the whole world. A further major contribution to the development of the Marxist-Leninist theory of international relations, to the implementation of the main directions of Soviet foreign policy was made by the 25th Congress of the CPSU, which set the task of continuing to strive for lasting peace to become the natural form of life for all peoples of the globe. The congress emphasized the importance of the unity and solidarity of the fraternal socialist countries, called for the further strengthening of cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries, for all-round support for the peoples fighting for their liberation, with new force pointed out that in relations with the capitalist world, the main thing remains the struggle for the establishment of the principles of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems, for the weakening, and in the future, the elimination of the danger of a new world war. The Congress approved the Program for the Further Struggle for Peace and International Cooperation, for the Freedom and Independence of Peoples, formulated in the report of L. I. Brezhnev. The congress devoted much attention to the problems of the world revolutionary movement. He stated that the main direction of the social progress of mankind determines the development of the socialist countries, the strengthening of the beneficial influence of their international politics. The ruling circles of the West, as already noted at the International Conference of Communist and Workers' Parties in 1969, are forced to reckon with new historical conditions, to take into account changes in the balance of forces in favor of socialism and peace. However, there are still forces operating in the spirit of the Cold War, advocating a further buildup of armaments, sowing the seeds of hostility and mistrust between states. There are such forces in the USA, the FRG, and other Western countries. Moreover, attempts are being made to use the conditions of detente to apply new, more sophisticated forms of struggle against the consolidation of peace and against the socialist states. In the struggle against strengthening the principles of peaceful coexistence and cooperation, the efforts of the most reactionary, right-wing extremist, revanchist circles of imperialism and the Maoists are uniting. On all fronts, they act as a force hostile to the policy and interests of the socialist world, opposing the course of the socialist states to strengthen international security and relying on the utmost intensification of military preparations and inciting aggression, as a force that puts hostile activity against the USSR at the forefront. and other socialist states. The 1970s were characterized by a general crisis of the capitalist system, unprecedented in its scale, by the development in breadth and depth of the world revolutionary process, in the course of which all the currents of the liberation movement find their place, various streams of struggle for a new society free from foreign and social oppression. Revolutionary changes spread to many countries and continents.
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The revision of the foreign policy course in the USSR began after the death of Stalin. In the 50s. Malenkov began talking about "detente" in international relations. Consider further distinctive features foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964.
Peace Treaties
The foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964 was focused primarily on the establishment of peaceful mutually beneficial cooperation with foreign countries. At the initiative of the Soviet leadership, many agreements were signed. So, in 1953, on July 27, an armistice agreement was signed in Korea. As the main means of easing tension on the world stage, the country's leadership saw the expansion of areas of cooperation with other states. In 1955, on January 25, the Presidium of the Armed Forces adopted a Decree ending the state of war with Germany. In September of the same year, the head of the German government arrived in Moscow. During the visit, diplomatic relations were established with West Germany. In 1955, in mid-May, an agreement was signed with Austria. In accordance with it, the state of war was also terminated. The document established and guaranteed neutrality.
In 1956, the USSR returned the leased territory to Finland - Porkkala Udd, where the Soviet naval base was located. In mid-June, the Karelo-Finnish Union Republic was transformed into an autonomous one. In the same 1956, on October 19, Japan and the USSR adopted a declaration on the restoration of diplomatic relations and the termination of the state of war. By the end of the 1950s, the Soviet Union was bound by trade contracts with more than 70 states.
Foreign policy of the USSR 1953-1964 (briefly)
Key directions were identified at the meeting Khrushchev announced the absence of the inevitability of the next world war, pointing to the possibility of different ways of transition to a socialist system and the peaceful neighborhood of countries with different political systems. The documents of the congress emphasized the loyalty of the Soviet Union to the principles of independence and sovereignty in cooperation with foreign countries. At the same time, Khrushchev argued that the coexistence of states in the world acts as specific type class struggle. It excludes only military methods and does not extend to ideology. In 1957 the Foreign Ministry was headed by a prominent diplomat, Gromyko. The Foreign Ministry was under his leadership until 1985. Gromyko made a great contribution to the development of the negotiation process on the issue of establishing control over the arms race.
Changes in military doctrine
In 1956, a certain inconsistency in the foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964 manifested itself. A number of foreign countries formed blocs whose activities were aimed, among other things, at containing the influence of the states of the socialist camp and the formation of the national liberation movement of the colonial peoples.
Foreign policy in the USSR in 1953-1964. showed, thus, the determination of the leadership to preserve the model of socialism in the states of South-Eastern and Central Europe.
History of Russia XX - early XXI centuries Tereshchenko Yury Yakovlevich
1. Foreign policy of the USSR
1. Foreign policy of the USSR
"Cold War". The post-war 8-year development of the USSR proceeded in anticipation of a third world war. Its threat was determined by W. Churchill's Fulton speech. On March 5, 1946, the retired Prime Minister of Great Britain, on his own behalf, spoke at Westminster College in Fulton (Missouri, USA) with a report that he called "The Muscles of the World." By “muscles” Churchill understood the American atomic weapon, which proved its terrible destructive power during the atomic bombings of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively, on August 6 and 9, 1945. Churchill was the first of the world politicians to warn that these weapons could become suicidal for humanity . “The Middle Ages, even the Stone Age, can fly down to us on the shining wings of science,” he figuratively put it, “and what could shed a golden rain of prosperity on humanity will become an instrument of its complete destruction.”
However, Churchill devoted most of his report not to substantiating the need to ban weapons of mass destruction, but to proving the need for their effective political use. This was caused by the extreme concern of the Western powers with the growing influence of the USSR in the post-war world.
Recognizing that the military victories had propelled the USSR into the "leading nations of the world," the former British prime minister accused him of striving for "the unlimited spread of his power and his doctrines." This represented, in his opinion, a danger to "the great principles of freedom and human rights ... of the Anglo-Saxon world." Since “Russians most admire strength”, the US and UK, having created an “association of English-speaking peoples”, should speak to them from a position of strength in order to stop Russia’s “expansionist tendencies” in Europe and Asia. Churchill suggested using American atomic weapons as an effective means of intimidating the Soviet government.
The special significance of the speech was that it was delivered not in a narrow circle of like-minded people, but publicly and in the presence of the US President, who himself believed that "the Russians need to show an iron fist and speak with strong language." An extensive presentation of the speech was published in Pravda on March 11, 1946 (in Russia, Nezavisimaya Gazeta published almost the full text of the speech in May 1992). Having become acquainted with the content of the speech and the circumstances in which it was delivered, Stalin regarded it as an ultimatum, as a call to war with the USSR.
On March 12, 1947, US President G. Truman, in a message to Congress, specified the "policy of atomic blackmail" proposed by W. Churchill ("Truman Doctrine"). He proposed to "contain" the influence of the USSR by creating American military bases in Greece and Turkey, that is, in countries that were sea gates to the Soviet Union. As a result, the United States in relation to the USSR identified two strategic tasks: at least - to prevent further expansion of the sphere of influence of the USSR and its communist ideology (the doctrine of containment of socialism), and at the maximum - to force the USSR to withdraw from Central and Eastern Europe to its former borders socialism).
An economic step towards achieving these goals was the large-scale material assistance to 17 European countries (including West Germany), which made their economies dependent on the United States. She began to arrive in Europe in 1947 and received the name "Marshall Plan"”, named after the former Chief of Staff of the US Army, General J. Marshall, appointed in January 1947 by the US Secretary of State.
A military step towards achieving the set goals was the creation in April 1949 of a military-political bloc of 12 Western countries led by the United States (North Atlantic Pact, NATO). NATO includes Belgium, Iceland, Denmark, Canada, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Italy, Great Britain, France, and the USA. The creation of NATO consolidated the American military presence in Europe and became a decisive step for the United States on the path to world domination.
In 1954, the Americans created another military bloc, SEATO(“Organization of the Treaty on the Defense of Southeast Asia”), consisting of the USA, England, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan. The USSR regarded the creation of a new bloc as a threat to its security in this region.
A political step towards "containment" and "rollback" USSR began to support anti-socialist forces within the countries of the Soviet bloc up to direct intervention in their internal affairs.
The sharp turn from cooperation to confrontation made in foreign policy by the recent allies immediately affected both the foreign and domestic policies of the Soviet state. Hopes for comprehensive post-war cooperation between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition collapsed, the world, divided by the Iron Curtain, entered the era of "cold war”, which, now calming down, now escalating, threatening to develop into a third world war, lasted about half a century (1946–1991).
socialist camp. The measures taken by the USSR were adequate to those of the United States, but less effective. The forces were unequal, because the Soviet Union emerged from the war economically weakened, and the United States of America - strengthened.
First of all, the USSR accelerated work on the creation of nuclear weapons to eliminate the US atomic monopoly. As a result, in 1949 the Soviet atomic bomb was created, and in 1953 the hydrogen bomb. In addition, the Soviet Union launched a large-scale assistance to the countries of "people's democracy", creating for this purpose a special organization - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In January 1949, in Moscow, an agreement on the establishment of the CMEA was signed by representatives of 6 countries: Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR, and Czechoslovakia. A month later, Albania entered the CMEA, in 1950 - the GDR, in 1962 - Mongolia, in 1972 - Cuba.
In May 1955, a military-political union of 8 socialist countries of Europe was created in Warsaw (Poland) - Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO). It included Albania (withdrew in 1968), Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, the USSR, and Czechoslovakia.
In addition to the measures noted, the USSR actively assisted the communist parties and movements of the capitalist countries, contributed to the growth of the national liberation movement in the colonies, the collapse of the colonial system and the creation of countries of "socialist orientation". Finally, the Soviet Union did not hesitate to use the armed forces to directly suppress anti-socialist uprisings in a number of countries (GDR, Hungary, Czechoslovakia).
German question. The symbol of the split of the world into two opposing socio-economic systems - capitalism and socialism, was the split of Germany into two states - the FRG and the GDR. The German question was considered at six sessions of the Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA), held in 1945-1949. According to the Declaration on the Defeat of Germany, signed on June 5, 1945, the supreme power in the country was temporarily exercised by the governments of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. Germany was divided into 4 zones of occupation, in each of which the power belonged to the commander in chief of the occupying forces. After the demilitarization of the economy, the denazification and democratization of the socio-political system, it was supposed to restore a united Germany and conclude a peace treaty with it.
However, in August 1946, the United States and Britain began to develop a plan to merge their zones of occupation, which contradicted the previously adopted quadripartite decisions. At the end of 1947, the Anglo-American "Bison" was created. In 1948, the French zone of occupation joined it. The new association of the West German lands became known as Trizonia. At the same time, a course was taken to split Berlin.
In June 1948, a separate monetary reform was carried out in the western sectors of Germany and Berlin, which threatened to disrupt the economy in the Soviet zone. This forced the USSR to tighten control on the border of West Berlin and on the communications that connected it with West Germany. The USA and England, accusing the USSR of "blockade of Berlin", created an air bridge to communicate with its western sectors. The first serious after the war arose international conflict, entered into history as Berlin Crisis. To get out of it, on August 2, 1948, Stalin proposed to abolish the special currency (mark "B") in the western sectors of Berlin and introduce the currency of the Soviet zone in Berlin.
The Berlin crisis was resolved only in May 1949 by lifting by the four powers of mutual restrictions on communications, transport and trade between Berlin and the Western zones and between the Eastern zone and the Western zones of Germany. A few months later, the split of Germany was finally completed and legally fixed. On August 14, 1949, elections to the Bundestag were held in West Germany, on September 12, he elected the president, and on September 15, the chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). The first federal chancellor was K. Adenauer, an active supporter of the restoration of Germany within the borders of 1938.
Under these conditions, in October 1949, the leadership of the USSR, which had previously insisted on maintaining a united Germany, recognized the expediency of creating a German Democratic Republic in its zone of occupation. Her birthday was October 7, 1949. The leader of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) V. Pick was elected the first president of the GDR. The USSR transferred to the GDR the management functions that previously belonged to the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG). Instead of the SVAG, the Soviet Control Commission (SKK) was created, designed to monitor the implementation by the German Democratic Republic of the quadripartite decisions regarding Germany. The USSR and the GDR exchanged diplomatic missions.
The existence of two independent German states and a special entity - West Berlin - became for many years (until the early 1970s) an element of instability in the center of Europe.
The beginning of the split of the socialist camp. The course of the USSR to strengthen its positions in Europe was not consistent. The desire of the Soviet leadership for the unconditional subordination of the countries of the "socialist camp" came up in 1948-1949. to the resistance of the leadership of socialist Yugoslavia, headed by I. Broz Tito. As a result, the USSR withdrew its specialists from Yugoslavia, sharply reduced economic aid, and forced other socialist countries to take similar measures. In October 1949, diplomatic relations were severed between the USSR and Yugoslavia, inter-party ties were terminated. This had far-reaching consequences. The split that had begun in the socialist camp and in the communist movement, despite periods of calm and reconciliation, subsequently deepened, expanded and ended in their collapse.
Korean War. The axis of confrontation between the two systems in the era of the Cold War was the Soviet-American confrontation, the severity of which determined the climate of international relations. The most formidable event of this confrontation in the last years of Stalin's rule was Korean War(1950–1953).
Shortly after the victory of the people's revolution in China and the proclamation of the Chinese People's Republic(October 1, 1949), which was greatly facilitated by the assistance of the USSR, the leadership of North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, DPRK), encouraged by the Soviet leadership, made an attempt to reunite the country by force, overthrowing the pro-American regime of South Korea.
The USSR withdrew its troops from Korea in 1948, the USA - in 1949. The country was divided into two parts along the 38th parallel. On June 25, 1950, referring to the fact that the troops of South Korea (“the Syngman regime”) invaded the DPRK, the head of the North Korean government, Kim Il Sung, ordered his troops to launch a counteroffensive. He declared the war that had begun "a war for the unification, independence, freedom and democratization of the motherland."
Successful at first, the operation was defeated and threatened to escalate into a world war after the intervention of US troops under the UN flag in the events. The Americans took advantage of the short-sightedness of the Soviet leaders, who from January 1950 announced a boycott of the UN Security Council in protest against the refusal to replace the representative of the Kuomintang China in the Council with the representative of the PRC. On June 27, 1950, due to the absence of a representative of the USSR with the right of veto, the United States passed a resolution through the UN Security Council calling on UN members to provide South Korea the help you need. On July 7, the Americans received the right to call their troops sent to Korea "UN troops."
On the side of the DPRK, the armed forces of the PRC ("Chinese volunteers") acted. Together, on January 4, 1951, they occupied Seoul. The USSR also took an active part in the war without intervening directly in combat operations. The Soviet government transferred to China several divisions of fighter aviation, which for two and a half years participated in repelling American raids on the PRC, handed over to China a large number of aircraft and other military equipment, contributed to the creation of tank, artillery, anti-aircraft and engineering troops.
The USSR supplied the Korean People's Army and the "Chinese volunteers" with weapons, ammunition, transport, fuel, food, and medicines. He prepared "as a last resort" five divisions for direct dispatch to Korea. Stalin insisted on a tough policy towards the enemy.
In 1951, US President G. Truman announced the possible use of nuclear weapons against China, which was declared the aggressor for participating in the war on the side of the DPRK. In 1952 new president USA D. Eisenhower promised to end the Korean War. After Stalin's death, it was terminated on July 27, 1953 by diplomatic efforts. According to the armistice, the demarcation line ran in accordance with the actual location of the troops of both sides, mainly along the 38th parallel.
The Geneva Conference of the Five Great Powers (April-July 1954) sealed the division of Korea into two states. It also demarcated Vietnam along the 17th parallel. The divided Korea and Vietnam have become a symbol of the split of the world into two systems on the Asian continent.
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